Fem Solution

Finite element based heatline approach to study mixed convection in a porous
square cavity with various wall thermal boundary conditions

Tanmay Basak
a
, P.V. Krishna Pradeep
a
, S. Roy
b
, I. Pop
c,
a
Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai 600036, India
b
Department of Mathematics, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai 600036, India
c
Faculty of Mathematics, University of Cluj, R-3400 Cluj, CP 253, Romania
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 28 June 2010
Received in revised form 27 November 2010
Accepted 21 December 2010
Keywords:
Finite element method
Mixed convection
Square cavity
Porous medium
Uniform and non-uniform heating
Heatlines
Streamlines
a b s t r a c t
A penalty nite element method based simulation is performed to analyze the inuence of various walls
thermal boundary conditions on mixed convection lid driven ows in a square cavity lled with porous
medium. The relevant parameters in the present study are Darcy number (Da = 10
5
10
3
), Grashof
number (Gr = 10
3
10
5
), Prandtl number (Pr = 0.77.2), and Reynolds number (Re = 110
2
). Heatline
approach of visualizing heat ow is implemented to gain a complete understanding of complex heat ow
patterns. Patterns of heatlines and streamlines are qualitatively similar near the core for convection dom-
inant ow for Da = 10
3
. Symmetric distribution in heatlines, similar to streamlines is observed irrespec-
tive of Da at higher Gr in natural convection dominant regime corresponding to smaller values of Re. A
single circulation cell in heatlines, similar to streamlines is observed at Da = 10
3
for forced convection
dominance and heatlines are found to emanate from a large portion on the bottom wall illustrating
enhanced heat ow for Re = 100. Multiple circulation cells in heatlines are observed at higher Da and
Gr for Pr = 0.7 and 7.2. The heat transfer rates along the walls are illustrated by the local Nusselt number
distribution based on gradients of heatfunctions. Wavy distribution in heat transfer rates is observed
with Da P10
4
for non-uniformly heated walls primarily in natural convection dominant regime. In gen-
eral, exponential variation of average Nusselt numbers with Grashof number is found except the cases
where the side walls are linearly heated. Overall, heatlines are found to be a powerful tool to analyze heat
transport within the cavity and also a suitable guideline on explaining the Nusselt number variations.
2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
The study of uid ow and heat transfer induced by the com-
bined effects of the mechanically driven lid and buoyancy force
within closed enclosures lled with uid saturated porous medium
is of great interest due to high surface-area density. Various appli-
cations on convection in porous medium involve use of metal
foams for enhanced cooling in electronic equipment, foam lled
heat exchangers, open-cell metal foams, use of brous materials
in thermal insulation of buildings, solar energy collectors, crystal
growing, post-accidental heat removal in nuclear reactors to name
just a few of them [15]. In mixed convection ows, the forced
convection and the free convection effects are of comparable
magnitudes. In case of lid-driven cavity ows, the thermal non-
homogeneity gives rise to buoyancy force which in turn impacts
upon the coupled elds of velocity and temperature in the cavity.
The governing non-dimensional parameters for mixed convection
in a cavity lled with uid saturated porous medium are Darcy
number (Da), Grashof number (Gr), Reynolds number (Re) and Pra-
ndtl number (Pr). Note that, Gr and Re represent the strength of the
natural and forced convection ow effects, respectively. A compre-
hensive review on the fundamentals of the convective ow in por-
ous media can also be found in the literature [611].
Numerical and experimental studies on mixed convection in
porous media have received signicant attention of investigators
due to various engineering applications [12,13]. The numerical
heat transfer characteristics of non-Darcy mixed convection ow
over a horizontal at plate with porous medium was studied by
Chen [12]. DarcyBrinkmanForchheimer equation to model the
motion of uid through porous medium has been used in this
study. Laminar transport processes in a lid driven porous square
cavity saturated with water was investigated by Al-Amiri [13]. A
few earlier investigations also involve detailed analysis of mixed
convection ow over vertical surface in porous medium [1418].
Oztop [14] investigated numerical heat transfer and uid ow in
a porous lid driven cavity with isothermal moving top wall. The
effects of the ow governing parameters on the characteristics of
the ow and thermal elds on mixed convective heat transfer in
0017-9310/$ - see front matter 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2010.12.043
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: tanmay@iitm.ac.in (T. Basak), pandithapradeep@gmail.com
(P.V. Krishna Pradeep), sjroy@iitm.ac.in (S. Roy), popm.ioan@yahoo.co.uk (I. Pop).
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 54 (2011) 17061727
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer
j our nal homepage: www. el sevi er . com/ l ocat e/ i j hmt
rectangular enclosures driven by a continuously moving horizontal
plate was studied by Waheed [15]. Steady mixed convection ow
in a vented enclosure with an isothermal vertical wall and lled
with a uid-saturated porous medium is investigated by Mahmud
and Pop [16]. Duwairi et al. [17] analyzed the effects of oscillating
plate temperature on transient mixed convection heat transfer
from a porous vertical surface embedded in a saturated porous
medium with internal heat generation or absorption. Jue [18]
investigated mixed convection ow caused by a torsionally oscilla-
tory lid with thermal stable stratication in an enclosure lled
with porous medium using semi-implicit projection nite-element
method.
Till date, most of the numerical investigations on lid driven
enclosures lled with uid saturated porous medium are limited
to analysis based on streamlines and isotherms and the detailed
analysis of heat ow was not well understood. The present work
is carried out on visualization of heat ow to analyze optimal
thermal mixing and temperature distributions within porous
square cavities lled with different uids in presence of a moving
top wall. Current work attempts for the rst time to analyze heat
transfer, correlations and energy distributions using heatline
approach for mixed convection in a cavity lled with porous
medium.
The heatline is found to be the best numerical tool to visualize
the heat transport in two dimensional convective transport pro-
cess. Heatlines refer to trajectories of total heat transport involving
conductive as well as convective heat ux. In convective heat
transport, the energy ow within various regimes can be best visu-
alized by heatlines as the isotherms are unable to give guideline for
energy ows. Heatlines are found via solving the governing equa-
tions of heatfunctions and each heatline contour corresponds to
constant heatfunction. It may be noted that the derivative of heat-
functions are dened as a combination of conductive and convec-
tive heat ux and various directional derivatives of heatfunctions
are obtained from energy balance equations. Proper dimensionless
forms of heatfunctions are closely related to Nusselt numbers. The
concept of heatline was rst introduced by Kimura and Bejan
[19,20]. Over the years, heatlines have been employed as effective
tool to describe various physical phenomenon [2124].
A few earlier studies on heatlines were carried out for thermal
convection analysis and in analyzing heat ow in electroconduc-
tive melts [25,26]. Zhao et al. [27,28] studied natural convection
in a porous enclosure with heat and solute sources and illustrated
the ow characteristics via streamlines, heatlines, isotherms and
masslines. Heatline patterns for the uid with temperature depen-
dent viscosity in a porous square cavity was reported by Hooman
and Gurgenci [29]. Heat ow visualization in a complicated cavity
has been studied by Dalal and Das [30] using the heatline concept.
Effects of wall-located heat barrier on conjugate conduction/natu-
ral-convection heat transfer and uid ow in enclosures have been
studied using heatlines by Hakyemez et al. [31]. The concept of
masslines has been introduced, analogous to heatlines to visualize
mass transfer within the cavity [3237]. However, a detailed anal-
ysis of heat ow using heatline concept for lid driven ows in
square enclosures lled with porous medium is yet to appear in
the literature.
The aim of the current study is to analyze the heat ow due to
mixed convection in a square cavity lled with a uid saturated
porous medium for various thermal boundary conditions as a rst
attempt. The main objective of the present study is to examine the
extent of thermal mixing and heat transfer within the porous
cavity in the presence of a moving top wall. A square cavity with
four different thermal boundary conditions has been considered
in the current study. A penalty nite element approach using the
Galerkin method is applied to solve the non-linear coupled equa-
tions for ow and temperature elds. The Galerkin method is
further employed to solve the Poisson equation for streamfunc-
tions and heatfunctions. Finite discontinuity exists at the junction
of hot and cold walls leading to mathematical singularity. Solution
of heatfunction for such type of situation demands implementation
of exact boundary conditions. Each case is studied for a range of
parameters: Darcy number (Da = 10
5
10
3
), Grashof number
(Gr = 10
3
10
5
), Prandtl number (Pr = 0.77.2), and Reynolds num-
ber (Re = 1 100). Numerical results are obtained for velocity and
thermal elds within the cavity and are displayed using stream-
lines, isotherms and heatlines.
2. Mathematical formulation and simulation
The physical domain consists of a square cavity with the phys-
ical dimensions as shown in Fig. 1. The top wall is assumed to
move with a uniform velocity U
o
. Four cases in the present study
are considered as follows: case 1: bottom wall is uniformly heated
where the side walls are maintained cold, case 2: bottom wall is
Nomenclature
Da Darcy number
g acceleration due to gravity, m s
2
k thermal conductivity, W m
1
K
1
K permeability, m
2
L height of the square cavity, m
Nu local Nusselt number
p pressure, Pa
P dimensionless pressure
Pr Prandtl number
Ra Rayleigh number
Re Reynolds number
Gr Grashof number
T temperature, K
T
h
temperature of hot bottom wall, K
T
c
temperature of cold wall, K
u x component of velocity
U x component of dimensionless velocity
v y component of velocity
V y component of dimensionless velocity
X dimensionless distance along x coordinate
Y dimensionless distance along y coordinate
Greek symbols
a thermal diffusivity, m
2
s
1
b volume expansion coefcient, K
1
c penalty parameter
h dimensionless temperature
m kinematic viscosity, m
2
s
1
q density, kg m
3
U basis functions
w streamfunction
P heatfunction
Subscripts
b bottom wall
k node number
s side wall
T. Basak et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 54 (2011) 17061727 1707
non-uniformly heated with cold side walls, case 3: both the side
walls are linearly heated with uniformly heated bottom wall and
case 4: linearly heated left wall with cooled right wall and uni-
formly heated bottom wall. In all the cases the top moving wall
is well insulated. It is assumed that the solid matrix of the porous
media does not undergo deformation and the porous bed is also as-
sumed to be homogeneous, isotropic, saturated with incompress-
ible uid. All the thermophysical properties of the uid such as
viscosity, thermal conductivity, specic heats, thermal expansion
coefcient and permeability except the density variation in the
buoyancy term are considered to be constant. The Boussinesq
approximation is considered for the body force term where the lin-
ear variation of density with temperature is assumed and that cou-
ples the temperature eld to the ow eld. It is also assumed that
the temperature of the uid phase is equal to the temperature of
the solid phase within the porous region, and local thermal equilib-
rium (LTE) is applicable in the present investigation [6]. The effec-
tive viscosity within the porous medium is also assumed as
viscosity of the uid medium [6]. The inertia effect modeled by
Forchheimer term, represented by quadratic drag term, is assumed
to be negligible. In general, Forchheimer term corresponds to non-
Darcy effects on the convective boundary-layer ow over the sur-
face of the body embedded in a high-porosity medium. It has been
reported that the quadratic drag terms are signicant for high
velocity ows, (for example, in forced convection at high Re) [6].
Such high velocities usually do not occur in mixed convection ow
in porous media with Gr = 10
3
10
5
, Re = 1 100, Pr = 0.7 10
and Da = 10
5
10
3
and therefore, the inertial effects modeled
by Forchheimer term may be safely neglected.
Under these assumptions and neglecting the Forchheimer iner-
tia term, the governing equations for steady two-dimensional
mixed convection ow in a lid driven porous square cavity using
conservation of mass, momentum and energy can be written with
the following dimensionless variables or numbers as
@U
@X

