Chapter 1

Introduction to Measurement Systems

By
Dr. Malik Al Amayreh

Mechanical Engineering Department

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 General measurement scheme

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 ►Definitions of terms:
Readability: It indicates the closeness with which the scale of the
instrument may be read; An instrument with a 12-in would have a
higher readability than an instrument with a 6-in scale and the same
range.
Readability depends on: scale length, spacing of graduations, size of
pointer (or pen if a recorder is used).

Sensitivity: It is the ratio of the linear movement of the pointer on an

analog instrument to the change in the measured variable causing
this motion.

Pressure Sensor
Example: Sensitivity
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 ►Definitions of terms:

 Example: 1 (mv) recorder might have a 25 cm scale length.

Its sensitivity would be 25cm/1mv, assuming that the
measurement was linear all across the scale.
For a digital instrument readout, the manufacturer will
usually specify the sensitivity for certain scale setting.
S = Δy/Δx, Where X: The desired measurand.

Range: It represents the highest possible value that can be

measured by an instrument.

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 ►Definitions of terms:
Hysteresis: Difference in the
readings (output) of the
instrument depending on
weather the value of the
measured quantity is
approached from above or
below.
Hystersis may be the result of
mechanical friction, magnetic
effects, elastic deformation,
thermal effects.

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 ►Definitions of terms:
Accuracy: It indicates
the deviation of the
reading from a known
input.
It is a measure of how
closely the reading of
the instrument
approximates the true
value.
Accuracy is expressed as
a percentage of full-
scale reading ,so that a
100-Kpa Pressure gage
having an accuracy of
the 1% would be
accurate within + 1 Kpa
over the entire range of
the gage .

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 ►Definitions of terms:
Inaccuracy is described as :
Xm  Xt
εa (%) = *100%
Xt
Where the true is value of the unknown, and is its measured value.

By definition, an accuracy of 99% is an inaccuracy of 1%.

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 ►Definitions of terms:
Precession: the precision of an experiment is a measure of how exactly the
result is determined, without reference to what the result means.
It is also a measure of how reproducible the result is.
The precision of an instrument indicates its ability to produce a certain
reading with a given accuracy.

►Example: Distinguish between precision and accuracy.

Consider the measurement of the a Known voltage is 100 Volts (v) with a
certain meter. Five readings are taken ,and the indicated values are :104,
103, 105, 103, and 105 Volt.

►It is seen that the instrument could not be depended on for an accuracy of
better than 5% (5v), while a precision of + 1% is indicated, since the
maximum deviation from the mean reading of 104 v is 1 v.

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 ►Definitions of terms:
Resolution: the smallest increment in the value of the
measurement and that results in a detectable increment in
the output. It is expressed as a percentage of the
measurement and range.
For example , If a temperature sensor yields an increment of
ΔV output voltage in response to a ΔT change in the
temperature of an object , then the maximum resolution ( R
max) is the smallest ΔT (denoted by ΔT that yields a
detectable ΔV and it is expressed ) as:

Rmax(%)= T min
*100%
T max  T min

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 analog stopwatch

Example
• Let's look at the resolution of the two
stopwatches:

• The analog stopwatch has to be viewed on its

dial. If you look closely, you can relate the big
hand to the smallest tick-mark on the big
dial. That tickmark is a tenth of a second. The
best a good eye can do is resolve a reading to
1/10 second, which is therefore the resolution of digital stopwatch
the stopwatch.

• The digital stopwatch has two digits beyond the

seconds, so it subdivides time in hundredths of a
second. Since it is easy to read to 1/100 of a
second, that is its resolution.

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 Examples

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 ►Definitions of terms:
Threshold: starting from a
measurand of value zero, the
smallest initial increment in the
measurand that results in a
detectable output is the threshold.

Distortion: deviation from an

expected output. In some cases,
distortion it is a measure of
deviation from linearity.

Repeatability: The difference in

the output readings at a given
value of the measured X. ( We will
almost never get exactly the same
result).

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 ►Definitions of terms:
Span:operating range, full-scale range: the range of input variables
that produces a meaningful instrument output.

Noise: random fluctuations in the value of the measurand that causes

random fluctuations in the output. Noise at the instrument output is
due to either internal noise sources or externally generated
mechanical and electromagnetic fluctuations.

Instability and Drift: change of sensitivity or the output level (with

zero input), with time, temperature, and any other parameter that is
not considered part of the input .

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 Introduction to Measurement
Systems
Calibration:
Accuracy can be improved up to but not beyond the precision of the
instrument by calibration.
The calibration of all instruments is important: To check the
instrument a giant a known standard and subsequently to reduce
errors in accuracy.
In the calibration of an instrument, the objective is to
establish relationship between the output of the instrument and the
true value of the measured.
The true value can either be determined through other
measurements or it can be obtained from standards the National
Bureau of standard.

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 Introduction to Measurement Systems
Standards:
The Natural Bureau Standards (NBS) has the primary responsibility for
maintaining these standards in the United States.

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 Introduction to Measurement
Systems
Standards :
When a measurement system is calibrated it is
compared with some standard whose value is
presumably known.
A dimension defines a physical variable that is used to
describe some aspect of a physical system.
The fundamental value associated with any dimension
is given by a unit .A unit defines a measure of a
dimension .

