energies

Article
Thermal Non-Equilibrium Heat Transfer Modeling of
Hybrid Nanofluids in a Structure Composed of the
Layers of Solid and Porous Media and
Free Nanofluids
Ali J. Chamkha 1,2 , Sina Sazegar 3 , Esmael Jamesahar 3 and Mohammad Ghalambaz 3, *
1 Mechanical Engineering Department, Prince Mohammad Bin Fahd University, Al-Khobar 31952,
Saudi Arabia; achamkha@pmu.edu.sa
2 RAK Research and Innovation Center, American University of Ras Al Khaimah, P.O. Box 10021,
Ras Al Khaimah, UAE
3 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dezful Branch, Islamic Azad University, Dezful, Iran;
sinasazgara@gmail.com (S.S.); behravan.jam@gmail.com (E.J.)
* Correspondence: m.ghalambaz@gmail.com or m.ghalambaz@iaud.ac.ir; Tel.: +98-9166442671




Received: 29 December 2018; Accepted: 30 January 2019; Published: 9 February 2019


Abstract: The free convection heat transfer of hybrid nanofluids in a cavity space composed of a
clear flow, porous medium and a solid part is addressed. The cavity is heated from the bottom and
cooled from the top. The side walls are well insulated. The upper part of the cavity is a clear space
with no porous or solid materials and is filled with hybrid nanofluid. The bottom part is divided
into two parts of a porous space saturated with the hybrid nanofluid and a solid thermal conductive
block. There are conjugate heat transfer mechanisms between the solid block and the porous medium
filled with the hybrid nanofluid as well as the hybrid nanofluid in the clear space. For the porous
medium model, the local thermal non-equilibrium effects are considered. The hybrid nanofluids
contain copper (20 nm) and alumina nanoparticles (40 nm) hybrid nanoparticles. The governing
equations for the flow and heat transfer of the hybrid nanofluid in the clear space and the porous
medium are introduced. Considering the conjugate heat transfer between the solid block and the
hybrid nanofluid fluid in the pores and the porous matrix, appropriate boundary conditions for heat
channeling are utilized. The governing equations are transformed into non-dimensional form to
generalize the model. The finite element method is employed to solve the equations. The grid check
and validation procedure are performed. Subsequently streamlines, isotherms, and Nusselt number
are studied as important aspects of flow and heat transfer in the cavity. The increase in the portion of
the clear flow part in the cavity enhances heat transfer due to better hybrid nanofluid circulation.

Keywords: natural convection heat transfer; hybrid nanofluid; porous medium; conjugate
heat transfer

1. Introduction
Heat transfer from a cavity has been investigated in many engineering sciences due to its various
applications. Some of these applications include building insulation, electrical appliances, cooling and
designing heat exchangers and HVAC.
The interaction of convection and conduction heat transfer in a cavity in which the fluid and solid
phases are in close contact is referred to as the conjugate convection heat transfer [1]. Vahl Davis [2],
Turan et al. [3], Deng and Tang [4], and Sathiyamoorthy and Chamkha [5] have examined the natural
convection heat transfer in a closed square cavity. They found that heat transfer is under the strong
influence of the Rayleigh number.

Energies 2019, 12, 541; doi:10.3390/en12030541 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2019, 12, 541 2 of 27

Nanofluids are stable suspensions of nanoparticles and a base fluid. Nanofluids have shown
enhanced heat transfer properties, and various aspects of heat transfer in nanofluids have been
explored in excellent reviews by Devendiran and Amirtham [6], Kumar et al. [7] and Verma
and Tiwari [8]. Hybrid nanofluids are a new type of nanofluids which consist of two types of
nanoparticles stably dispersed in the base fluid. The nanoparticles in the base fluid shape composite
nanoparticles. Hybrid nanofluids enjoy the advantages of two types of nanoparticles. Considering
hybrid nanofluids, Sarkar et al. [9], Sundar et al. [10], and Sidik [11] have presented excellent reviews
on the thermophysical properties and applications of hybrid nanofluids.
Heat transfer in porous media has been the subject of many recent studies, and various aspects of
heat transfer in porous media have been explored in the literature. There are many cases in which a
porous medium can be treated as a local thermal equilibrium. In such a model, there are no temperature
differences between the porous matrix and the fluid inside the pores. This assumption is true for media
with small porosities such as geothermal reservoirs and thermal insulators. However, if the porous
matrix and the fluid do not have the same temperature for any reason such as heat generation in the
porous matrix, the porous medium and the fluid should be treated as the thermal non-equilibrium.
The thermal equilibrium cannot be assumed for the porous media with materials of the metallic porous
matrix with very high thermal conductivity or media in which heat is generated in one of the solid or
fluid phases.
Most of the previous studies have addressed flow and heat transfer in porous media by
considering the thermal equilibrium model. Baytas et al. [12] studied the free convection in a porous
cavity. They focused on the role of the thermal conductivity of horizontal walls in heat transfer and
fluid flow. The results reported by Baytas et al. indicated that the temperature of the fluid-horizontal
wall interface decreases with the increase in the thermal conductivity. Baytas et al. [13] examined the
free convection heat transfer in a typical cavity containing heat-generating fluid. They found that
the height of the step at the interface induces a significant effect on the flow field and heat and mass
transfer from the left-hand to the right-hand walls. Additionally, in certain cases, the results obtained
by these authors were very well in line with the results obtained by other researchers. Wei et al. [14]
investigated the solid-liquid phase change heat transfer in the presence of convection heat transfer in a
porous medium using a lattice Boltzmann model. The results showed that the temperature and heat
flux continuity conditions at the interface between phases of different thermos-physical properties
were inherently satisfied for the model. Chen [15] investigated the lattice Boltzmann model for heat
transfer in the porous media. The purpose of this study was to provide a new numerical solution
to remedy the shortcomings of previous models. Gao et al. [16] investigated the modified lattice
Boltzmann model for conjugate heat transfer in porous media. The numerical results of Gao et al. [16]
were in a very good agreement with the analytical and numerical solutions reported in previous
studies. The authors argued that the proposed model can be used as a feasible tool for conjugate heat
transfer problems in porous media. Miroshnichenko et al. [17] modeled the flow and heat transfer of
alumina nanofluids in a cavity composed of two layers of porous media and two layers of clear flows.
The outcomes indicated that the thickness of the porous layers and clear layers plays an important role
in enhancing heat transfer in the cavity. Dogonchi et al. [18] investigated the MHD natural convection
of Cu–water nanofluid in a gap between hot rectangular-cylinder and a cold circular-cylinder filled
with porous medium.
Ghalambaz et al. [19] studied the natural convective heat and mass transfer of nanofluid over a
vertical plate embedded in a Darcy porous medium that was exposed to the hot surface and the flux of
nanoparticles. They found that the rise of the Eckert number (viscous dissipation effects) decreases the
Nusselt number at the hot wall. Kasaeia et al. [20] conducted a study entitled “Nanofluid flow and
heat transfer in porous media”, where they comprehensively reviewed the simultaneous application
of nanofluids and porous media for such purposes as heat transfer enhancement in thermal systems
with different structures, flow regimes, and boundary conditions.
Energies 2019, 12, 541 3 of 27

There are recent studies into the Local Thermal Non-Equilibrium (LTNE) model of heat transfer
in a cavity. Izadi et al. [21], Sheremet et al. [22] as well as Zargartalebi et al. [23] studied the natural
Energies 2019,
convection 12, 541
of nanofluids in enclosures. Izadi et al. [24] also studied the MHD flow of CuO-water 3 of 27

nanofluid in an enclosure by considering a geothermal viscosity model. The outcomes revealed that a
There are recent studies into the Local Thermal Non-Equilibrium (LTNE) model of heat transfer
raise in the viscosity-parameters results in the improvement of the heat transfer and convective flow
in a cavity. Izadi et al. [21], Sheremet et al. [22] as well as Zargartalebi et al. [23] studied the natural
intensification.
convection of Hashemi et al.
nanofluids in [25] investigated
enclosures. Izadi etthe
al.effect of using
[24] also studiedmicropolar
the MHD flownanofluids in a porous
of CuO-water
medium cavity.
nanofluid in an enclosure by considering a geothermal viscosity model. The outcomes revealed that
Considering the conjugate natural
a raise in the viscosity-parameters convection
results heat transferofand
in the improvement theLTNE porousand
heat transfer medium, there is a
convective
bifurcation heat flux channel
flow intensification. Hashemi at the
et al.interfacial layer. A
[25] investigated theportion
effect ofof the conjugate
using micropolar heat flux enters
nanofluids in a the
porous
porous matrixmedium cavity. portion enters the fluid inside the porous pores. Therefore, the study of
and another
conjugateConsidering the conjugate
natural convection natural convection
heat transfer heatis
in enclosures transfer
a veryand LTNE porous
interesting medium,phenomenon
heat transfer there is
a bifurcation heat flux channel
which demands future investigation. at the interfacial layer. A portion of the conjugate heat flux enters the
porous matrix and another portion enters the fluid inside the porous pores. Therefore, the study of
Very recently, Mehryan et al. [26] and Zargartalebi et al. [27] have addressed the conjugate natural
conjugate natural convection heat transfer in enclosures is a very interesting heat transfer
convection of nanofluids in a cavity considering a LTNE model of porous medial for the case of
phenomenon which demands future investigation.
nanofluids Verywith only one
recently, type of
Mehryan nanoparticles.
et al. The present
[26] and Zargartalebi et al. study
[27] haveaims to LTNE
addressed theheat transfer of
conjugate
hybrid nanofluids
natural convectionwhich consist two
of nanofluids in type of nanoparticles.
a cavity considering a LTNEThe model
reviewofofporous
the literature
medial for shows that the
the case
results of the present
of nanofluids withstudy aretype
only one newofand have not been
nanoparticles. addressed
The present studyyet. The
aims to present
LTNE heat research
transfertends
of to
answers thenanofluids
hybrid followingwhich fundamental
consist twoquestions
type of regarding the The
nanoparticles. natural convection
review flow and
of the literature heatthat
shows transfer
the results
of hybrid of the present study are new and have not been addressed yet. The present research tends
nanofluids:
to answers the following fundamental questions regarding the natural convection flow and heat
(1) transfer of hybrid
Does using nanofluids:
hybrid nanofluids enhance free convection in a cavity?
(2) What
(1) Doesareusing
thehybrid
effects of using
nanofluids porous
enhance free space andin solid
convection blocks on the performance of
a cavity?
hybrid
(2) Whatnanofluids?
are the effects of using porous space and solid blocks on the performance of hybrid
(3) Hownanofluids?
do the volume fraction of hybrid nanoparticles and the buoyancy effects (Rayleigh number)
(3) Howthe
change do thermal
the volume fraction of hybrid
performance nanoparticles
of hybrid and the buoyancy effects (Rayleigh number)
nanofluids?
change the thermal performance of hybrid nanofluids?
2. Mathematica Model
2. Mathematica Model
Consider a square cavity partially filled with three regions of clear flow filled with a hybrid
Consider a square cavity partially filled with three regions of clear flow filled with a hybrid
nanofluid, a porous medium saturated with the hybrid nanofluid and a thermal conductive solid block.
nanofluid, a porous medium saturated with the hybrid nanofluid and a thermal conductive solid
Figure 1 shows
block. Figurea 1schematic view of the
shows a schematic viewphysical modelmodel
of the physical and the
andcoordinate system.
the coordinate system.