@V
@Y
0; 1
U
@U
@X
V
@U
@Y

@P
@X
1
Re
@
2
U
@X
2

@
2
U
@Y
2
_ _
1
ReDa
U; 2
U
@V
@X
V
@V
@Y

@P
@Y
1
Re
@
2
V
@X
2
@
2
V
@Y
2
_ _
1
ReDa
V
Gr
Re
2
h; 3
U
@h
@X
V
@h
@Y

1
RePr
@
2
h
@X
2
@
2
h
@Y
2
_ _
; 4
with following boundary conditions
U 0; V 0; h 1 or sinpX; for Y 0; 0 6 X 6 1;
U 0; V 0; h 0 or 1 Y; for X 0; 0 6 Y 6 1;
U 0; V 0; h 0 or 1 Y; for X 1; 0 6 Y 6 1;
U U
o
; V 0;
@h
@Y
0; for Y 1; 0 6 X 6 1:
5
The dimensionless variables and parameters are dened as follows:
X
x
L
; Y
y
L
; U
u
U
0
; V
v
U
0
; h
T T
c
T
h
T
c
;
P
p
qU
2
0
; Pr
m
a
; Re
U
0
L
m
; Gr
gbT
h
T
c
L
3
m
2
; Da
K
L
2
:
6
The momentum and energy balance equations (Eqs. (2)(4)) are
solved using Galerkin nite element method [30]. The continuity
equation (Eq. (1)) is used as a constraint due to mass conservation
and this constraint may be used to obtain the pressure distribution.
A penalty nite element approach is used to solve Eqs. (2)(4),
where the pressure P is eliminated using a penalty parameter (c)
[38] and the incompressibility criteria given by Eq. (1) results in
P c
@U
@X
@V
@Y
_ _
: 7
The continuity equation is satised for large values of c. Typical val-
ues of c that yield consistent solutions are 10
7
. Using Eq. (7), the
momentum balance equations (Eqs. (2) and (3)) reduce to
U
@U
@X
V
@U
@Y
c
@
@X
@U
@X
@V
@Y
_ _
1
Re
@
2
U
@X
2

@
2
U
@Y
2
_ _
1
ReDa
U; 8
and
U
@V
@X
V
@V
@Y
c
@
@Y
@U
@X
@V
@Y
_ _
1
Re
@
2
V
@X
2
@
2
V
@Y
2
_ _
1
ReDa
V
Gr
Re
2
h:
9
The system of equations (Eqs. (4), (8) and (9)) with boundary
conditions (5) are solved using Galerkin nite element method
[38]. Since the solution procedure is explained in the earlier work
[39], the detailed description is not included in this paper. The
numerical solutions are obtained in terms of the velocity compo-
nents (U, V) and h. The streamfunction, Nusselt number and heat-
functions are obtained as follows.
2.1. Streamfunction, Nusselt number and heatfunction
2.1.1. Streamfunction
The uid motion can be visualized using the streamfunction (w)
obtained from velocity components U and V. The relationship be-
tween streamfunction and velocity components for two dimen-
sional ows are [40]
U
@w
@Y
and V
@w
@X
; 10
which yield a single equation
@
2
w
@X
2
@
2
w
@Y
2

@U
@Y

@V
@X
: 11
Using the above denition of the streamfunction, the positive sign
of w denotes anti-clockwise circulation and the clockwise circula-
tion is represented by the negative sign of w. The no-slip condition
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the physical system.
1708 T. Basak et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 54 (2011) 17061727
is valid at all boundaries. Also, there is no cross ow across the
boundary. Hence w = 0 is used as residual equations at the nodes
for the boundaries.
2.1.2. Nusselt number
The heat transfer coefcient in terms of the local Nusselt num-
ber (Nu) is dened by
Nu
@h
@n
; 12
where n denotes the normal direction on a plane. The local Nusselt
numbers at bottom wall (Nu
b
), left wall (Nu
l
) and at the right wall
(Nu
r
) are dened as:
Nu
b

9
i1
h
i
@U
i
@Y
; Nu
l

9
i1
h
i
@U
i
@X
; and Nu
r

9
i1
h
i
@U
i
@X
;
13
where U
i
denotes the nite element basis set [39]. The average Nus-
selt numbers at the bottom and side walls are:
Nu
b

_
1
0
Nu
b
dX
Xj
1
0
_
1
0
Nu
b
dX and Nu
s

_
1
0
Nu
s
dY
Yj
1
0
_
1
0
Nu
s
dY:
14
Here, Nu
s
may be referred as Nu
l
and Nu
r
for the left and right walls,
respectively.
2.1.3. Heatfunction
The heat ow within the enclosure can be visualized using the
heatfunction P obtained from conductive heat uxes
@h
@X
;
@h
@Y
_ _
as
well as convective heat uxes (Uh, Vh). The steady energy balance
equation (4) can be re-arranged as
@
@X
Uh
1
RePr
@h
@X
_ _ _ _
@
@Y
Vh
1
RePr
@h
@Y
_ _ _ _
0: 15
The heatfunction satises the above equation such that
@P
@Y
Uh
1
RePr
@h
@X
@P
@X
Vh
1
RePr
@h
@Y
16
which yield a single equation
@
2
P
@X
2