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 Introduction to Measurement
Systems
Mass :
Originally, the unit of the kilogram was defined by the mass of one
liter of water at room temperature.
Today, the kilograms are international Bureau of weights and
Measures located in Sevres ,France.
In the U.S engineering unit system, mass is defined by the pound-
mass, Ibm, which can be derived from the definition of the
kilogram.
Ibm = 0.45359237 kg.
Equivalent Standards for the kilogram and the pounds_ mass are
maintained by the U.S National Bureau of Standards, or NBS) in
Gaithersburg ,Maryland.

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Introduction to Measurement
Systems
Time:
The dimension of time is defined by the unit of a second in both SI
and U.S engineering units .
One second has been defined as the time elapsed during
9,192,631,770 periods of radiation emitted between two excitation
levels of the fundamental state of cesium-133.)

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 Introduction to Measurement
Systems
Temperature:
The basic SI unit of a Kelvin, K, defines the absolute
practical scale.
Kelvin is based on polynomial interpolation between the
equilibrium phase change points of a number of common
pure substance from the triple point of equilibrium
hydrogen (13.81 k) to the freezing point of pure gold.
(1337.58 k).
oC = K – 273.15
oF = oR – 459.67
oF = 1.8 oC + 32.0

• Kilven is defined such Measurements

that the triple point of water is 33
exactly 273.16 K
 Temperature:

• Fahrenheit scale is now usually defined by two fixed points: the

temperature at which water freezes into ice is defined as 32 °F, and the
boiling point of water is defined to be 212 °F, a 180 °F separation, as
defined at sea level and standard atmospheric pressure.

• Celsius temperature scale, also called

centigrade temperature scale, scale
based on 0° for the freezing point of
water and 100° for the boiling point of
water.

Thermometer with
Fahrenheit (marked on
outer bezel)
and Celsius(marked on
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inner dial) degree units
 Introduction to Measurement
Systems
Electrical Units:
Ampere: Unit of current
Amperes are used to express flow rate of electric charge
Ohm: It is defined by 0.9995 times the resistance to current
flow of a column of mercury that is 1.063 m in length and has a
mass of 0.0144521 kg at 273.1 k.

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 Introduction to Measurement
Systems
Measurement:
An act of assigning a specific value to
physical value (measurand).
Quantitative comparison between a
predefined standard and
measurand.
Instrument
Input Measurand Readout Result
Process
►The standard of comparison is usually
defined by an organization of
agency. i.e.:
ISO: International Standards
Organization.
National Bureau of Standards (NBS).
American National Standards
Institution (ANSI).

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 Introduction to Measurement
Systems
Fundamental calibration Method of Measurement:
(a) Direct comparison with a standard.
(b) In direct comparison with a standard .(using a
calibrated system or a measuring device).
• Method of Measurement:
 Analog:
Measured vary in a continuous manner over a range of
magnitudes. (Most measurements).
2 Digital:
Changing in stepwise between two distinct magnitudes.

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 Introduction to Measurement
Systems
► Validity of measurements:

An experimenter must be convinced that the output of the

measurement system is valid .i.e. the output of the system truly states
the actual value of the measurand.

No measurement system is perfect, there is always deviation, How

ever, and this deviation must be small enough that the output can be
used for its intended purpose. The more expensive device will be the
smaller allowed deviation.

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 Introduction to Measurement
Systems
Error = Measured value-True value.
► Experimental errors generally fall into two categories:
(a) Bias error (fixed or Systematic error).
(b) Precision errors (Random error).

 Bias error: constant, reputable errors. Reproducible, inaccuracy

introduced by faulty equipment, or calibration or Tesuque if the same
measuring system is used in the same way more than once to
measure the same value to the measured, the bios will be the same
each time.

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 Introduction to Measurement
Systems
►Sources of Bios errors;
(1) Calibration errors:
• Calibration process
• Non linearity (Input, output
treated as if they have
linear relation ship although
(2) Loading errors: it is actually non linear)
Alternation of the measurand due to the insertion of the measuring device
(e.g. Temp)
The measuring devices with negligible loading errors are called
non_Intrusive.
(3) Related errors (Spatial Errors): The measuring system is affected by
variables other than the measurand.

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 Introduction to Measurement
Systems
 Precision errors:
The errors caused by a lack of repeatability in the output of
the measuring system.
Precision error = Reading - an average from readings of
the meaurand.

►Sources of Precision errors:

(1) Measuring system itself.
(2) Experimental system
(3) Environmental.

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 Introduction to Measurement
Systems
►Example:
In a calibration test 10 measurements using a digital voltmeter have been
made of voltage a battery that is known to have a true vale of 6.11 V The
readings are: 5.98, 6.05, 6.10, 6.06, 5.99, 5.96, 6.02, 6.02, 6.09, 6.03,
5.99V.Estimate the bias and the maximum precision errors caused by the
voltmeter.
Solution:
Average of readings = 6.03 V.
Bias error = average value – true value
= 6.03 - 6.11
= -0.08 V.
Max. Precision error = max. Deviation reading – Average
= 5.96 - 6.03
= -0.07 VOLT. #

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