Figure
Figure 1.1.Schematic
Schematic diagram
diagram of
ofthe
thephysical
physicalmodel.
model.
Energies 2019, 12, 541 4 of 27

According to the figure, the cavity is a two-dimensional square with sides of length L. The bottom
and top horizontal walls of the closed cavity have been kept at hot temperature Th and the cold
temperature Tc , respectively with Th > Tc . In addition, the left and right vertical walls of the cavity are
insulated. The height of the porous region and the solid block is w while the length of the solid block
is d. The hybrid nanofluid is under the influence of the gravitational acceleration g which acts in the
opposite direction of the vertical axis (y). It is also assumed that the hybrid nanofluid is Newtonian
and incompressible. The flow is laminar in the clear region, and Darcy-Brinkman model is applied for
the porous domain region. The buoyancy effects are modeled using the Boussinesq approximation.
It is assumed that the surface of porous structure is treated using charges techniques or other methods
in a way that the nanoparticles cannot deposit at the solid surface.

2.1. The Governing Equations for the Nanofluid

The governing equations for the fluid phase include the continuity equation, the equations of
momentum in the horizontal direction, momentum in the vertical direction, and energy. The flow
function is also added to these equations, so, for the fluid, we will have:

∂u ∂v
+ =0 (1)
∂x ∂y
 2
∂ u ∂2 u
  
∂u ∂u ∂p
ρhn f u +v = − + µhn f + (2)
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂x2 ∂y2
 2
∂2 v
  
∂v ∂v ∂p ∂ v
ρhn f u +v = − + µhn f + 2 + ρhn f g (3)
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x2 ∂y
!
∂Thn f ∂Thn f k hn f ∂2 Thn f ∂2 Thn f
u +v = + (4)
∂x2 ∂y2


∂x ∂y ρc p hn f

where u is the horizontal component of the fluid velocity, v is the vertical component of the fluid
velocity, x and y are the vertical and horizontal components of the location, respectively, ρhnf is the
nanofluid density, g is the gravitational acceleration and p is pressure. In addition, Thnf is the nanofluid
temperature, µhnf is the dynamic viscosity, khnf is the thermal conductivity of the nanofluid, cphnf is the
thermal capacity of the nanofluid.

2.2. Governing Equations for the Porous Medium

According to the problem definition, the cavity containes a porous medium. This necessitates
the definition of equations related to the porous medium. For this purpose, the continuity equation,
the equations of momentum in the horizontal direction, momentum in the vertical direction, the fluid
energy, and the solid energy in the porous medium will be as follows:

∂u ∂v
+ =0 (5)
∂x ∂y

∂p µhn f ∂2 u ∂2 u
   
ρhn f ∂u ∂u µhn f
2
u + v = − + 2
+ 2
− u (6)
ε ∂x ∂y ∂x ε ∂x ∂y K
∂p µhn f ∂2 v ∂2 v
   
ρhn f ∂v ∂v µhn f
u +v =− + + 2 − v + ρhn f g (7)
ε2 ∂x ∂y ∂y ε ∂x2 ∂y K
 
h T − T
!
 
k 2T 2T s
1 ∂T hn f ∂Thn f hn f ∂ hn f ∂ hn f hn f s hn f
u +v = + + (8)
∂x2 ∂y2


ε ∂x ∂y ρc p hn f ε(ρc)hn f
Energies 2019, 12, 541 5 of 27

∂2 Ts ∂2 Ts hhn f s
 
ks  
0= 2
+ + Thn f − Ts (9)
(ρc)s ∂x ∂y2 (1 − ε)(ρc)s
where Ts is the solid medium temperature in the porous medium and ε is the porosity coefficient.
In addition, the flow stream function for the clear fluid and the fluid inside the porous medium can be
defined as follows:  
∂u ∂v
− = ∇2 ψ (10)
∂y ∂x
where Ψ is the nanofluid flow function.

2.3. Governing Equations for the Solid Medium

As already mentioned, the hot wall is thick and will be considered as a solid medium. For this
purpose, the given medium will only include an energy equation. Therefore, we will have:

∂2 Tw ∂2 Tw
 
2
+ =0 (11)
∂x ∂y2

where Tw is the temperature in the solid medium, x and y are the horizontal and vertical components
of the location, respectively.

2.4. Boundary Conditions

2.4.1. The Bounded Walls of the Cavity

The u and v velocities on solid walls:

u=v=0 (12)

∂T ∂T
T ( x, 0) = Th ,T ( x, L) = Tc , = 0, =0 (13)
∂x (y,L) ∂x (y,0)

where T is the temperature, u is the horizontal component of velocity, v is the vertical component of
the velocity, x and y are respectively the horizontal and vertical components of the location, and L is
the cavity length.

2.4.2. The Porous Medium and Clear Flow Interface

The boundary condition of porous-clear flow has been studied in [28,29]. In the present study, the
continuity of velocity and tension at the interface is considered. In addition, assuming that the heat
transfer between the fluid/nanofluid and the porous medium matrix is large enough, the temperature
is assumed to be equal at the interface between the fluid/nanofluid and the porous medium matrix.
Therefore, the boundary conditions are the interface of the porous and nanofluid introduced as:

uhn f = u porous , vhn f = v porous ,

∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v
µhn f = µhn f ,e f f , µhn f = µhn f ,e f f
∂n hn f ∂n porous ∂n hn f ∂n porous
Thn f = Thn f = Ts | porous (14)
hn f porous
∂T f /hn f ∂Thn f ∂Ts
k hn f = k hn f ,e f f + k s,e f f = q00 i
∂n hn f
∂n porous ∂n porous

where khnf,eff = ε × khnf and ks,eff = (1−ε)ks and µhnf,eff = µhnf /ε.
Energies 2019, 12, 541 6 of 27

2.4.3. The Porous Medium and Solid Block

Energies 2019, 12, 541 6 of 27
Introducing a proper boundary condition at the interface between the porous medium and the
solid conductive
wall interface haswall
beenhaspreviously
been a challenging
discussedissue. Thisexcellent
in some type of boundary condition
works [30–33]. forpresent
In the porous-solid
study
wall interfaceand
the non-slip hasnon-penetration
been previously conditions
discussed inare
some excellentfor
established works [30–33]. at
the velocity Inthe
the interface
present study the
between
non-slip
the porousandmedium
non-penetration conditions
and the solid medium.are established
Consideringforthethe velocity at
continuity ofthe interface between
temperature the
and energy
porous
balancemedium and the solid
at the interface, medium.
the thermal Considering
boundary the continuity
conditions of temperature
at the interface and energy
of the porous balance
medium and
at the wall
solid interface, the thermal
are introduced as:boundary conditions at the interface of the porous medium and solid wall
are introduced as: T =T =T
w h n f p orou s s p orou s
w all

∂Tw Tw |wall∂T= Thn f = T ∂sT| porous (15)

= q′′i
hnf
kw = k hnf ,eff +
porous
k s
(15)
kw∂ n
∂Tw
= k ∂ n∂Thn f s , eff
+ k∂ n ∂Ts
porous = q00 i
wall hn f ,e f f porous s,e f f
∂n wall ∂n porous ∂n porous
where kw is the thermal conductivity of the wall and Tw is the temperature of the wall.
where kw is the thermal conductivity of the wall and Tw is the temperature of the wall.
2.4.4. The Clear Flow and Solid Block
2.4.4. The Clear Flow and Solid Block
The no-slip and no permeability of solid wall are adopted for the fluid flow. The continuity of
The no-slip
temperature andand
heatno permeability
is used of solidboundary
for the thermal wall are adopted for
condition as:the fluid flow. The continuity of
temperature and heat is used for the thermal boundary condition as:
Tw = Thnf = Ts porous
wall porous
Tw |wall = Thn f = Ts | porous
∂Tw ∂Thnf
porous (16)
kw ∂Tw = k hnf ∂Thn f (16)
∂k wx ∂x = k hn∂fx
∂x
wall hnf hn f
wall

2.5. Thermophysical Properties

Here, several models of thermal
thermal conductivity
conductivity and dynamic viscosity of nanofluids are utilized
utilized
and the results are plotted in Figure 2.
results are plotted in Figure 2.

(a) (b)
Figure 2. Comparison
Comparison of of
thethe
theoretical andand
theoretical experimental
experimental results; (a) thermal
results; conductivity
(a) thermal of Al2Oof
conductivity 3-

Cu/water
Al O
2 3 hybrid
-Cu/water nanofluid,
hybrid (b) Dynamic
nanofluid, (b) viscosity
Dynamic of Al
viscosity
2 Oof
3-Cu/water
Al O
2 3 hybrid
-Cu/water nanofluid.
hybrid nanofluid.

The Levin and Miller [34] and Bruggman [35] models are adopted for the prediction of thermal
conductivity of of the
theAl
Al22OO3-Cu
3 -Cu/ water
/ water hybrid
hybrid nanofluid
nanofluid andandthe the results
results are presented
are presented in Figure
in Figure 2a.
2a. The
The experimental
experimental datadata in [36]
in [36] havehave been
been used
used asasa acomparison
comparisonreference.
reference. Considering
Considering thethe dynamic
viscosity,
viscosity, the
the Einstein
Einstein model
model [37],
[37], Brinkman
Brinkman model [38] and Batchelor model [39] are utilized for the
prediction
prediction ofof dynamic
dynamic viscosity.
viscosity. The
The experimental
experimental results
results in
in [36]
[36] have also been utilized as aa reference
reference
comparison. As can be seen, the dynamic viscosity and thermal conductivity of the hybrid nanofluid
cannot be predicted properly using the available models. Hence, the experimental data in [36] have
been directly utilized for the convection heat transfer analysis of the present study. The experimental
results in [36] for dynamic viscosity and thermal conductivity are summarized in Table 1. The hybrid
Energies 2019, 12, 541 7 of 27

comparison. As can be seen, the dynamic viscosity and thermal conductivity of the hybrid nanofluid
cannot be predicted properly using the available models. Hence, the experimental data in [36] have
been directly utilized for the convection heat transfer analysis of the present study. The experimental
results in [36] for dynamic viscosity and thermal conductivity are summarized in Table 1. The hybrid
nanofluid sample in [36] was obtained using the hydrogen-reduction technique from a powder mixture
containing 90% of alumina and 10% of copper oxide. Based on [36], using ultrasonic and a two-step
synthesis method, a stable and uniform suspension of hybrid nanofluids of Al2 O3 /Cu water with
0.1–2% volume fraction of nanoparticles was prepared. The thermal conductivity of the nanofluid in
the present study is directly extracted from Table 1.