@
2
P
@Y
2

@
@Y
Uh
@
@X
Vh: 17
Using the above denition of the heatfunction, the positive sign of P
denotes anti-clockwise heat owand the clockwise heat owis rep-
resented by the negative sign of P. Eq. (17) is solved using the sim-
ilar procedure for residuals of heatfunction as discussed by Kaluri et
al. [41]. The Neumann boundary conditions may be specied as
follows:
n rP 0 uniformly heated=cooled wall; 18
n rP
pcospX
RePr
sinusoidally heated bottom wall; 19
n rP
1
RePr
linearly heated right wall and 20
n rP
1
RePr
linearly heated left wall: 21
The top insulated wall may be represented by Dirichlet boundary
condition as obtained from Eq. (16) which is simplied into
@P
@X
0
for an adiabatic wall. A reference value of P is assumed as 0 at
X = 0,Y = 1 and hence P = 0 is valid for Y = 1, "X. It may be noted
that, the unique solution of Eq. (17) is strongly dependent on the
non-homogeneous Dirichlet conditions. The following non-homo-
geneous Dirichlet boundary conditions are employed to obtain the
solution for Eq. (17).
P0; 0
1
RePr
Nu
l
P1; 0
1
RePr
Nu
r
22
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Numerical tests
The computational domain consists of 28 28 bi-quadratic ele-
ments which correspond to 57 57 grid points. The bi-quadratic
elements with lesser number of nodes smoothly capture the non-
linear variations of the eld variables which are in contrast with -
nite difference or nite volume solution. In the current investiga-
tion, Gaussian quadrature based nite element method provides
the smooth solutions at the interior domain including the corner
regions as evaluation of residuals depends on the interior Gauss
points and thus the effect of corner nodes are less profound in
the nal solution [41]. In cases 1 and 4, jump discontinuities at bot-
tom corner points exist due to hotcold junctions leading to math-
ematical singularities. The present nite element method based
approach offers special advantage on evaluation of local Nusselt
number at the left, right and bottom walls as the element basis
functions have been used here to evaluate the heat ux.
To assess the accuracy of the present numerical approach, we
have tested our algorithm based on the grid size (57 57) for dri-
ven cavity ow [42] and mixed convection [43]. The simulations
were carried out for 49 49, 57 57 and 61 61 grid points. It
is found that temperature and ow characteristics with 57 57
and 61 61 grids are identical and further simulation studies are
performed based on 57 57 grids. Validation results are not
shown for the brevity of the manuscript.
In order to validate heatfunction contours, we have carried out
simulations for all the cases with a range of Rayleigh numbers
(Ra = 0, 10, 100, 10
3
) and Darcy numbers (Da = 10
5
10
3
) at
Re = 0 which corresponds to natural convection. It may be noted
that, earlier works on heatlines have been reported for situations
involving natural convection and analysis on heatfunctions for
mixed convection problems within cavities are not yet reported till
date. Validation of the heatlines has been performed and the re-
sults are in good agreement with the earlier work [19]. The valida-
tion of heatfunctions for natural convection situation is already
discussed by Kaluri et al. [41] and hence the validation results
are not shown in this manuscript. The heat transfer in the cavity
is conduction dominant for lowvalues of the governing parameters
(Re, Pr and Gr) at any Da. Under these conditions, heatlines essen-
tially represent heat ux lines, which are commonly used for con-
ductive heat transport [44]. Also, heat ux lines are perpendicular
to isothermal surfaces and parallel to adiabatic surfaces [45]. In
cases 3 and 4, some heatlines are found to emanate from the hot
portion of the wall and end on the relatively cold portion of the
same wall for higher Grashof numbers. The solution is strongly
dependent on a non-homogeneous Dirichlet boundary condition
and the sign of heatfunction is governed by the sign of a non-
homogeneous Dirichlet condition. In the current situation, a nega-
tive sign of heatlines represents a clockwise ow of heat while a
positive sign refers to an anticlockwise ow. The detailed discus-
sion on heat transport based on heatlines for various cases is pre-
sented in later sections.
Detailed computations have been carried out for various uids
(Pr = 0.7 and 7.2), Da = 10
5
10
3
, Gr = 10
3
10
5
corresponding
to lid velocity ranging within Re = 1, 10 and 100. Simulations were
also carried out for Pr = 0.026. It is observed that the heat transfer
within the cavity for Da = 10
5
10
3
is conduction dominant irre-
spective of Gr and Re for Pr = 0.026 (gures not shown). Similar
trend is observed with Pr = 0.7 at Gr = 10
3
. However, some interest-
ing results are also discussed for Gr = 10
3
for higher Pr(Pr = 7.2) u-
ids where convection dominant heat transfer is observed. It is
observed from gures that the uid circulations are strongly
dependent on Da.
3.2. Case 1: Uniform heating of bottom wall
Dominant lid driven effect for lower Da is observed for Re = 1
and Gr = 10
3
for higher Pr uids (Pr = 7.2) (gure not shown), as a
single streamline circulation span the entire cavity. Onset of natu-
ral convection is observed based on a secondary ow circulation at
the bottom left corner of the cavity. However, conduction domi-
nant heat transfer illustrated by heatlines perpendicular to isother-
mal surfaces are observed for Da 6 10
4
. Enhanced convective
effects are observed as the strength of secondary circulation in-
creases for Da = 10
3
. This was also evident from slightly distorted
heatlines within the cavity.
Fig. 2 illustrates the streamlines, isotherms and heatlines for
Re = 10, Pr = 0.7 and Gr = 10
5
for varying Da(= 10
5
10
3
). The ef-
fect of lid driven ow is observed at low Da(= 10
5
) as the primary
streamline circulation cells occupies more than 60% of the cavity
and a secondary circulation is observed to the bottom left portion
of the cavity. The isotherms are smoothly distributed and are sym-
metric (see Fig. 2(a)). Enhanced secondary ow circulation cells are
observed at Da = 10
4
due to less pore resistance and enhanced
buoyancy forces. The distribution of isotherms is similar to that
at smaller Da except for h 6 0.1. The effect of natural convection
is more pronounced and two ow circulation cells with similar
sizes are observed at higher Da (see Fig. 2(c)). The isotherms are
found to be compressed towards the side walls as well as the bot-
tom wall due to dominant natural convection.
The heatlines illustrate conduction dominant heat transfer
within the cavity for low Da (= 10
5
) as the heatlines are perpen-
dicular to isothermal surfaces (Fig. 2(a)). Similar trend of heatlines
is also observed for Da = 10
4
(Fig. 2(b)). However, isotherms with
h 6 0.1 are distorted and more pronounced to the side walls at
Da = 10
4
compared to lower Da. It may be noted that the thickness
of the thermal boundary layer is small towards the top portion of
the side walls for Da = 10
4
compared to lower Da. It may be noted
that the magnitude of heatlines that end towards the side walls is
slightly greater for Da = 10
4
signifying larger heat transport com-
pared to lower Da. Enhanced natural convective heat transfer with-
in the cavity is clearly illustrated by the heatline circulation cells
for Da = 10
3
(Fig. 2(c)). Dense heatlines corresponding to
0.001 6 P6 0.07 emanate from the center of the bottom wall
and end to the top portion of the side walls signifying higher heat
transfer rates in this regime. Thus isotherms corresponding to
h 6 0.3 are more pronounced towards the side walls. Larger gradi-
ents in heatfunctions corresponding to 0 6 jPj 6 0.2 are observed
along the side walls for Da = 10
3
whereas that varies within
0 6 jPj 6 0.13 for Da 6 10
4
over the length of side walls. Thus
thermal boundary layer is more compressed towards the side walls
for higher Da. Also, dense heatlines are emanated from the central