Table 1. Thermal conductivity and dynamic viscosity used for Al2 O3 -Cu/water [36].

Chnp (%) CCu (%) CAl2O3 (%) khnf (W/m·K) µhnf (kg/m·s)
0.1 0.0038 0.0962 0.61988 0.000916
0.33 0.0125 0.3175 0.63098 0.001098
0.75 0.0285 0.1615 0.649004 0.001386
1 0.038 0.962 0.657008 0.001602
2 0.0759 0.9241 0.684992 0.001953

The density and thermal capacity of the hybrid nanofluid are evaluated using the following
equations [40]:  
ρhn f = C Al2O3 ρ Al2O3 + CCu ρCu + 1 − Chn f ρ f (17)



 

ρC p hn f = C Al2O3 ρC p Al2O3 + CCu ρC p Cu + 1 − Chn f ρC p f (18)

The thermal expansion of the hybrid nanofluid is evaluated using:

 
β hn f = C Al2O3 β Al2O3 + CCu β Cu + 1 − Chn f β f (19)

Finally, the effective thermal conductivity of the porous medium and the liquid inside the pores
can be obtained according to the method described in [41].

2.6. Non-Dimensional form of Governing Equations

Here, the base fluid thermophysical properties are utilized to transform the governing equations
into a general non-dimensional form. In order to achieve the non-dimensional form of the equations,
the following form of the non-dimensional parameters is adopted:

x y d w uL vL ψ
X= , Y= , D= , W= , U= , V= , Ψ= ,
L L L L αf αf αf
pL2 k vf gβ∆TL3
P= 2
, Da = 2 , Pr = , Ra = ,
ρf αf L αf vf αf
  (20)
Thn f − Tc ( Ts − Tc ) ( Tw − Tc )
θhn f = , θs = , θw = ,
∆T ∆T ∆T
hhn f L 2 k hn f kw
H= , kr = , Rk = ,
k hn f (1 − ε ) k s kf

where X, Y, D, W, U, V, Ψ, P, θ are respectively the non-dimensional expression of the horizontal

position of location, the vertical position of location, the non-dimensional width of the solid medium,
the non-dimensional width of the porous medium, the velocity component along x direction, the
velocity component along y direction, the flow, pressure, and temperature functions. θ hnf is the
non-dimensional temperature of hybrid nanofluid, θs is the non-dimensional temperature of porous
matrix, and θ w is the non-dimensional temperature of wall. In addition, Da, Pr, Ra are Darcy, Prandtl,
Energies 2019, 12, 541 8 of 27

and Rayleigh numbers. H, kr , and Rk are also the permeability coefficient of the porous medium, the
conductivity ratio coefficient of the porous material and the thermal conductivity ratio of wall-to-fluid.
On the other hand, ∆T is the temperature difference between the hot and cold walls, which is defined as
∆T = Th − Tc . Now, by involving Equation (20) the governing Equations of (1) to (11) are transformed
in to the following non-dimensional form.

2.6.1. Clear Flow

∂U ∂V
+ = 0, (21)
∂X ∂Y
! ! 
∂2 U ∂2 U

∂U ∂U ρ f ∂P ρf µhn f
U +V =− + Pr + , (22)
∂X ∂Y ρhn f ∂X ρhn f µf ∂X 2 ∂Y 2
! ! 
∂V ∂V ρ f ∂P ρf µhn f ∂2 V ∂2 V

(ρβ)hn f
U +V =− + Pr 2
+ 2
+ Pr · Ra · θ, (23)
∂X ∂Y ρhn f ∂Y ρhn f µf ∂X ∂Y ρhn f β f
!
∂θhn f ∂θhn f αhn f ∂2 θhn f ∂2 θhn f
U +V = + , (24)
∂X ∂Y αf ∂X 2 ∂Y 2

The non-dimensional stream function was also obtained using:

∂U ∂V
− = ∇2 Ψ, (25)
∂Y ∂X
where the ratio of the effective thermal diffusivity of nanofluid to that of the base fluid is defined as:


αhn f k hn f ρc p f
αr = =
, (26)
αf k f ρc p hn f

2.6.2. Porous Medium Layer

∂U ∂V
+ = 0, (27)
∂X ∂Y
! ! ! 
∂2 U ∂2 U
  
1 ∂U 1 ∂U ∂U ρf ∂P 1 ρf µhn f
+ U + V = − + Pr +
ε2 ∂τ ε2 ∂X ∂Y ρhn f ∂X ε ρhn f µf ∂X 2 ∂Y 2
! ! (28)
ρf µhn f Pr
+ U
ρhn f µf Da
! ! ! 
∂2 V ∂2 V
  
1 ∂V 1 ∂V ∂V ρf ∂P 1 ρ f µhn f
+ 2 U +V =− + Pr +
ε2 ∂τ ε ∂X ∂Y ρhn f ∂Y ε ρhn f µf ∂X 2 ∂Y 2
! ! (29)
ρf µhn f Pr (ρβ)hn f
+ V+ Pr · Ra · θ
ρhn f µf Da ρhn f β f
!
αhn f ∂2 θhn f ∂2 θhn f
 
1 ∂θhn f 1 ∂θhn f ∂θhn f  
+ U +V = + + H θ s − θ f , (30)
ε ∂τ ε ∂X ∂Y αf ∂X 2 ∂Y 2
 2
∂2 θ s

∂ θs  
0= + + H θ hn f − θ s , (31)
∂X 2 ∂Y 2
∂U ∂V
− = ∇2 Ψ, (32)
∂Y ∂X
Energies 2019, 12, 541 9 of 27

2.6.3. Solid Block

∂2 θ w ∂2 θ w
+ = 0, (33)
∂X 2 ∂Y 2

2.7. The Non-Dimensional Boundary Conditions

The boundary conditions corresponding to the introduced governing equations are transformed
into the non-dimensional form using the non-dimensional parameters and variables of Equation (20).

2.7.1. The Bounded Walls of the Cavity

The U and V velocities on solid walls:

U = V = 0, (34)

∂θ ∂θ
θ (X, 0) = 1, θ (X, L) = 0, = 0, = 0. (35)
∂X (Y,L) ∂X (Y,0)

2.7.2. The Porous Medium and Clear Flow Interface

Uhn f = U porous , Vhn f = Vporous

∂U 1 ∂U ∂V 1 ∂V
= , =
∂n hn f ε ∂n porous ∂n hn f ε ∂n porous
θf = θf = θs | porous (36)
hn f porous
∂θhn f ∂θhn f ∂θhn f
=ε + Kr−1 = Qi
∂n hn f
∂n porous ∂n porous

2.7.3. The Porous Medium and Solid Block

θw |wall = θhn f = θs | porous

porous
∂θw ∂θhn f ∂θS (37)
Rk =ε + Kr−1 = Qi
∂n wall
∂n porous ∂n porous

2.8. Nusselt Number

The important characteristic parameter of the present study for analysis of heat transfer is the
Nusselt number. The Nusselt number is generally defined as follows:

hL
Nu = (38)
k
where h is the convection heat transfer coefficient, L is the cavity length, and k is the thermal
conductivity. Now, using the non-dimensional parameters of Equation (20) and substituting them into
Equation (38), and after the simplification, the non-dimensional equation of the Nusselt number is
obtained as:
∂θ
Nu Local = − (39)
∂n
To calculate the Nusselt number in the cavity, according to the schematic Figure 1, the Equation (40)
is integrated on the hot wall, so we will have:
Z 1
∂θ
Nu = − dY (40)
0 ∂X
Energies 2019, 12, 541 10 of 27

However, it should be noted that the problem has been considered assuming the thermal
non-equilibrium for the porous medium. Therefore, defining θ f and θ s as the non-dimensional
temperature
Energies 2019, of
12, the
541 fluid and solid matrix respectively, the Nusselt number will be defined as 10
follows:
of 27
The Nusselt number for fluid in the porous medium:
 1 ∂ θ hnf 
Nu f =  −  Z 1 ∂θdY   (41)
Nu f = 0 −∂ X hn  dY
f
(41)
 0 ∂X  X = D X = D

3. 3. SolutionMethod
Solution Methodand
andValidation
Validation
Thefinite
The finiteelement
elementmethod
method isis employed
employed to to numerically
numerically solve the the governing
governing equations
equations ofof
Equations (21)–(24) in the clear flow, Equations (27)–(32) in the porous layer
Equations (21)–(24) in the clear flow, Equations (27)–(32) in the porous layer and Equation and Equation (33) in the
(33)
insolid block along
the solid block with
alongthewith
boundary conditionsconditions
the boundary of Equationsof (34)–(37).
Equations The governingThe
(34)–(37). equations are
governing
first written
equations are in thewritten
first weak form and
in the thenform
weak numerically
and thenintegrated over integrated
numerically the mesh domain. The
over the discretized
mesh domain.
equations are iteratively solved using the Newtown method as fully coupled
The discretized equations are iteratively solved using the Newtown method as fully coupled equations equations until
convergence is achieved. The relative residual lower than 10−7 is considered
− 7 as
until convergence is achieved. The relative residual lower than 10 is considered as a convergeda converged solution.
The gridThe
solution. check
gridand codeand
check verification are performed
code verification in the following
are performed sub-sections.
in the following sub-sections.

The
The SolutionIndependence
Solution Independenceofofthe
theComputational
ComputationalGrid
Grid

InInorder
ordertotomonitor
monitor thethe effect
effect of
of the
themesh
meshsize
sizeononthe accuracy
the accuracy of the results,
of the the calculations
results, are
the calculations
repeated for various mesh sizes. Table 2 shows the details of the utilized grids
are repeated for various mesh sizes. Table 2 shows the details of the utilized grids in each case. in each case. The
maximum
The maximum value of of
value thethehybrid
hybridnanofluid
nanofluidflow
flowstream
streamfunction
function(ψ(ψmax) is monitored and reported in
max ) is monitored and reported in
Figure 3 for each case defined in Table 2. The results of Figure 3 indicates that
Figure 3 for each case defined in Table 2. The results of Figure 3 indicates that the
thegrid
gridsize
sizeofofcase
case44
can
can provideadequate
provide adequateaccuracy
accuracywithwithfair
faircomputational
computational time.
time. Hence
Hence gridgrid of
ofcase
case44isisselected
selectedasasthe
the
computational grid for this
computational grid for this study. study.

Table 2. The details of each case of the grids.