portion of the bottom wall of the cavity. Thus a highly thermal
mixing zone with h varying within 0.40.6 is observed to the cen-
tral portion of the cavity for Da = 10
3
(see Fig. 2(c)).
Re = 100, Pr = 7.2 and Gr = 10
3
for varying Da(=10
5
10
3
) with
uniform heating of bottom wall and cold side walls. The dominant
effect of the moving lid is clearly seen from single ow circulation
cells irrespective of Da. High Pr uids correspond to low thermal
0
.0
0
0
1
0
.
0
0
1
0
.
0
0
1
0
.0
0
3
(a)
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.0
2
0
.0
1
0.005
0.0001
0
.
0
0
5
0
.
0
1
0
.0
1
5
0
.0
2
(b)
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.
3
0
.
3
0.2
0.1
0.02
0
.
0
5
0
.
1
5
0
.2
5
(c)
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.
1
0
.
1
0.2
0.3
0.5
0.8
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.
1
0
.
1
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.9
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.
1
0
.
2
0
.
3
0
.
4
0
.
4
0.5
0.6
0.8
0
.
3
0
.
2
0
.
1
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.0
7
0.03
0.01
0.005
0
.0
0
1
0
.0
0
5
0
.0
2
0
.0
4
0
.
1
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.
1
2
0
.0
7
0.03
0.01
0.001
0.005
0.02
0.04
0
.0
7
0.12
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.
2
0
.
1
7
0
.
1
2
0
.0
7
0.04
0.01
0
.2
0
.
1
7
0
.
1
2
0
.0
7
0.04
0.02
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
Fig. 2. Streamfunction (w), temperature (h) and heatfunction (P) contours for case 1 with Re = 10, Pr = 0.7, Gr = 10
5
and (a) Da = 10
5
, (b) Da = 10
4
and (c) Da = 10
3
.
conductivity and due to weaker thermal diffusion, the isotherms
are compressed towards the bottom wall and a large isothermal
zone corresponding to h 6 0.1 is observed to the top portion of
the cavity for Da = 10
5
(Fig. 3(a)). Similar trend in the streamline
cells is observed with Da = 10
4
. In addition, the isotherms are
more compressed towards the left wall compared to that of
Da = 10
5
. Larger intense convection at higher Da is seen from
the increased magnitude of the streamline cells. It is interesting
to observe that the isotherms are more compressed towards the
left and bottom walls for Da = 10
3
. A large region near the right
half becomes isothermally cooled and the effect of heating is con-
ned only near the bottom and the left walls of the cavity forming
a strong thermal boundary layer attached to the bottom wall with
h 6 0.1 in nearly 75% of the cavity (Fig. 3(c)). This is further ex-
plained based on heatlines.
Heatlines corresponding to jPj = 0.00010.001 end towards the
bottom portion of side walls. However, heatfunctions with very
small magnitudes P6 0.0001 are observed in the upper half por-
tion of the cavity, signifying no heat transfer in this regime and
the less heat transfer occurs to the cooler region for larger Pr uid.
Thus a large zone at the top portion of the cavity is maintained iso-
thermal with h 6 0.1 (Fig. 3(a)). Similar qualitative trend in heat-
functions in the upper half of the cavity is observed for Da = 10
4
with a weak heatline circulation cell (jPj
max
= 0.0001). It is interest-
ing to observe that heatlines that emanate from 0 6 X 6 0.6 of the
bottom wall end towards the left wall signifying higher heat trans-
fer rates towards the left wall. Thus the thickness of thermal
boundary layer is less towards the left wall (Fig. 3(b)). At
Da = 10
3
, it may be noted that heatlines from 0 6 X 6 0.8 of the
bottom wall end towards the left wall signifying larger heat trans-
fer to the left wall. Thus the thermal boundary layer is much com-
pressed towards the left wall compared to lower Da. Even though
enhanced heatline circulation cells with jPj
max
= 0.0005 are ob-
served near the adiabatic wall for Da = 10
3
, signicant heat trans-
fer is not observed due to lesser magnitudes of heatfunction. Thus a
large regime near the top portion remains at h 6 0.1 (Fig. 3(c)). It is
interesting to observe that heatfunctions towards the right wall
vary within 0 6 jPj 6 0.0001 for Da = 10
5
whereas jPj varies with-
in 0 0.0004 along the right wall for Da = 10
3
. Thus the thickness
of thermal boundary layer is large along the right wall and a large
isothermal zone with h 6 0.1 is observed near the right wall at
higher Da.
Distribution of streamlines, isotherms and heatlines for Re = 1,
Pr = 7.2 and Gr = 10
5
are illustrated in Fig. 4. Small effect of the
lid driven ow is observed at Da = 10
5
, as a small amount of uid
is being dragged to the top left corner of the cavity. However due to
high hydraulic resistance, the magnitude of streamlines is very low
signifying dominant conduction heat transfer (see Fig. 4(a)). This is
also represented by the smooth and symmetric isotherms. As Da
increases to 10
4
, the effect of the moving wall tends to disappear
and the streamline circulations become almost symmetric. Here
the isotherms with h 6 0.5 are gradually compressed towards the
side walls illustrating dominant convection effect (see Fig. 4(b)).
It is observed that the streamlines stretch diagonally for high Da.
The larger intense ow enhances thermal mixing which results
in uniform temperature distribution at a larger portion in the cen-
tral core. The larger intensity of ow also causes smaller thickness
of boundary layer at the top portion of side walls (Fig. 4(c)).
Heat ow distribution inside the cavity is illustrated by the
heatlines. It is observed that the magnitudes of heatfunctions are
small implying small heat ow due to weak uid ow at lower
Da(Da = 10
5
) (see Fig. 4(a)). The top portion of the side walls re-
ceives heat mainly from the center of the bottom wall and less
dense heatlines corresponding to jPj = 0.0010.03 are observed
along 0.5 6 Y 6 1 of the side walls signifying less heat absorption
for Da = 10
5
. It may be noted that due to the lid driven effect,
0.003
0.001
0
.0
0
0
1
(a)
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0.005
0.001
0
.0
0
0
1
(b)
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.
0
0
1
0
.0
0
5
0.01
0.02
(c)
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.7
0.9
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.9
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.1
0.2
0.3
0.5
0.8
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.0
0
0
5
0
.0
0
0
2
5
e
0
5
1
e
0
5
0
.0
0
0
1
0
.0
0
0
2
0
.
0
0
0
5
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.0
0
1
0
.0
0
0
5
0
.
0
0
0
1
1
e
0
5
5
e
0
5
0.0001
0
.0
0
0
1
0
.
0
0
0
3
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.0
0
2
0
.0
0
1
0
.
0
0
0
5
0
.
0
0
0
1
0.0005
0
.0
0
0
4
0
.
0
0
0
3
0
.
0
0
0
2
0
.0
0
0
1
0
.
0
0
0
2
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
3
and (a) Da = 10
5
, (b) Da = 10
4
and (c) Da = 10
3
.
the top portion of the right wall receives slightly larger heat
(jPj = 0.0010.003) compared to top portion of left wall based on
heatlines (jPj = 0.0010.0025) (see Fig. 4(a)). Thus isotherms with
h 6 0.4 are non-symmetric and the thermal boundary layer is more
compressed towards top portion of the right wall. On the other
hand, symmetric rolls in the heatline circulation cells are observed
with jPj
max
0.25 for Da = 10
4
(see Fig. 4(b)). It is interesting to
observe symmetric heatline circulation cells similar to streamlines
illustrating convection dominant heat transfer. Denser heatlines
that emanate from the bottom wall end up in the top portion of
the side walls corresponding to jPj 00.18 at 0.5 6 Y 6 1 on the
side walls, illustrating signicant heat ow in this regime. It is
interesting to observe that the top portion of the side walls re-
ceives larger heat compared to bottom portion of the wall. Thus
thermal boundary layer is more compressed towards the top por-
tion of the side walls (see Fig. 4(b)). It is also observed that some
heatlines directly start from the hot bottom wall and end on cold
side walls near a small region of bottom corners due to conductive
heat transport in that region.
Heatlines (jPj
max
= 0.7) similar to streamline cells are observed
except near the walls for higher Da(Da = 10
3
) illustrating convec-
tion dominant heat transfer within the cavity (see Fig. 4(c)). Thus a
large regime at the central region corresponds to h = 0.50.6. Sim-
ilar to Da = 10
4
, large amount of heat from the bottom wall is
transferred to the top portion of side walls resulting in smaller
thickness of thermal boundary layer at the top portion. Sparse
heatlines with 0.45 6 jPj 6 0.5 are observed to the bottom portion
of the side walls. Thus the thickness of thermal boundary layer is
high near the bottom portion of the side walls. Denser heatlines
due to enhanced convective effects are found to be more intense
near the bottom wall and the thickness of the thermal boundary
layer is small along the bottom wall especially for Da = 10
3
(see
Fig. 4(c)).
It is observed that the distribution in streamlines, isotherms
and heatlines for Re = 10 are qualitatively similar to that of Re = 1
for Pr = 7.2 at Gr = 10
5
and Da = 10
5
10
3
and a qualitatively
similar explanation as that of Fig. 4 follows.
Forced convection is seen to be dominant for Re = 100, Gr = 10
5
and Pr = 7.2 with Da = 10
5
10
3
(see Fig. 5). The isotherms are
compressed towards bottom and a large portion to the upper half
region of the cavity corresponds to h 6 0.1 as seen in Fig. 5(a). En-
hanced secondary circulation cells in the streamlines are observed
to the bottom left corner of the cavity for Da = 10
4
. The isotherms
are distorted and are more compressed towards the left wall
(Fig. 5(b)). An increase in the strength of streamline cells is ob-
served at Da = 10
3
and a primary circulation spans more than
90% of the cavity (Fig. 5(c)). It may be noted that the span of the
secondary circulation is decreased compared to that of Da = 10
4
.
Isotherms are highly compressed towards the left wall and a large
portion near the right wall is maintained isothermal with h 6 0.2
(Fig. 5(c)).
Conduction dominant heat transfer is observed within the cav-
ity for Da = 10
5
. However smaller magnitude of heatlines with
jPj 6 0.0001 are observed to the top portion of the cavity signifying
less heat transfer rates in this zone and the heating effects are con-
ned to the bottom portion of the cavity (Fig. 5(a)) as also seen in
Fig. 3(a). Weak heatline circulation cells with jPj
max
= 0.001 are ob-
served to the right half of the cavity for Da = 10
4
(Fig. 5(b)). Also
heatlines which start from 0 6 X 6 0.7 of the bottom wall, end to-
wards the left wall signifying larger heat transfer to the left wall. It
may be noted that signicant variation in heatfunction is not ob-
served along the top portion of the right wall as jPj varies within
0 6 jPj 6 0.0006 whereas that varies within 0 6 jPj 6 0.001 to
the top portion of the left wall (Fig. 5(b)). Thus a large region of
the top portion of the right wall is maintained isothermal with
h 6 0.1 and larger thermal boundary layer thickness is observed
0.02
0.015
0.01
0
.0
0
5
0
.0
0
1
0
.
0
0
3
0
.
0
0
5
0
.
0
1
0
.
0
1
5
0
.
0
2
(a)
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0.35
0
.3
0.25
0.2
0.1
0
.0
5
0
.
0
3
0
.
0
5
0
.
1
5
0
.2
0
.2
5
0
.3
0.35
(b)
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
1
.4
1.3
1.1
0.7
0
.4
0
.1
5
0
.
1
0
.4
0
.7
1
1.3
1
.5
1
.
4
(c)
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.
1
0
.
1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.8
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.
1
0
.
2
0
.
3
0
.
4
0
.
5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0
.
5
0
.
4
0
.
3
0
.
2
0
.
1
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.
1
0
.
2
0
.3
0
.4
0
.
5
0
.
5
0
.4
0
.3
0
.
2
0
.
1
0
.
6
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.
0
8
0
.
0
6
0
.0
4
0
.0
3
0
.0
2
0
.0
1
5
0
.0
1
0
.0
0
5
0
.
0
0
1
0
.
0
0
1
0
.
0
0
5
0
.
0
1
0
.
0
1
5
0
.0
2
0
.0
3
0
.0
4
5
0
.
0
8
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0.22
0
.2
0
.1
5
0.12
0.08
0.04
0
.
0
2
0
.0
4
0
.0
8
0
.1
5
0.2
0
.
2
2
0
.
2
5
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0.7
0.6
0.45
0.35
0.2
0.04
0
.
0
4
0
.1
0
.2
0
.4
0
.6
0.7
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
5
and (a) Da = 10
5
, (b) Da = 10
4
and (c) Da = 10
3
.
near the right wall. Convection dominant heat transfer in the cavity
is clearly observed at Da = 10
3
as seen from the heatlines similar
to the streamlines. Larger gradients in jPj with 0 6 jPj 6 0.005 are
observed along the left wall whereas that varies within
0 6 jPj 6 0.0023 along the right wall signifying thinner thermal
boundary layer thickness along the left wall (Fig. 5(c)). Also, largely
intense heatlines are observed along large portion of the bottom
wall as primary heatline circulation cells span most of the cavity.
Thus isotherms are more compressed towards the bottom wall
and left wall resulting in a large temperature gradient. whereas a
large portion at the right half of the cavity is maintained at h 6 0.3.
3.3. Case 2: Non-uniform heating of bottom wall
Streamlines, isotherms and heatlines in case of non-uniform
heating of bottom wall with sinusoidal variation of temperature
have also been studied. In case of uniform heating of bottom wall,
a nite discontinuity in the Dirichlet boundary conditions for the
temperature distribution occurs at the edges of bottom wall. The
mathematical singularity at the edges of bottom wall is removed
by non-uniformheating and provides a smooth temperature distri-
bution in the entire cavity. Distribution of streamlines, isotherms
and heatlines are qualitatively similar to those of case 1 under
identical parameters and the maximum value of streamfunction
is found to be almost same for all Grashof numbers. Thus, illustra-
tive gures are not shown for the brevity of the manuscript and
similar to case 1, qualitative explanation may be drawn for identi-
cal parameters (Gr, Pr, Re) for varying Da (Da = 10
5
10
3
).
3.4. Case 3: Linearly heated side walls with uniformly heated bottom
wall
Weak streamline circulations are observed within the cavity for
low values of governing parameters (Re = 1, Pr = 0.7 and Gr = 10
3
),
irrespective of Da. Isotherms with h P0.5 are parallel to the bot-
tom wall and those with h 6 0.3 are compressed to the top corners
of the cavity. Also symmetric distribution in heatlines and iso-
therms is observed at low Re. Conduction dominant heat transfer
within the cavity is observed on smooth monotonic and parallel
distribution in heatlines irrespective of Da (gure not shown). Figs.
610 display the streamlines, isotherms and heatlines for various
Pr(Pr = 0.7 and 7.2), Gr and Re at various Darcy numbers in the
presence of linearly heated side walls and uniformly heated bot-
tom wall. A few cases are initially presented for Gr = 10
3
(Figs. 6
and 7).
Re = 10, Pr = 7.2 and Gr = 10
3
for various Da(= 10
5
10
3
). For lar-
ger Da, due to reduced ow resistance, convective ow and heat
transport is enhanced. The isotherms towards the left corner are
stretched while those to the right top corner are compressed and
the rest of the isotherms are smooth and span the entire cavity.
A single ow circulation cell with high ow intensity is observed
for high Da(= 10
3
). The isotherms with h 6 0.5 are distorted to-
wards the top wall. It may be noted that isotherms with h 6 0.2
are more compressed towards the top corner of the right wall
(Fig. 6(c)).
Conduction dominant heat transfer is observed in the lower
portion of the cavity at low Da and the wall driven effect is found
at the top right corner. It may be noted that the magnitude of
heatlines that end on the top portion of the left wall is less
(jPj = 00.002) compared to those of right wall (jPj = 00.003).
Thus isotherms with h 6 0.3 are much compressed to the right cor-
ner for Da 6 10
4
(Fig. 6(a) and (b)). Heatline circulation cells with
jPj
max
= 0.007 is observed to the top right portion of the cavity for
Da = 10
3
(Fig. 6(c)). Lower heat transfer rates are observed to the