Table 2. The details of each case of the grids.
Cases Divisions Number of Domain Nodes Number of Boundary Nodes
Cases Divisions Number of Domain Nodes Number of Boundary Nodes
Case 1 20 × 20 400 110
Case 1 20 × 20 400 110
Case 2 50 × 50 2500 275
Case 2 50 × 50 2500 275
Case 3 3
Case 100
100 ××100
100 10,000
10,000 550 550
Case 4 4
Case 150
150 ××150
150 22,500
22,500 825 825
Case 5 5
Case 200
200 ××200
200 40,000
40,000 11001100
Case 6 6
Case 250 × 250
250 × 250 62,500
62,500 13751375
Case
Case 7 7 300 × 300
300 × 300 90,000
90,000 16501650

Figure3.3.Changes
Figure Changesininthe
theamount
amountof
offlow
flowin
inthe
the cavity
cavity for
for different sizes of the
the computational
computationalgrid.
grid.

Figure 4 shows the grid of case 4. The grid is in a form of regular horizontal and vertical lines
and is denser near the boundaries. The reason for this is the importance of the flow behavior and
temperature gradients at the boundaries.
Energies 2019, 12, 541 11 of 27

Figure 4 shows the grid of case 4. The grid is in a form of regular horizontal and vertical lines
and is denser near the boundaries. The reason for this is the importance of the flow behavior and
temperature
Energies2019,
Energies 12,gradients
2019,12, 541
541 at the boundaries. 11 of
11 of 27
27

Figure Computationalgrid
Figure4.4.Computational grid##44according
accordingto Table2.
toTable
Table 2.
2.

In the
In thefollowing,
following,to toverify
verifythe thenumerical
numericalsolution
solutionmethod,
method,the theresults
resultsfromfromthethepresent
present study
studyare are
compared with
compared with that that from
from the the previous
previous studies
previous studies
studies soso that
that the
that the accuracy
the accuracy
accuracy or or inaccuracy
or inaccuracy
inaccuracy of of the
of the numerical
the numerical
numerical
solution method can
can be
be confirmed
confirmed ultimately
ultimately by
by the
the
solution method can be confirmed ultimately by the comparison of the results.comparison
comparison of
of the
the results.
results.
The average
The average Nusselt
Nusselt numbernumber as as aa function
function of of the
the nanoparticles
the nanoparticles
nanoparticles volume volume fraction
fraction reported
reported by by
Kahveci
Kahveci [42]
Kahveci [42]isisiscompared
[42] compared
compared with
with
withthat reported
that
that reported
reported by the
by present
by the study.study.
the present
present Kahveci
study. [42] investigated
Kahveci
Kahveci the natural
[42] investigated
[42] investigated the
the
heat transfer
naturalheat
natural in
heattransfera closed
transferin cavity
inaaclosed filled
closedcavity with
cavityfillednanofluid.
filledwith In
withnanofluid.the
nanofluid.Instudy,
Inthe the Rayleigh
thestudy,
study,the number
theRayleigh was
Rayleighnumber assumed
numberwas was
to vary from
assumed
assumed tovary
to 104 –10
vary from
6
fromand10 the66and
1044–10
–10 volume
andthe fraction
thevolume was
volumefraction assumed
fraction to rangeto
wasassumed
was assumed from
to 0%from
range
range to 20%,
from 0%to
0% and
to20%,theand
20%, Cu,
and
Ag,
the CuO,
the Cu,
Cu, Ag, AlCuO,
Ag, O3 , and
2CuO, Al TiO
Al22OO33,, andnanoparticles
2and were used
TiO22 nanoparticles
TiO nanoparticles in the
were
were water-based
used
used in the
in nanofluid.nanofluid.
the water-based
water-based Figure 5 shows
nanofluid. Figure
Figure the
55
average
shows the
shows Nusselt
the average number
average Nusselt reported
Nusselt number by Kahveci
number reported in
reported by comparison
by Kahveci
Kahveci in with the
in comparison present
comparison with study.
with the Kahveci
the present [42]
present study.has
study.
used
Kahveci
Kahveci a homogeneous
[42]has
[42] usedmodel
hasused to investigate
aahomogeneous
homogeneous the nanofluid
model
model toinvestigate
to behavior.
investigate There is abehavior.
thenanofluid
the nanofluid good agreement
behavior. Thereisisbetween
There aagood
good
the results
agreement from
between the given
the study
results and
from those
the from
given the
study present
and
agreement between the results from the given study and those from the present study. study.
those from the present study.

Figure
Figure5.
Figure 5. The
5.The comparison
Thecomparison of
comparisonof the
ofthe average
theaverage Nusselt
averageNusselt number
Nusseltnumber as
asaaafunction
numberas function of
functionof the
ofthe nanoparticles
thenanoparticles volume
nanoparticlesvolume
volume
fraction reported
fractionreported
fraction by
reportedby Kahveci
byKahveci [42]
Kahveci[42] and
[42]and the
andthe present
thepresent study.
presentstudy.
study.

Bourantaset
Bourantas etal.
al.[43]
[43]studied
studiedthe
thenatural
naturalconvection
convectionheat
heattransfer
transferof
ofnanofluids
nanofluidsin inaacavity
cavityfilled
filled
withaaporous
with porousmedium.
medium.In Inthe
thestudy,
study,aaheat
heatsource
sourcewas
wasassumed
assumedat atthe
thebottom
bottomof ofthe
thecavity
cavityand
andother
other
wallsof
walls ofthe
thecavity
cavitywere
wereassumed
assumedto tobebecold.
cold.The
Theheat
heatsource
sourcewas
wasconsidered
consideredas asaafactor
factorof
ofthe
thecavity
cavity
length, which
length, which was
was placed
placed with
with the
the same
same distance
distance from
from the
the vertical
vertical wall
wall on
on its
its both
both sides.
sides. The
The heat
heat
Energies 2019, 12, 541 12 of 27

Bourantas et al. [43] studied the natural convection heat transfer of nanofluids in a cavity filled
Energies
with 2019, 12, 541
a porous medium. In the study, a heat source was assumed at the bottom of the cavity and12other of 27

walls of the cavity were assumed to be cold. The heat source was considered as a factor of the cavity
source was
length, whichunder
wasconstant heat the
placed with flux.same
Considering
distancethe heat
from theflux formulation
vertical wall onofits[43],
bothTable 3 illustrates
sides. The heat
source was under constant heat flux. Considering the heat flux formulation of [43], Table 3 shows
the results presented in [43] in comparison with the results from the present study. It the
illustrates
average Nusselt number for different Darcy numbers as a function of Rayleigh number. It also
the results presented in [43] in comparison with the results from the present study. It shows the average
demonstrates that the increase in the Rayleigh number leads to an increase in the Nusselt number
Nusselt number for different Darcy numbers as a function of Rayleigh number. It also demonstrates
and heat transfer in the cavity. On the other hand, the decreased Darcy number in high Rayleigh
that the increase in the Rayleigh number leads to an increase in the Nusselt number and heat transfer
numbers reduces the heat transfer, while in lower Rayleigh numbers, the Darcy number does not
in the cavity. On the other hand, the decreased Darcy number in high Rayleigh numbers reduces the
have a significant effect on the heat transfer. A comparison of the results indicates a good agreement
heat transfer, while in lower Rayleigh numbers, the Darcy number does not have a significant effect on
between the results of this study and those of the present study.
the heat transfer. A comparison of the results indicates a good agreement between the results of this
study and those of the present study.
Table 3. The comparison of the average Nusselt number reported in Bourantas et al. [43] and the
results obtained in the present study.
Table 3. The comparison of the average Nusselt number reported in Bourantas et al. [43] and the
results obtained in the present
Ra study.
= 104 Ra = 105 Ra = 106
Da
[43]= 104 Present Study
Ra [43] Ra = 105 Study
Present [43] 106
Ra = Study
Present
Da
[43] Present Study [43] Present Study [43] Present Study
10−3 5.9 6.01 5.6 5.7 8.83 8.6
10−3 5.9 6.01 5.6 5.7 8.83 8.6
10−4 5.84 6.01 5.37 5.5 5.36 5.42
10−4 −5 5.84 6.01 5.37 5.5 5.36 5.42
10 5.8 5.82 5.7 5.7 5.8 5.045.04 5.17 5.17
10−5 5.8 5.82 5.8

Mehryan et al. [41] examined the free heat transfer of the hybrid nanofluid in a cavity filled with
Mehryan
a porous medium.et al. The
[41] examined the was
cavity in [41] free heat transfer
a square of the the
in which hybrid
left nanofluid
and right in a cavity
walls werefilled
keptwith
at thea
porous
hot andmedium. The cavity inrespectively.
cold temperatures, [41] was a square in whichthe
In addition, the left and right
horizontal wallswere
walls wereassumed
kept at the tohot
be
and cold temperatures, respectively. In addition, the horizontal walls were
insulated. The hybrid nanofluid used was Al2O3-Cu, which was soluble in the water base fluid. Toassumed to be insulated.
The hybrid
analyze thenanofluid
behavior of used
thewas Al2 Onanofluid
hybrid 3 -Cu, which wasporous
in the solublemedium,
in the water base fluid.
the Darcy To analyze
equation was used the
behavior
and the of the hybrid
nanofluid nanofluid
was assumed in the
to beporous medium, theFigure
homogeneous. Darcy equation
6 presents wastheused and the
results nanofluid
reported by
was
Mehryan et al. [41] in comparison with those from the present study. The results show al.
assumed to be homogeneous. Figure 6 presents the results reported by Mehryan et [41]
that in
heat
comparison with those
transfer decreases from the the
by increasing present
volume study. The of
fraction results show thatWhen
nanoparticles. heat transfer decreases
the Rayleigh number by
increasing the volume fraction of nanoparticles. When the Rayleigh number increases,
increases, heat transfer decreases significantly with the increased volume fraction of nanoparticles. heat transfer
decreases significantly
In Figure 6, withagreement
there is a good the increased volume
between thefraction
resultsof nanoparticles.
reported In Figure
in the given study 6,and
there is a good
those from
agreement between
the present study. the results reported in the given study and those from the present study.

6. The
Figure 6. Thecomparison
comparisonofof
thethe
average Nusselt
average number
Nusselt reported
number in Mehryan
reported et al. [41]
in Mehryan and
et al. theand
[41] results
the
from thefrom
results present study. study.
the present

4. Results
In the present study, two nanoparticles of Al2O3 and Cu in the base fluid of water were selected
as the hybrid nanofluid. Table 4 presents the thermal and rheological properties of Al2O3 and Cu
nanoparticles [36], as well as water fluid. As can be seen, the conductivity (k) of Cu is much higher
Energies 2019, 12, 541 13 of 27

4. Results
In the present study, two nanoparticles of Al2 O3 and Cu in the base fluid of water were selected
as the hybrid nanofluid. Table 4 presents the thermal and rheological properties of Al2 O3 and Cu
nanoparticles [36], as well as water fluid. As can be seen, the conductivity (k) of Cu is much higher
than that of Al2 O3 , and adding Cu can help to overcome the drawbacks of Al2 O3 and water and obtain
a hybrid nanofluid with higher conductivity. However, due to the higher density of Cu than Al2 O3 , the
dynamic viscosity of the resulting nanofluid increases, which may have negative effects. The dynamic
viscosity and thermal conductivity of the hybrid nanofluid is evaluated using the actual experimental
data reported in Table 1. The data in Table 4 are used to evaluate the other thermophysical properties
such as hybrid nanofluid density or heat capacity.

Table 4. The properties of the components of Al2 O3 -Cu / water nanofluid [36].

Properties Water Cu Al2 O3

Cp (J/kg·K) 4179 385 765
k (W/m·K) 0.613 401 40
α (m2 /s) 1.47 × 10−7 1.11 × 10−4 13.1 × 10−7
β (K−1 ) 21 × 1016 1.67 × 1016 0.85 × 1016
ρ (kg/m3 ) 997/1 8933 3970
µ (kg/m·s) 8.9 × 10−4 - -

The default value of the non-dimensional parameters is adopted as Ra = 106 , Pr = 5, C = 1, Da = 103 ,

H = 10, Kr = 10, Rk = 10, D = 0.5, W = 0.4, ε = 0.3 and the results of the present study are reported for
these non-dimensional parameters otherwise the value will be stated.

4.1. The Effect of Hybrid Nanofluid

Figure 7 shows streamlines and isotherms in the cavity for different concentrations of nanoparticles
(blue line) compared to pure fluid (C = 0) (red line). In Figure 7a, the concentration (C) of nanoparticles
is equal to 0.1%. This amount is such that the results for the stream lines and isotherms are very close
to each other in the nanofluid and pure fluid. This shows the similarity of the nanofluid and pure fluid
properties at this concentration. The values presented for the lowest and highest streamline in the
cavity indicate the closeness of the values as well as the line profiles at this concentration. However, the
isotherms show similar results. It is expected that the heat transfer at this concentration is close to the
results for the pure fluid because the addition of nanoparticles has not significantly affected the fluid
properties. As the concentration of the nanoparticle increases, the fluid properties also change, and the
results indicate an increase in the difference between the streamline and the isotherms. By reaching a
concentration (C) of 0.33%, the flow is enhanced in the center of the cavity but its width decreases and
the flow in the porous medium is weakened. Further, by increasing the concentration (C) to 0.75, the
flow in the center continues to increase and the flow is weakened in the porous medium. However, the
values inserted on the lines also show a decrease in the flow rate. The decreased flow can be caused
by the change in viscosity of the fluid due to the addition of nanoparticles. As the viscosity increases
with the increased volume fraction of nanoparticles, the decreased flow velocity in the cavity can be
expected by the increased viscosity considering its contrary relationship with the Rayleigh number.
This certainly affects heat transfer, as discussed below. By increasing the concentration (C) to 1% and
then 2%, the streamlines are merged at the center of the cavity. On the other hand, the change in the
flow regime also changes the profile of the isotherms.
 Energies 2019, 12, 541 14 of 27

Energies 2019, 12, 541 14 of 27

Streamlines Isotherms

(a) C = 0.1

(b) C = 0.33

(c) C = 0.75

(d) C = 0.75

Figure 7. Cont.
Energies 2019,
Energies 12, 541
2019, 12, 541 1515of
of 27
27
Energies 2019, 12, 541 15 of 27

(e) C = 2
(e) C = 2
Figure 7. Streamlines and isotherms for different concentrations of nanoparticles (blue line) compared
Figure7.7.Streamlines
Figure Streamlinesandandisotherms
isotherms for
for different concentrations of nanoparticles
nanoparticles (blue
(blueline)
line)compared
compared
to pure fluid (C = 0) (red line).
totopure
purefluid
fluid(C
(C==0)0)(red
(redline).
line).

Figure
Figure888shows
Figure showsthe
shows theNusselt
the Nusseltnumber
Nusselt numberas
number asaaafunction
as functionof
function of different
different concentrations
concentrations of
concentrations of nanoparticles
ofnanoparticles
nanoparticlesfor for
for
different
different Rayleigh
differentRayleigh numbers.
Rayleighnumbers. Figure
numbers. Figure 8 shows
Figure 88 shows
shows thatthat the
that the addition of nanoparticles
the addition of nanoparticles
nanoparticles reduces reduces heat
reduces heat transfer
heattransfer
transfer
in
ininall
allRayleigh
all Rayleighnumbers,
Rayleigh numbers,except
numbers, exceptthe
except theRayleigh
the Rayleighnumbers
Rayleigh numbers
numbers (Ra) lower
(Ra)
(Ra) lower
lower than
than
than 10 4. It
10410. It4 .should
It should
should be noted
be noted
be noted thatthat
that the
the
addition
the addition
addition ofofnanoparticles
of nanoparticles
nanoparticles changes
changes
changes the
the two
the two
two effective
effectiveparameters;
effective parameters;first,
parameters; first,thermal
first, conductivity
thermalconductivity
thermal conductivityand and
and
second,
second, dynamic
second,dynamic viscosity.
dynamic viscosity. Both
viscosity. Both parameters
Both parameters increase
parametersincrease with
increasewith increased
withincreased
increased concentration.
concentration.
concentration. Now,
Now,Now,it should be
it should
it should be
considered
beconsidered
considered that
that the effect
the the
that effect of the
of the
effect increase
ofincrease in
the increase which
in which one takes
one takes
in which over
oneovertakesthat
that of the
of the
over thatother,
other, while
while
of the the increased
the increased
other, while the
thermal
increased conductivity
thermal thermal
conductivity increases
increases
conductivity the heat
the heat
increases transfer
the transfer capacity
capacity
heat transfer and
andand
capacity the
thethe increased
increased dynamic
increaseddynamic viscosity
dynamicviscosity
viscosity
decreases
decreasesthe
decreases the heat
theheat transfer
heattransfer capacity.
transfer capacity.
capacity. TheThe results from Figure
The results from Figure 8 indicate 8 indicate
indicate that that
that thethe effect
the effect of
effect of increased
of increased
increased
dynamic
dynamicviscosity
dynamic viscositytakes
viscosity takesover
takes overthe
over theeffect
the effectof
effect ofincreased
of increased thermal
increased thermal conductivity
conductivity in
conductivity in all
in all Rayleigh
all Rayleigh numbers,
Rayleighnumbers,
numbers,
except
except lower
lower ones,
ones, resulting
resulting in
in decreased
decreased
except lower ones, resulting in decreased heat transfer. heat
heat transfer.
transfer. However,
However, in
in lower
lower Rayleigh numbers,
lower Rayleigh numbers,the
Rayleigh numbers, the
the
effect of increased
effectofofincreased
effect thermal
increasedthermal conductivity
thermalconductivity
conductivitytakes takes over
takes over the effect of increased dynamic
over the effect of increased dynamic viscosity viscosity resulting
viscosityresulting
resulting
in
ininenhanced
enhancedheat
enhanced heattransfer.
heat transfer.
transfer.

Figure8.
Figure
Figure 8.8. Nusselt
Nusselt
Nusselt of the
of of
the the liquid
liquid liquid phase
phasephase
number number as aa function
as a function
number as function
of of the
the volume
of the volume concentration
concentration
volume of
of nanoparticles
concentration of
innanoparticlesinindifferent
different
different Rayleigh
nanoparticles numbers.Rayleighnumbers.
Rayleigh numbers.

4.2. The
4.2.The Effect
TheEffect ofofDarcy
Effectof Number
DarcyNumber (Da)
Number(Da)(Da)
4.2. Darcy
Figure
Figure999shows
shows
showsthethe effect
theeffect of
effectof the
theDarcy
ofthe number
Darcynumber
numberon on the
onthe streamline
the streamline and isotherms.
streamline and
and isotherms. InFigure
Figure 9a,the
the
Figure −−66 ,Darcy isotherms. InIn Figure 9a,
9a, the
Darcy number
Darcynumber
number(Da)(Da) is equal
(Da)isisequal to 10
equaltoto10 indicating
10−6, ,indicating a
indicatingaalow low permeability
lowpermeability coefficient
permeability coefficient for
coefficient for the
for the porous medium.
Darcy the porous
porous medium.
medium.
Therefore, the penetration and movement of the nanofluid in the
the porous
porous matrix
matrix isis limited
limited andno no
Therefore, the penetration and movement of the nanofluid in the porous matrix is limited and
Therefore, the penetration and movement of the nanofluid in and no
constant
constantstreamline
streamlinecan can be
be seen
seen inin the
the figure
figure related
related to the streamline
to the streamline lines
lines in
inthe
theporous
porousmedium.
medium.
constant streamline can be seen in the figure related to the streamline lines in the porous medium.
However, this does not mean the absence of the nanofluid. Rather, it means a slow flow. On the other
However, this does not mean the absence of the nanofluid. Rather, it means a slow flow. On the other
Energies 2019, 12, 541 16 of 27

Energies 2019,
However, this12,does
541 not mean the absence of the nanofluid. Rather, it means a slow flow. On16 of other
the 27

hand, the isotherms in Figure 9a are almost horizontal due to the negligible fluid motion, indicating the
hand, the isotherms in Figure 9a are almost horizontal due to the negligible fluid motion, indicating
negligible amount of the nanofluid flow in the porous medium and the lack of strength of the nanofluid
the negligible amount of the nanofluid flow in the porous medium and the lack of strength of the
circulation in this region. In Figure 9b, by increasing the Darcy number (Da) to 10−4 and increasing
nanofluid circulation in this region. In Figure 9b, by increasing the Darcy number (Da) to 10−4 and
the permeability, the flow is enhanced in the porous region and the streamlines are also inclined
increasing the permeability, the flow is enhanced in the porous region and the streamlines are also
partially
inclinedtopartially
this region, indicating
to this increasedincreased
region, indicating flow circulation in this porous
flow circulation in this region.
porous The isotherms
region. The
for the aforementioned Darcy number have also confirmed this conclusion as
isotherms for the aforementioned Darcy number have also confirmed this conclusion as the isotherms the isotherms have
changed under under
have changed the influence of theofnanofluid
the influence flow.flow.
the nanofluid In Figure 9c, by
In Figure 9c, increasing
by increasingthethe
Darcy
Darcynumber
number(Da)
10−3to
to(Da) , the flow in the porous region is dramatically enhanced and streamlines are
10 , the flow in the porous region is dramatically enhanced and streamlines are distributed
−3 distributed in this
region. Due to the enhancement of the nanofluid flow circulation, the isotherms
in this region. Due to the enhancement of the nanofluid flow circulation, the isotherms have also have also changed
and become
changed and almost
becomevertical
almostin vertical
the vicinity
in theofvicinity
the solidof medium, indicating
the solid medium, the enhancement
indicating of the flow
the enhancement
and the flow
of the convection
and themechanism in the vicinity
convection mechanism of the
in the solidofmedium.
vicinity the solid medium.