top portion of the right wall as heatlines emanating from a small
portion of the bottom wall and lower portion of the right wall
end near to Y = 1 on the right wall. Even though dense heatlines
5
e
0
5
0
.
0
0
0
1
0
.0
0
1
0.002
0.003
(a)
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.
0
0
1
0
.
0
0
0
1
0
.0
0
1
0.005
0
.0
0
7
(b)
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0.03
0
.
0
2
5
0
.
0
2
0
.0
1
0.003
0
.
0
0
1
(c)
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.7
0.9
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0.1
0.3
0.5
0.7
0.9
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0.3
0
.
4
0
.
5
0.8
0
.
2
0
.
1
0
.
2
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
1
e
0
5
0
.0
0
0
1
0.0003
0.00085
9
e
0
5
0
.
0
0
0
1
5
0
.
0
0
0
4
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.
0
0
1
0
.
0
0
0
8
0
.
0
0
0
7
0
.
0
0
0
5
0.0026
0.0015
0
.
0
0
0
6
0
.
0
0
0
1
0
.
0
0
0
4
0
.
0
0
0
7
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.
0
0
3
0
.
0
0
3
5
0
.
0
0
5
0
.
0
0
7
0
.
0
0
4
0
.
0
0
2
0
.
0
0
0
1
0.0001
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
5
and (a) Da = 10
5
, (b) Da = 10
4
and (c) Da = 10
3
.
0.003
0.001
0
.0
0
0
1
(a)
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0.005
0
.0
0
1
0
.
0
0
0
1
(b)
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.0
1
0.02
0
.0
0
5
0
.
0
0
1
0
.
0
0
0
1
0
.
0
0
0
1
(c)
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.3
0
.
2
0
.
2
0
.
3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.8
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0.4
0.5
0.7
0.9
0
.
3
0
.3 0
.
2
0
.
2
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.7
0.9
0
.
2 0
.2
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.
0
0
4
0
.
0
0
3
0
.
0
0
2
0
.
0
0
1
0
.
0
0
0
3
0
.
0
0
0
5
0
.
0
0
1
0
.
0
0
2
0
.
0
0
3
0
.
0
0
4
0
.
0
0
5
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.
0
0
5
0
.
0
0
4
0
.
0
0
3
0
.
0
0
2
0
.
0
0
1
0
.
0
0
0
3
0
.
0
0
1
0
.
0
0
2
0
.
0
0
2
5
0
.
0
0
3
0
.
0
0
4
5
0
0
.
0
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.
0
0
8
0
.
0
0
7
0
.
0
0
6
0
.
0
0
5
0
.
0
0
3
0
.
0
0
1
0.007
0.005
0.004
0.003
0
.0
0
2
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
3
and (a) Da = 10
5
, (b) Da = 10
4
and (c) Da = 10
3
.
0
.0
0
0
1
0.001
0.003
(a)
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.
0
0
0
1
0
.0
0
1
0.005
(b)
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.0
0
1
0.005
0.01
0.02
(c)
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.5
0.7
0.9
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0.1
0
.2
0
.3
0.5
0.7
0.9
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.
2
0
.
3
0
.5
0.7
0.9
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.
0
0
0
2
5
0
.
0
0
0
1
5
5
e
0
5
5
e
0
5
0
.
0
0
0
1
5
0
.
0
0
0
1
5
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.
0
0
0
1
0
.0
0
0
5
0.0007
0
.
0
0
0
6
0
.
0
0
0
3
0
.0
0
0
1
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0.003
0.002
0.001
0
.
0
0
1
8
0
.
0
0
1
0
.0
0
0
5
0
.0
0
0
3
0
.0
0
1
5
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
3
and (a) Da = 10
5
, (b) Da = 10
4
and (c) Da = 10
3
.
0
.0
0
1
0.003
0.005
0
.
0
0
5
0
.
0
0
3
0
.
0
0
1
0
.
0
0
0
1
(a)
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0.06
0.05
0
.
0
6
0
.0
5
0
.
0
3
0
.
0
1
0
.
0
0
1
0
.0
0
1
0.01
0.03
(b)
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
1
.
2
1
0.7
0
.3
0
.
1
0
.
0
5
0
.3
0
.7
1.2
1
(c)
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.
2
0
.
3 0
.
3
0
.
2
0.4
0.5
0.7
0.9
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.
2
0
.
3
0
.
3
0
.
2
0.4
0.5
0.7
0.9
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.
2
0
.
3
0
.
4 0
.
4
0
.
3
0
.
2
0
.5
0.6
0.7
0.9
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.
6
0
.
5
0
.
4
0
.
3
0
.
2
0
.
1
0
.
0
1
0
.
0
2
5
0
.
1
0
.
2
0
.
3
0
.
4
0
.
5
0
.
6
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.
6
0
.
5
0
.
4
0
.
3
0
.
2
0
.
1
0
.
0
1
0
.
0
6
0
.
1
5
0
.
2
5
0
.
3
5
0
.
4
5
0
.
5
5
0
.
6
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0.9
0
.8
0
.
6
3
0
.
6
3
0.4
0.1
0.2
0.4
0
.9
0
.
8
0
.
7
0
.
1
0
.
2
0
.
3
0
.
2
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
5
and (a) Da = 10
5
, (b) Da = 10
4
and (c) Da = 10
3
.
0
.
0
0
0
1
0
.0
0
1
0
.0
0
2
0.003
(a)
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.0
1
0
.0
0
6
0
.
0
0
1
0
.
0
0
1
0
.
0
0
5
0.01
0
.
0
1
8
(b)
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.0
8
0
.
0
5
0
.
0
0
5
0
.
0
3
0
.
0
6
0
.1
0.03
0
.
0
0
5
0
.
0
6
0
.
0
2
(c)
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.
2
0
.
3
0.4
0.5
0.7
0.9
0
.
3
0
.
2
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.
2
0
.
4
0.5
0
.
4
0
.
3
0.6
0.8
0.9
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.
4
0
.
5
0
.
6
0
.
5 0
.
4
0
.
7
0.9
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.
0
0
4
0
.
0
0
3
0
.
0
0
2
0
.
0
0
1
0
.
0
0
0
4
0
.
0
0
2
0
.
0
0
3
0
.
0
0
4
0
.
0
0
5
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.
0
0
5
0.007
0
.0
0
8
0
.0
1
0
.0
0
6
0
.0
0
5
0
.
0
0
5
0
.
0
0
7
0
.
0
0
3
0
.
0
0
1
0.003
0
.0
0
0
4
0
.
0
0
2
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.
0
3
0
.
0
5
0.05
0
.0
3
0.03
0
.
0
1
5
0
.
0
2
0.013
0.005
0
.0
2
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
5
and (a) Da = 10
5
, (b) Da = 10
4
and (c) Da = 10
3
.
are found near Y = 1, smaller gradients in heatlines
(0.003 6 jPj 6 0.0032) are observed at Y = 0.8 0.95. Thus lower
heat transfer rates are observed and the larger thermal boundary
layer thickness is observed compared to smaller Da (Fig. 6(c)).
However, slightly larger gradients in heatfunction are observed
along the left wall and isotherms with h 6 0.3 are more pro-
nounced to the top left corner at Y = 0.8 1, compared to the right
wall.
Re = 100, Pr = 7.2 and Gr = 10
3
for various Da(= 10
5
10
3
). Iso-
therms appear to be distorted to the top portion of the cavity
whereas they become parallel near the hot bottom wall
(Fig. 7(a)). Similar trend in streamlines is observed for Da = 10
4
.
Single ow circulation cell with high ow intensity is observed
for high Da(= 10
3
). It may be noted that isotherms with h 6 0.2
are largely compressed towards the bottom wall and a large iso-
thermal zone is observed at the top portion of the cavity with
h 6 0.1 (Fig. 7(c)).
Smaller magnitudes in heatlines with jPj 6 0.0001 are observed
in a large region within the cavity signifying less heat transfer at
Da = 10
5
. Conduction dominant heat transfer based on parallel
heatlines is observed in the left portion of the cavity. It may be
noted that the magnitude of heatfunctions is very low signifying
less heat transfer rates, due to smaller heating effects and thus
the isotherms with h P0.2 are parallel to the bottom wall. En-
hanced heatline circulation cells span in a large central region of
the cavity for Da = 10
4
10
3
(Fig. 7(b) and (c)). Thus a larger
zone with h P0.2 is found to be compressed towards the bottom
wall. Dense heatlines with jPj = 00.002 emanate from the bottom
wall and end towards the left wall. Due to largely intense heatlines
towards the bottom portion of the cavity, isotherms with h P0.2
are compressed towards the bottom wall (Fig. 7(b) and (c)).
Fig. 8(a) illustrates the streamlines, isotherms and heatlines for
Re = 1, Pr = 0.7 and Gr = 10
5
for varying Da. The primary streamline
circulation is more stronger than the secondary cells at Da = 10
5
.
Signicant effect of the buoyancy results in the onset of a second-
ary circulation in the cavity. The temperature contours for h 6 0.3
occurs symmetrically near the corners of the top wall. The other
temperature contours are smooth curves which span the entire
cavity and are symmetric with respect to vertical symmetric line.
At Da = 10
4
(Fig. 8(b)), the lid driven ow and the strength of both
circulations in streamlines are increased. The temperature distri-