(a) Da = 10−6 (b) Da = 10−4 (c) Da = 10−3

Streamlines

Isotherms

Figure9.9.Streamline
Figure Streamlineand
and isotherms
isotherms for
for different
differentvalues
valuesofofDarcy
Darcynumber.
number.(a)(a)
DaDa
= 10 −6Da
(b)
=−610 (b)= Da 10−4
10−4=(c)
Da = 10 −3. −3.
(c) Da = 10

Figure10
Figure 10shows
shows the
the Nusselt
Nusseltnumber
numberfor forthe different
the values
different of the
values Darcy
of the number.
Darcy According
number. to
According
toFigure
Figure9,9,the
theincrease
increaseininthe
theDarcy
Darcynumber
numbermeans
meansincreased
increased permeability
permeability and, consequently,
and, an an
consequently,
increased flow in the cavity. Now, it can be seen in Figure 10 that the hybrid nanofluid
increased flow in the cavity. Now, it can be seen in Figure 10 that the hybrid nanofluid Nusselt numberNusselt
number with
increases increases with the in
the increase increase in the
the Darcy Darcy number,
number, indicating
indicating increasedincreased heat transfer.
heat transfer.
Figure 11 shows the hybrid nanofluid local Nusselt number on the cold wall for different values
of the Darcy number. As explained in the previous figure (Figure 10), an increase in the Darcy number
leads to increased heat transfer. This also applies to local Nusselt and follows the same pattern. On the
other hand, the profiles of the local Nusselt number are similar in different Darcy numbers; they only
differ in values. In addition, the maximum local Nusselt occurs on the left side of the cold wall in
about X = 0.2, which can be seen in Figure 11 by the high accumulation of the isotherms in this region.
Energies 2019, 12, 541 17 of 27
Energies 2019, 12, 541 17 of 27

Figure 10. Hybrid nanofluid Nusselt number for different values of the Darcy number.

Figure 11 shows the hybrid nanofluid local Nusselt number on the cold wall for different values
of the Darcy number. As explained in the previous figure (Figure 10), an increase in the Darcy number
leads to increased heat transfer. This also applies to local Nusselt and follows the same pattern. On
the other hand, the profiles of the local Nusselt number are similar in different Darcy numbers; they
only differ in values. In addition, the maximum local Nusselt occurs on the left side of the cold wall
in about X = 0.2, which can be seen in Figure 11 by the high accumulation of the isotherms in this
region. Figure 10. Hybrid nanofluid Nusselt number for different values of the Darcy number.
Figure 10. Hybrid nanofluid Nusselt number for different values of the Darcy number.

Figure 11 shows the hybrid nanofluid local Nusselt number on the cold wall for different values
of the Darcy number. As explained in the previous figure (Figure 10), an increase in the Darcy number
leads to increased heat transfer. This also applies to local Nusselt and follows the same pattern. On
the other hand, the profiles of the local Nusselt number are similar in different Darcy numbers; they
only differ in values. In addition, the maximum local Nusselt occurs on the left side of the cold wall
in about X = 0.2, which can be seen in Figure 11 by the high accumulation of the isotherms in this
region.

Figure 11. Local Nusselt number of hybrid nanofluid for different values of Darcy number.
Figure 11. Local Nusselt number of hybrid nanofluid for different values of Darcy number.
4.3. The Effect of Porosity Coefficient (ε)
4.3. The Effect of Porosity Coefficient (ε)
Figure 12 shows the effect of the porosity coefficient on the streamline and isotherms. In Figure 12a,
Figure 12
the porosity shows the(ε)effect
coefficient of the
is equal toporosity
0.1. Duecoefficient
to the lowon the streamline
amount of porosity andcoefficient,
isotherms. there
In Figure
is a
12a, the porosity coefficient (ε) is equal to 0.1. Due to the low amount of porosity
small portion of void space to be filled with the fluid and streamline lines in the figure have a low coefficient, there is
aaccumulation
small portioninofthe void space to be filled with the fluid and streamline lines in the
porous medium. This reduces the flow circulation in the entire cavity and the figure have a low
accumulation
isotherms in the in porous
the porous medium.
medium have This
a lowreduces the flow
accumulation incirculation
the vicinityinofthe theentire
walls.cavity and the
By increasing
isotherms in the
the porosity, the porous medium
circulation of thehave a low accumulation
nanofluid flow improves in gradually
the vicinity inofthe
theporous
walls. medium,
By increasing
and
the Figure
porosity, the11.circulation
Local Nusseltof number
the of hybrid
nanofluid nanofluid
flow for different
improves graduallyvalues
in of Darcy
the number.
porous medium, and
when the porosity (ε) is equal to 0.4, nanofluid circulates well in the porous medium. This has led to
when the porosity (ε) is equal to 0.4, nanofluid circulates well in the porous medium.
the high accumulation of the isotherms in the vicinity of the walls. On the other hand, considering the This has led to
4.3. The Effect
the high of Porosityof
accumulation Coefficient (ε)
the isotherms in increased
the vicinity of the walls.
values inserted on the streamline lines, the porosity has ledOn theincreased
to an other hand, considering
flow.
the values
Figure 12 shows the effect of the porosity coefficient on the streamline and isotherms.flow.
inserted on the streamline lines, the increased porosity has led to an increased In Figure
12a, the porosity coefficient (ε) is equal to 0.1. Due to the low amount of porosity coefficient, there is
a small portion of void space to be filled with the fluid and streamline lines in the figure have a low
accumulation in the porous medium. This reduces the flow circulation in the entire cavity and the
isotherms in the porous medium have a low accumulation in the vicinity of the walls. By increasing
the porosity, the circulation of the nanofluid flow improves gradually in the porous medium, and
when the porosity (ε) is equal to 0.4, nanofluid circulates well in the porous medium. This has led to
the high accumulation of the isotherms in the vicinity of the walls. On the other hand, considering
the values inserted on the streamline lines, the increased porosity has led to an increased flow.
 Energies 2019, 12, 541 18 of 27

Energies 2019, 12, 541 18 of 27

Energies 2019, 12, 541 18 of 27

Streamline

Streamline

Constant
Constant
temperature
temperature

ε =ε0.1
(a) (a) = 0.1 (b) εε= =0.20.2
(b) (c) ε (c) ε = 0.3
= 0.3 (d) ε = 0.4
(d) ε = 0.4
FigureFigure 12. The
12. The
The effect
effect
effect ofof
of porositycoefficient
porosity
porosity coefficient
coefficienton
onthe
onthestreamline
the andand
streamline
streamline isotherms. (a) ε =(a)
andisotherms.
isotherms. (a)ε ε(b)
0.1, ε0.1,
==0.1, (b) εε == 0.2,
= (b)
0.2, 0.2,
(c) ε
(c) εε==0.3, = 0.3, (d) ε =
(d)ε ε= =0.4.
0.3,(d) 0.4.
0.4.
Figure 13 shows the Nusselt number for different values of porosity coefficient. Increasing the
Figure 13
Figure 13 shows
shows thethe Nusselt
Nusselt number
number for for different
different values
values of of porosity
porosity coefficient. Increasing the
coefficient. Increasing the
porosity coefficient means the enhancement of the flow in the porous medium. This has been shown
porosity
porosity coefficient
coefficient
in Figure
means
means
12 in the
the
the
form of
enhancement
enhancement
streamline
ofofthe
theflow
lines. Therefore, flow inenhancement
the
the in theporous
porousmedium.
ofmedium.
Thiscavity
flow in theThis
has
hasbeen
been
causes
shown
shownin
Figure 12
in Figure in the form of streamline
12 in theconvective
the enhanced form of streamline lines.
mechanism lines.Therefore,
Therefore,
and increase the enhancement
heat the enhancement
transfer. of flow in the cavity
of flow in thethat
Figure 13 demonstrates causes
cavity the
the causes
enhanced
the enhanced
Nusseltconvective
number mechanism
convective mechanism
increases and increase
and
with increased heat
increase
porosity, transfer. FigureFigure
heat transfer.
indicating increased 13
heatdemonstratesin the that
13 demonstrates
transfer thethat
cavity. Nusselt
the
number number
Nusselt increasesincreases
with increased porosity,porosity,
with increased indicating increasedincreased
indicating heat transfer
heat in the cavity.
transfer in the cavity.

Figure 13. Nusselt number of the hybrid nanofluid for different values of porosity coefficient.

Figure 14 shows the local Nusselt number of the hybrid nanofluid on the cold wall for different
values of porosity coefficient. As shown in the previous figure (Figure 12), increasing the porosity
Figure leads
Figure
coefficient Nusselt
13. Nusselt
13. number of
number
to the increased of thetransfer.
the
heat hybrid nanofluid
hybrid nanofluid
This is also for
for different
different
evident values
in the of porosity
present coefficient.
figure and the local
Nusselt number has also increased with the increase in the porosity coefficient. The profile of the
Figure
Figure 14 shows
14
local Nusseltshows
number theislocal
the local Nusselt
Nusselt
also such number
number
that its maximum of the
of the occurred
has hybrid nanofluid
hybrid nanofluid on
at about X =on the
0.2,the coldby
cold
caused wall
wall for
the for different
flowdifferent
values of
regimeporosity
in the coefficient.
cavity. This, of As shown
course, has in the
already previous
been shown figure
in Figure(Figure
14 in 12),
the increasing
isotherms,
values of porosity coefficient. As shown in the previous figure (Figure 12), increasing the porosity where the
theporosity
isotherms
coefficient leadshave
to the
thehighest accumulation
increased heat on the
transfer. left
This side
is of
alsothe wall.
evident in the present
coefficient leads to the increased heat transfer. This is also evident in the present figure and the local figure and the local
Nusselt number
Nusselt number hashas also
also increased
increased with
with the
the increase
increase inin the
the porosity
porosity coefficient. The profile
coefficient. The profile of
of the
the
local Nusselt number is also such that its maximum has occurred at about X = 0.2, caused by
local Nusselt number is also such that its maximum has occurred at about X = 0.2, caused by the flow the flow
regime in
regime in the
the cavity.
cavity. This,
This, of
of course,
course, has
has already
already been
been shown
shown inin Figure
Figure 14
14 in
in the
the isotherms,
isotherms, where
where thethe
isotherms have
isotherms have the
the highest
highest accumulation
accumulation onon the
the left
left side
side of
of the
the wall.
wall.
Energies 2019, 12, 541 19 of 27
Energies
Energies 2019,
2019, 12,
12, 541
541 19ofof27
19 27

Figure
Figure 14.
14. Local
LocalNusselt
Nusseltnumber
numberof the
ofthe hybrid
thehybrid nanofluid
hybridnanofluid for
nanofluidfor different
fordifferent valuesof
differentvalues ofporosity
porositycoefficient.
coefficient.

4.4. The
4.4. The Effect
Effect of
of the
the width
width (D)
(D) of
of Solid
Solid and
and Porous
Porous Media
Porous Media
Media
Figures 15
Figures 15 and
and1616show
showthe
theeffect
effectofof changing
changing
changing the
thethe width
width
width of of
thethe
of the solid
solid
solid andand
and porousporous
porous medium
medium
medium (D) (D)
(D)on
on
on the
the streamline
streamline andand isotherms.
isotherms. TheThe height
height
height of of
of thethe
the solid
solid
solid andand
and porous
porous
porous mediaisisisconstant
media
media constantand
constant andonly
and onlythe
only the
the
location of
location of the
the interface
interface between
between the
thetwo
twomedia,
media,which
media, whichis
which isindicated
is indicatedby
indicated bythe
by theparameter
the parameterD,
parameter D,isis
D, ischanged.
changed.
changed.
Figure 15a shows the isotherms for D
Figure 15a shows the isotherms for D = 0.9.= 0.9. Due
0.9. Due
Due to to the
to the decrease
the decrease
decrease in in the
in the width
the width
widthof of the
ofthe porous
theporous medium,
porousmedium,
medium,
the heat
the heat transfer
transfer occurs
occurs mainly
mainly from
from the
the solid
solid medium
medium to
to the
the
solid medium to the cavity. cavity.
cavity.

(a) D
(a) D == 0.9
0.9 (b)
(b) D
D == 0.8
0.8 (c)
(c)DD==0.7
0.7

(d) D
(d) D == 0.6
0.6 (e)
(e) D
D == 0.5
0.5 (f)
(f)DD==0.4
0.4
Figure 15. Cont.
 In the nanofluid- filled portion, the isotherms are as such that they indicate the lack of strong
circulation of nanofluid. By decreasing the width to D = 0.8, nanofluid obtains more freedom such
that the isotherms indicate it. Further, by decreasing the width of the solid medium and the porous
medium to D = 0.1, the line θ = 0.9 continues to cut the solid medium. This is due to the high
Energies 2019, 12, 541 20 of 27
conductivity of the solid medium which is almost at a hot temperature.
Energies 2019, 12, 541 20 of 27
Figure 16 shows the effect of changing the width of the solid and the porous media (D) on the
streamline lines. As shown in Figure 15, when Figure 15.width
the Cont. of the solid medium is considered as D =
0.9, the heat transfer occurs mainly from the solid media, while the mechanism only causes the
bottom heating in the nanofluid- filled portion. Although it was already said that a part of the heat
transfer occurs from the vicinity of the solid medium due to its presence, it can be seen in Figure 16a
that the heat transfer from the vicinity of the solid medium is practically negligible due to the
significant decrease in the width of the porous medium and the occurrence of the bottom heating and
the formation of Rayleigh-Benard vortices are evident. By increasing the width of the porous
medium, the nanofluid enclosed in the porous matrix obtains more freedom and the fluid circulates
freely in the entire cavity by exchanging heat with the solid medium. Thus, in Figure 16b, we can see
the elimination of Rayleigh-Benard vortices and the formation of a general vortex in the cavity.
However, in Figure 16d, the flow in the porous medium is negligible up to D = 0.6. By increasing the
width of the porous medium, the freedom of the fluid and the enhancement of the flow occur in the
porous medium (g) D so= 0.3
that the enhancement reaches (h) D =its0.2maximum in D = 0.1, and (i) D = 0.1
the flow lines are
significantly enhanced in the
Figure 15. Isothermsporous
Isotherms for medium.
for different
different values
values of
of the
the width
width of
ofsolid
solidand
andporous
porousmedium.
medium.

In the nanofluid- filled portion, the isotherms are as such that they indicate the lack of strong
circulation of nanofluid. By decreasing the width to D = 0.8, nanofluid obtains more freedom such
that the isotherms indicate it. Further, by decreasing the width of the solid medium and the porous
medium to D = 0.1, the line θ = 0.9 continues to cut the solid medium. This is due to the high
conductivity of the solid medium which is almost at a hot temperature.
Figure 16 shows the effect of changing the width of the solid and the porous media (D) on the
streamline lines. As shown in Figure 15, when the width of the solid medium is considered as D =
0.9, the heat transfer occurs mainly from the solid media, while the mechanism only causes the
bottom heating in the nanofluid- filled portion. Although it was already said that a part of the heat
transfer occurs from the vicinity of the solid medium due to its presence, it can be seen in Figure 16a
Energies
that the 2019, 12, 541
heat transfer from the vicinity of the solid medium is practically negligible due21toofthe
27
(a) D = 0.9 (b) D = 0.8 (c) D = 0.7
significant decrease in the width of the porous medium and the occurrence of the bottom heating and
the formation of Rayleigh-Benard vortices are evident. By increasing the width of the porous
medium, the nanofluid enclosed in the porous matrix obtains more freedom and the fluid circulates
freely in the entire cavity by exchanging heat with the solid medium. Thus, in Figure 16b, we can see
the elimination of Rayleigh-Benard vortices and the formation of a general vortex in the cavity.
However, in Figure 16d, the flow in the porous medium is negligible up to D = 0.6. By increasing the
width of the porous medium, the freedom of the fluid and the enhancement of the flow occur in the
porous medium so that the enhancement reaches its maximum in D = 0.1, and the flow lines are
significantly enhanced in the porous medium.

(d) D = 0.6 (e) D = 0.5 (f) D = 0.4

(a) D = 0.9 (b) D = 0.8 (c) D = 0.7

(g) D = 0.3 (h) D = 0.2 (i) D = 0.1

Figure
Figure16.
16.The
Thestreamlines
streamlinesfor
fordifferent
differentvalues
valuesof
ofthe
thewidth
widthof
ofsolid
solidand
andporous
porousmedium.
medium.

4.5. The Effect of the Height (W) of Solid and Porous Media
Figures 17 and 18 show the streamline and isotherms for different values of the height (W) of the
porous and solid media. It is clear that the given parameter ranges from 0 to 1, and as the number
goes up, the height of the solid and porous media increase simultaneously and the nanofluid-filled
Energies 2019, 12, 541 21 of 27

In the nanofluid- filled portion, the isotherms are as such that they indicate the lack of strong
circulation of nanofluid. By decreasing the width to D = 0.8, nanofluid obtains more freedom such that
the isotherms indicate it. Further, by decreasing the width of the solid medium and the porous medium
to D = 0.1, the line θ = 0.9 continues to cut the solid medium. This is due to the high conductivity of
the solid medium which is almost at a hot temperature.
Figure 16 shows the effect of changing the width of the solid and the porous media (D) on the
streamline lines. As shown in Figure 15, when the width of the solid medium is considered as D = 0.9,
the heat transfer occurs mainly from the solid media, while the mechanism only causes the bottom
heating in the nanofluid- filled portion. Although it was already said that a part of the heat transfer
occurs from the vicinity of the solid medium due to its presence, it can be seen in Figure 16a that
the heat transfer from the vicinity of the solid medium is practically negligible due to the significant
decrease in the width of the porous medium and the occurrence of the bottom heating and the
formation of Rayleigh-Benard vortices are evident. By increasing the width of the porous medium,
the nanofluid enclosed in the porous matrix obtains more freedom and the fluid circulates freely in
the entire cavity by exchanging heat with the solid medium. Thus, in Figure 16b, we can see the
elimination of Rayleigh-Benard vortices and the formation of a general vortex in the cavity. However,
in Figure 16d, the flow in the porous medium is negligible up to D = 0.6. By increasing the width of
the porous medium, the freedom of the fluid and the enhancement of the flow occur in the porous
medium so that the enhancement reaches its maximum in D = 0.1, and the flow lines are significantly
enhanced in the porous medium.

4.5. The Effect of the Height (W) of Solid and Porous Media
Figures 17 and 18 show the streamline and isotherms for different values of the height (W) of the
porous and solid media. It is clear that the given parameter ranges from 0 to 1, and as the number goes
up, the height of the solid and porous media increase simultaneously and the nanofluid-filled medium
is narrowed. Additionally, by decreasing it, the height of the solid and porous medium decreases
simultaneously, leading to an increase in the nanofluid-filled medium. The results from Figure 17 for
the streamline lines indicate that increasing the parameter W actually leads to splitting the cavity in
two. Figure 17a shows the streamline lines only in the right half of the cavity, which is filled with
porous medium, and the space between the solid medium and the cold wall is actually without flow.
This definitely affects the heat transfer in the cavity. By reducing the amount of W and increasing the
volume between the solid medium and the cold wall, the path for the nanofluid circulation is opened,
and as the parameter W decreases, the flow lines move toward this region. However, in Figure 17d
where W = 0/6, we see the formation of Riley-Benard vortices in the distance between the solid medium
and the cold wall, because the solid medium is approximately at a hot temperature. In addition, a
larger vortex contains the porous medium and a half of the nanofluid medium. On the other hand,
the larger vortex circulates in a clockwise direction and the Rayleigh-Benard vortex circulates in a
counterclockwise direction according to the sign of the values inserted. The effect of this for the heat
transfer in the cavity should be considered. Further, with a greater decrease in the height of two solid
and porous media, we continue to see the formation of the central and single vortices. By reaching
W = 0.1, due to the significant decrease in the height of the solid medium, the flow regime acts in such
a way that a small counterclockwise vortex is created in the upper corner of the cavity. This vortex is
not a Rayleigh-Benard vortex, and only the flow regime created causes its formation.
Figure 18 shows the isotherms for different values of the height (W) of the porous and solid media.
The above figures are equivalent to Figure 17 and will be compared to them. In Figure 18a, due to the
great height of the solid medium, the heat has not been able to penetrate completely into the solid
medium and the temperature lines cut it many times. The above figure shows that the upper boundary
of the solid medium is at an average temperature (θ) of 0.5. This causes the upper boundary to have a
low temperature, and due to its low difference with the cold wall temperature (θ = 0) and the spatial
constraints of this region, the lack of fluid circulation in the interface between the solid medium and
Energies 2019, 12, 541 22 of 27

the cold wall in accordance with Figure 18a is justifiable. However, the point that is important in
Figure 18a is the great height of the solid medium and its relatively high temperature compared to the
circulating nanofluid, causing the formation of the heat transfer from the adjacent side in the half of
the cavity. It is important to consider how the heat transfer occurs in the cavity in these conditions.
By continuing the decrease in the parameter W, the solid and porous media becomes smaller, causing
an increase in the space for the nanofluid to circulate at the top of the cavity. This has led to a change
in the isotherms considering the flow regime in the cavity. Finally, in the case of W = 0.1, the solid
medium
Energies is 12,
2019, at 541
a completely hot temperature, justifying the failure of the temperature lines to22cut
of the
27
solid medium.

(a) W = 0.9 (b) W = 0.8 (c) W = 0.7

(d) W = 0.6 (e) W = 0.5 (f) W = 0.4

(g) W = 0.3 (h) W = 0.2 (i) W = 0.1

Figure
Figure17.
17.Streamline
Streamlinelines
linesfor
fordifferent
differentvalues
valuesof
ofthe
theheight
heightofofthe
thesolid
solidand
andporous
porousmedia.
media.