bution is found to be similar to that of lower Da. As Da tends to
10
3
(Fig. 8(c)), streamline circulation cells gradually become sym-
metric inside the cavity. The effect of natural convection becomes
dominant and the isotherms are observed to be distorted due to
strong uid motion, but they are symmetric with respect to the
vertical center line. The strength of the streamlines is much higher
than those for low Darcy numbers.
At low Da(Da = 10
5
and 10
4
), dominant conductive heat
transfer is observed based on heatlines which are parallel to each
other and are perpendicular to the hot bottom surface. Higher
magnitudes of heatlines are observed as jPj varies within 0.01
0.6 along the side walls, due to larger heating effects. Thus, smooth
symmetric distribution in the isotherms is observed within the
cavity. Convection dominant heat transfer is observed at
Da = 10
3
as seen from the heatline circulation cells with
jPj
max
= 0.9, occurring symmetrically within the cavity (Fig. 8(c)).
Largely intense heatlines that emanate from the bottom wall are
observed along the vertical center of the cavity. Thus temperature
along the central zone at Da = 10
3
is higher than that at Da 6 10
4
.
It is interesting to observe that heatlines with jPj = 0.010.6 are
observed along 0.8 6 Y 6 1 of the side walls for Da = 10
3
whereas
jPj varies within 0.010.3 in this region for lower Da. Thus
0
.
0
0
0
1
0
.0
0
1
0.002
0.003
(a)
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.
0
0
0
1
0
.
0
0
1
0
.0
0
3
5
0.006
0.007
(b)
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0.025
0
.0
1
0
.
0
0
5
0
.
0
0
5
0.01
0
.
0
0
1
(c)
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0.1
0
.2
0
.
3
0
.
5
0.8
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.
2
0
.3
0
.
5
0
.
6
0
.
7
0
.
8
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.
0
0
0
2
0
.
0
0
0
1
1
e
0
5
0
.
0
0
0
1
0
.0
0
0
2
0
.
0
0
0
1
6
5
e
0
5
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.
0
0
0
5
0.0001
0
.0
0
0
2
0
.0
0
0
5
0
.
0
0
0
7
0
.0
0
0
8
0
.
0
0
0
1
4
0
0
0
.
0
0
.
0
0
1 0.0005
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0.004
0.003
0.002
0
.0
0
0
5
0
.
0
0
0
5
0
.
0
0
2
0
.
0
0
5
0
.0
0
8
0
.
0
0
2
1
0
0
.
0
0
.
0
0
1
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
5
and (a) Da = 10
5
, (b) Da = 10
4
and (c) Da = 10
3
.
isotherms with h 6 0.4 are compressed towards the top corners of
the cavity at Da = 10
3
. Dense heatlines from the bottom wall are
observed along the vertical center of the cavity illustrating larger
heat transfer. Thus isotherms with h P0.5 are pulled towards
the top wall in this region.
The distribution in streamlines, isotherms and heatlines for
Re = 1, Pr = 7.2 and Gr = 10
5
for various Da is qualitatively similar
to that for Re = 10 with identical Pr. It is observed that for
Re = 1, symmetric distribution in heatlines and isotherms is ob-
served due to weak lid driven ow compared to buoyancy forces
whereas isotherms tend to compress towards the left wall for
Re = 10 for Pr = 7.2. However, multiple heatline circulation cells
are found to be qualitatively similar for both Re = 1 and 10 with
Pr = 7.2 and Gr = 10
5
at higher Da, and a representative case is ex-
plained next.
Re = 10, Pr = 7.2 and Gr = 10
5
for various Da(= 10
5
10
3
). But at
low Da(Da = 10
5
), natural convection is weak and lid velocity
dominates the circulation. Thus a single streamline circulation
spans the entire cavity even at high Gr. The isotherms are smooth
and span the entire cavity (Fig. 9(a)). The buoyancy effects are
more dominant and a secondary circulation that spans half of the
cavity is observed for Da = 10
4
(Fig. 9(b)). But the strength of pri-
mary circulation is higher than the secondary one. The isotherms
are distorted but symmetric for h P0.6. Multiple circulation cells
with two secondary cells are observed at higher Da (Da = 10
3
)
near the top wall (Fig. 9(c)). The isotherms are distorted and small
effect of the moving lid is still observed. It is found that isotherms
with h 6 0.5 are compressed towards the top portion of the side
walls and an isothermal region with h = 0.5 0.6 is observed at
the central top portion of the cavity. Detailed analysis of the heat-
lines follows next.
At low Da, heatlines resemble conductive heat transfer as
shown in Fig. 9(a). The magnitude of clockwise heatline cells is
much greater than those to the left portion of the cavity for
Da = 10
4
(Fig. 9(b)). It is interesting to observe that jPj varies
within 00.005 along 0.6 6 Y 6 1 of the left wall whereas that var-
ies within 0 6 jPj 6 0.007 in the same regime on the right wall sig-
nifying larger heat transport to the top portion of the right wall.
Thus isotherms with h 6 0.4 are compressed towards the top cor-
ner of the right wall and the thickness of the thermal boundary
is observed to be smaller in this region compared to left wall
(Fig. 9(b)). Heatlines follow similar trend as that of streamlines
with multiple circulation cells even at high Da . Multiple heatline
circulation cells similar to ow circulation cells are observed illus-
trating dominant convection at Da = 10
3
. Dense heatlines from
the bottom, along the heatlines circulation cells, are observed at
the central top portion of the cavity. Thus an isothermal zone with
h = 0.5 0.7 is observed at the core of the cavity (Fig. 9(c)). It may
be noted that jPj varies within 0 0.01 near the top potion of the
right wall whereas lesser gradients in jPj = 00.005 are found in
the same regime on the left wall. Thus isotherms with h 6 0.4 are
largely compressed to the top portion of the right wall, compared
to left wall. Also, due to multiple circulation heatline circulation
cells, there are different levels of compression of isotherms along
the bottom wall and thus oscillatory and non-monotonic variation
in the isotherms is observed.
Re = 100, Pr = 7.2 and Gr = 10
5
for various Da(= 10
5
10
3
). Iso-
therms appear to be distorted to the top portion of the cavity
whereas they become parallel near the hot bottom wall
(Fig. 10(a)). Similar patterns of isotherms were observed at
Gr = 10
3
(Fig. 7(a)). A secondary circulation cell is observed to the
bottom right portion of the cavity at Da = 10
4
(see Fig. 10(b)), sig-
nifying local dominance of buoyancy forces. The span of the sec-
ondary circulation is found to be increased and the primary
streamline circulations are conned to the left and top portions
of the cavity at Da = 10
3
. Highly distorted isotherms with an iso-
thermal zone to the top portion of the cavity, with isotherms being
compressed towards the bottom wall is observed at higher Da
(Fig. 10(c)).
It is found that the magnitude of heatlines is very less signifying
less heat transfer from the bottom wall at Da = 10
5
. It is also ob-
served that due to weak uid motion, some heatlines from the bot-
tom wall are observed to end directly to the bottom portion of the
right wall. Also, heatlines from the right wall end towards the rel-
atively cooler portion on the right wall (Fig. 10(a)). However, local
thermal mixing zone due to weak heatline circulation cells is ob-
served at the top right portion of the cavity, signifying an isother-
mal zone with h = 0.10.2. Also smaller magnitudes in heatlines,
signifying negligible heat transfer rates are observed to the bottom
left portion of the cavity. Thus smooth and parallel isotherms are
observed within the cavity. A secondary circulation cell in the heat-
lines is observed to the bottom right portion of the cavity at
Da = 10
4
. But the magnitude of the heatlines is less as also seen
at low Da. It is interesting to observe that larger thermal gradients
are observed near the left wall compared to the right wall. It may
be noted that heatlines that emanate from 0 6 X 6 0.7 of the bot-
tom wall end towards the left wall signifying larger heat transfer
towards the left wall. Heatline circulation cells with jPj
max
=
0.0008 is observed near the adiabatic wall. Thus a local thermal