Figure 18 shows the isotherms for different values of the height (W) of the porous and solid
media. The above figures are equivalent to Figure 17 and will be compared to them. In Figure 18a,
due to the great height of the solid medium, the heat has not been able to penetrate completely into
the solid medium and the temperature lines cut it many times. The above figure shows that the upper
boundary of the solid medium is at an average temperature (θ) of 0.5. This causes the upper boundary
to have a low temperature, and due to its low difference with the cold wall temperature (θ = 0) and
the spatial constraints of this region, the lack of fluid circulation in the interface between the solid
medium and the cold wall in accordance with Figure 18a is justifiable. However, the point that is
 Energies 2019, 12, 541 23 of 27

Energies
W = 0.1, the12,solid
2019, 541 medium is at a completely hot temperature, justifying the failure of the temperature
23 of 27
lines to cut the solid medium.

(a) W = 0.9 (b) W = 0.8 (c) W = 0.7

(d) W = 0.6 (e) W = 0.5 (f) W = 0.4

(g) W = 0.3 (h) W = 0.2 (i) W = 0.1

Figure18.
Figure 18. The
The isotherms
isotherms for
for different
different values
valuesof
ofthe
theheight
heightofofthe
thesolid
solidand
andporous
porousmedia.
media.

Figure19
Figure 19shows
shows thethe Nusselt
Nusselt number
number for for the
the different
differentvalues
valuesofofthe
theheight
height(W)
(W)ofofthe
thesolid
solidand
and
porous media. As shown in Figures 17 and 18 for the streamline and isotherms, changes inthis
porous media. As shown in Figures 17 and 18 for the streamline and isotherms, changes in this
parameterresult
parameter resultininmajor
majorchanges
changesin inthe
theflow
flowregime
regimein inthe
thecavity,
cavity,where
whereonly
onlyone
onevortex
vortexisisformed
formedin
in cavity,
the the cavity,
or twoor two vortices
vortices are formed
are formed in theincavity
the cavity at some
at some values values
of W.ofHowever,
W. However, the Rayleigh-
the Rayleigh-Benard
vortex is formed on top of the solid medium at W = 0.6. Now, we examine the effecteffect
Benard vortex is formed on top of the solid medium at W = 0.6. Now, we examine the of eachof each
of the
of the above values on the heat transfer. Figure 19 shows that the maximum
above values on the heat transfer. Figure 19 shows that the maximum Nusselt number occurs in Nusselt number occurs
Win=W0.9,
= 0.9, where
where thethe height
height ofof thesolid
the solidand
andporous
porousmedia
media is is such
such that
that the
thenanofluid
nanofluidcirculates
circulatesinin half
half
of the cavity. In this amount of W, heat is transferred mainly to the nanofluid not
of the cavity. In this amount of W, heat is transferred mainly to the nanofluid not from the bottomfrom the bottom ofof
the cavity, but from the solid wall in the vicinity of the nanofluid. However, the minimum Nusselt
the cavity, but from the solid wall in the vicinity of the nanofluid. However, the minimum Nusselt
number occurs in W = 0.7. On the other hand, an acceptable Nusselt number is obtained where W =
number occurs in W = 0.7. On the other hand, an acceptable Nusselt number is obtained where W = 0.1.
0.1. At this amount of W, the height of the solid and porous media is minimized and the nanofluid-
At this amount of W, the height of the solid and porous media is minimized and the nanofluid-filled
filled medium has a large volume. The reason for this is the increased volume of the nanofluid portion
medium has a large volume. The reason for this is the increased volume of the nanofluid portion
which has greater space in the cavity for the fluid circulation with the decreased height of the solid and
Energies 2019, 12, 541 24 of 27
Energies 2019, 12, 541 24 of 27

which has greater space in the cavity for the fluid circulation with the decreased height of the solid
porous media (especially the solid medium), making it easy to circulate fluid, increase fluid velocity
and porous media (especially the solid medium), making it easy to circulate fluid, increase fluid
and consequently increase heat
velocity and consequently transfer.
increase heat transfer.

Figure
Figure 19. Nusselt
19. Nusselt numberfor
number fordifferent
different values
values of
ofthe
theheight
heightofof
thethe
solid andand
solid porous media.
porous media.

5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions

In theIn present
the present study,
study, thethe freeconvection
free convection heat
heat transfer
transferofofhybrid
hybridnanofluids
nanofluids in ain closed cavitycavity
a closed
was investigated considering the porous and solid media. The cavity
was investigated considering the porous and solid media. The cavity was in a square form such was in a square form such that that
its bottom and top walls were assumed to be insulated in hot and cold temperatures, respectively.
its bottom and top walls were assumed to be insulated in hot and cold temperatures, respectively.
The cavity was divided into three portions, including a portion filled with hybrid nanofluids, a
The cavity was divided into three portions, including a portion filled with hybrid nanofluids, a porous
porous medium, and a solid medium. In this way, the cavity was analyzed considering the bottom
medium, and a solid medium. In this way, the cavity was analyzed considering the bottom wall heating.
wall heating. The portion filled with hybrid nanofluids contained copper and aluminum oxide hybrid
The portion filled with
nanoparticles of 20 hybrid
to 40 nm nanofluids contained
in size. The governing copper and aluminum
equations oxide hybrid
for the nanofluid portionnanoparticles
with a
of 20 homogeneous
to 40 nm in size. formTheweregoverning equations
extracted assuming for the
thermal nanofluid portion
non-equilibrium betweenwiththeaporous
homogeneous
and solid form
weremedia
extracted assuming
and have thermaltonon-equilibrium
been converted their non-dimensional between
form. the
The porous
problemand solid media
was solved and have
numerically
been using the finite
converted element
to their method. Subsequently,
non-dimensional form. The the important
problem wasparameters
solvedaffecting
numericallythe heat transfer
using the finite
from the cavity were discussed and the effect of each on the heat transfer
element method. Subsequently, the important parameters affecting the heat transfer from the cavity was measured. The results
were were presented
discussed and in thefigures, tables,
effect of eachcurves,
on theandheatcontours,
transferandwaswere discussed
measured. Theinresults
detail. were
The results
presented
indicate that in the hybrid nanofluid portion, the heat transfer can be enhanced by adding
in figures, tables, curves, and contours, and were discussed in detail. The results indicate that in the
nanoparticles to the base fluid, while the viscosity overcomes the thermal conductivity and impairs
hybrid nanofluid portion, the heat transfer can be enhanced by adding nanoparticles to the base fluid,
the heat transfer with an increase in nanoparticles volume concentration. In the porous medium,
whileincreasing
the viscosity overcomes
the ratio the thermal
of nanofluid conductivity
conductivity and impairs
to the porous matrix,the heatnumber,
Darcy transferand withporosity
an increase
in nanoparticles
coefficient causes volume concentration.
the decreased In the the
heat transfer, porous medium,
increased increasing
heat transfer, and the ratio of nanofluid
the increased heat
conductivity
transfer, respectively. The solid portion is also directly related to the ratio of the solid conductivity to heat
to the porous matrix, Darcy number, and porosity coefficient causes the decreased
transfer, the increased
the nanofluid, and itsheat transfer,
increase leadsand the increased
to enhanced heat transfer,
heat transfer. respectively.
In addition, increasingThe the solid
Rayleighportion
number
is also directlycauses
related increased heat transfer,
to the ratio and conductivity
of the solid the increase intothe thevolume of the
nanofluid, andnanofluid portion
its increase leads to
enhances
enhanced heatheat transfer
transfer. due to theincreasing
In addition, enhancement of the nanofluid
the Rayleigh numbercirculation. Some important
causes increased heat transfer,
conclusions
and the increase are as follows:
in the volume of the nanofluid portion enhances heat transfer due to the enhancement
of the(1)nanofluid
Adding circulation.
nanoparticlesSome to theimportant conclusions
pure fluid can decrease or are as follows:
increase heat transfer when considering
Rayleigh number. The addition of nanoparticles changes two effective parameters: thermal
(1) Adding nanoparticles
conductivity to the pure
and second, fluidviscosity,
dynamic can decrease
whileorboth
increase heat transfer
parameters when
increase by considering
adding
Rayleigh number.
nanoparticles. The addition
However, in lowerof nanoparticles
Rayleigh numbers,changes
the effect two effective
of increased parameters:
thermal thermal
conductivity
conductivity
overcomes and second,
the effect dynamic
of increased viscosity,
dynamic while
viscosity and both parameters
the addition increase byand
of the nanoparticles adding
the increased
nanoparticles. volume in
However, fraction
lowerresults in the
Rayleigh increased
numbers, theheat transfer
effect in the thermal
of increased cavity. Inconductivity
higher
Rayleighthe
overcomes numbers,
effect ofthe effect of dynamic
increased increased viscosity
dynamic viscosity overcomes
and the addition of the
theeffect of increased
nanoparticles and the
increased volume fraction results in the increased heat transfer in the cavity. In higher Rayleigh
numbers, the effect of increased dynamic viscosity overcomes the effect of increased thermal
conductivity and the addition of the nanoparticles and the increased volume fraction results in
the decreased heat transfer in the cavity.
Energies 2019, 12, 541 25 of 27

(2) The effect of the Darcy number as a non-dimensional permeability on the heat transfer in the
cavity has a direct effect so that with its increase, the heat transfer is increased and with its
decrease, the heat transfer is decreased.
(3) The porosity coefficient is directly related to the heat transfer and, as it increases or decreases,
heat transfer either increases or decreases.
(4) The change in the width of the solid and porous media causes a change in the flow regime in the
cavity and has an increasing or decreasing effect on the heat transfer.
(5) The change in the height of the solid and porous media cause a change in the flow regime in the
cavity and has an increasing or decreasing effect on the heat transfer.
(6) The relationship between the Rayleigh number and the heat transfer is direct, and its increase or
decrease can increase or decrease heat transfer in the cavity.

Author Contributions: All authors contributed in the paper equally.

Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: No conflict of interest.

Nomenclature
Latin Symbols
C nanoparticle volume concentration %
Cp Heat capacity
d solid-porous medium length [m]
Da Darcy number
g gravitational acceleration [m/s2 ]
H heat transfer coefficient of porous medium
k thermal connectivity [W/m·K]
L cavity Length [m]
Nu Nusselt number
P Pressure [Pa]
Pr Prandtl number
Ra Rayleigh number
T temperature [K]
u velocity component along x-direction [m/s]
v velocity component along y-direction [m/s]
w solid-porous medium height [m]
x location component along x direction
y location component along y direction
Greek symbols
α effective thermal diffusivity[m2 /s]
β thermal expansion coefficient [1/K]
θ Non-dimensional temperature
υ kinematic viscosity [m2 /s]
ρ density [kg/m3 ]
Ψ flow function
Subscripts
c Cold
h Hot
s Solid
f pure fluid
hnf hybrid nanofluid
hnp Nanoparticle
Energies 2019, 12, 541 26 of 27

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