mixing zone with h 6 0.2 is observed in this region (Fig. 10(b)).
Enhanced secondary circulations in heatline cells occur at high-
er Da(Da = 10
3
). It is found that due to the primary heatline circu-
lation cells, heatlines that end towards the left wall are compressed
and dense heatlines are observed near the left wall with
0 6 jPj 6 0.003 whereas that varies as 0 6 jPj 6 0.0005 along the
right wall (Fig. 10(c)). Thus the thermal boundary layer is more
compressed towards the left wall. Also, dense compressed heat-
lines are observed along the heatline cells near X = 0.20.3 of the
bottom wall, due to enhanced secondary circulation. Thus iso-
therms with h P0.5 are compressed to the bottom wall in this re-
gion and smaller thermal boundary layer is observed at X = 0.20.3.
3.5. Case 4: Linearly heated left wall with cooled right wall
As the left wall is linearly heated and bottom wall is uniformly
heated, hot uid fromthe bottomrises to the top along the left wall
and ows down along the cooled right wall. Thus strong primary
circulation cells are found resulting in unidirectional ow in the
cavity. However, larger heat ux exists near the bottom right cor-
ner of the cavity where hotcold junction exists similar to case 1.
Conduction dominant heat transfer is clearly illustrated by the
smooth and parallel heatlines in the cavity for low governing
parameters (Re = 1, Pr = 0.026, 0.7 and Gr = 10
3
), irrespective of Da
(gure not shown). Enhanced secondary circulations in streamlines
to the top left corner of the cavity are observed at Da = 10
3
. Dis-
torted isotherms with h 6 0.4 are observed, compressed towards
the right wall and top corner of the left wall. Qualitatively, similar
trend is observed with Re = 10 and Gr = 10
3
for Pr = 0.7.
Re = 1, Pr = 7.2 and Gr = 10
5
for various Da(= 10
5
10
3
). The sec-
ondary cell is found to be gradually intense with increase in Da to
10
3
. Dominant lid driven effect is observed irrespective of Da at
high Gr for Pr = 7.2 even at low Re. A single circulation in the
streamline cells is observed and the isotherms with h 6 0.2 are
compressed towards the right wall and top portion of the left wall
(Fig. 11(a)). Isotherms are found to be distorted and isotherms with
h 6 0.4 are compressed towards the right wall and top portion of
the left wall at Da = 10
4
(Fig. 11(b)). Larger magnitude in ow cir-
culations, due to enhanced convective effects with primary circula-
tion cells stretch diagonally to the cavity is observed for higher Da
(Fig. 11(c)). Isotherms with h 6 0.5 are much compressed towards
the right wall and a large portion at the core of the cavity is main-
tained isothermal with h = 0.5 0.7 (Fig. 11(c)).
Conduction dominant heat transfer is observed based on the
heatlines perpendicular to isothermal surfaces at Da = 10
5
. How-
ever, heatline circulation cells illustrating dominant convective
heat transfer are observed at Da = 10
4
(Fig. 11(b)). It may be noted
that variation in heatfunction is large (0 6 jPj 6 0.1) at the top
portion of the right wall compared to left wall where jPj varies
within 0 0.05 near the adiabatic wall. Thus isotherms with
h 6 0.4 are much compressed to right wall. Heatline circulation
cells similar to streamline cells are observed at higher Da
(Fig. 11(c)). Largely intense heatlines from the bottom wall are
found to occur along the circulation cells and an isothermal zone
with h = 0.50.7 is observed at the core of the cavity. Enhanced
convective effects are observed at Da = 10
3
. It may be noted that
jPj varies within 0 0.2 at Da = 10
4
whereas that varies within
jPj = 00.6 along 0.5 6 Y 6 1 of right wall for Da = 10
3
. Thus ther-
mal boundary layer is more compressed towards the right wall
with an increase in Da, and isotherms with h 6 0.5 are compressed
towards the right wall at higher Da (Fig. 11(c)).
The distribution in streamlines, isotherms and streamlines for
Re = 10, at higher Gr are qualitatively similar to those with Re = 1
(Fig. 11), irrespective of Da and a similar explanation may be given.
Also, the distribution in streamlines, isotherms and heatlines for
Re = 100, Gr = 10
5
and Pr = 7.2 for varying Da = 10
5
10
3
are
qualitatively similar to that of case 1 under identical parameters
as seen in Fig. 5 and hence the detailed discussions are omitted
for the brevity of the manuscript. However, it is observed that lar-
ger gradients in heatfunctions are observed compared to those of
case 1, irrespective of Gr, illustrating larger heat transfer rates.
Thus smaller thermal boundary layer thickness towards the left
and bottom walls is observed in case 4 compared to case 1 under
identical parameters.
3.6. Heat transfer rates: local Nusselt numbers
Distributions of local Nusselt numbers demonstrate conduction
dominant mode for low governing parameters (Re = 1, Gr = 10
3
,
Pr = 0.7) with Da 6 10
4
. It is observed that the distribution in local
heat transfer rates for Re = 10 is similar to that of Re = 1 due to sim-
ilar qualitative distribution in heatlines irrespective of Pr and Da.
Smaller distribution in local Nusselt numbers is observed along
the bottom and side walls for Pr = 0.7. We will discuss the test
cases for Re = 1 and 100 for Pr = 7.2 and Gr = 10
5
with Da ranging
within 10
5
10
3
, where natural convection is dominant at
Re = 1 and forced convection is dominant at Re = 100.
Fig. 12(a)-(c) and Fig. 13(a)-(c) demonstrate the effect of Da
(10
5
10
3
) on spatial distribution of the local Nusselt numbers
at the bottom, right and left walls (Nu
b
, Nu
r
and Nu
l
), for Gr = 10
5
,
Pr = 7.2 at Re = 1 (solid line) and 100 (dotted line).
3.6.1. Case 1: Uniform heating of bottom wall
The upper panel plots of Fig. 12(ac) illustrate the local Nusselt
number vs. distance along the bottomand side walls for case 1. It is
observed that the heat transfer rate (Nu
b
) is very high at the edges
and that is gradually reduced towards the center of the bottom
wall at Re = 1 irrespective of Da (upper panel of Fig. 12(a)). Sym-
metric distribution in Nu
b
is observed at Re = 1, irrespective of
Da, with a minima at the X = 0.5. This is due to the symmetric dis-
tribution in heatlines caused by the weak lid driven effect. It is also
interesting to observe that distribution of Nu
b
is almost at over a
large region near the center for Da = 10
5
corresponding to smaller
gradients and uniform distribution in jPj with 0 6 jPj 6 0.015
along 0.4 6 X 6 0.6 of the bottom wall (see Fig. 4(a)). It is also
0
.
0
3
0
.
0
2
0
.
0
1
0
.
0
0
5
0
.
0
0
2
(a)
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.
3
0
.
2
0
.1
5
0
.
1
0
.
0
1
0
.
0
3
0.01
0
.0
0
1
(b)
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0.7
0
.5
0.25
0
.
1
0
.
1
0
.5
1
.5
1.8
(c)
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0
.
2
0
.
1
0
.
2
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.
2
0
.
3
0
.
4
0
.
5
0
.
5
0.6
0
.7
0
.8
0.9
0
.
4
0
.
3
0
.
2
0
.
1
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.
3
0
.
4
0
.
5
0
.6
0
.
7
0
.
8
0
.5
0.4
0
.3
0
.
2
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
5
0
.
0
0
.
0
4
0
.
0
3
0
.
0
2
0
.
0
1
0
.
0
0
5
0
.
0
0
1
0
.
0
0
5
0
.0
1
0
.0
2
0
.0
3
0
.
0
4
0
.
0
5
0
.
0
8
0
.
1
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0
.
1
0
.
0
9
0
.
0
8
0
.
0
7
0
.
0
4
0
.
0
1
0
.
0
4
0
.
1
0
.
1
5
0
.2
0.25
0.28
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
0.3
0
.2
0
.
1
2
0
.
0
1
0
.
1
5
0
.
3
0
.5
0
.7
0
.
8
1
0 0.5 1
0
0.5
1
5
and (a) Da = 10
5
, (b) Da = 10
4
and (c) Da = 10
3
.
found that Nu
b
for Da = 10
4
is less compared to Da = 10
5
along
0.35 6 X 6 0.65 of the bottom wall due to less intense heatlines
corresponding to jPj = 00.05 in this region (see Fig. 4(b)). Larger
distribution in Nu
b
is observed for Da = 10
3
compared to lower
Da due to largely intense heatlines along the bottom wall corre-
sponding to 0 6 jPj 6 0.5. Smaller gradients in heatfunction with
distance are observed along X = 0.40.6, towards the center of the
bottom wall for Da = 10
3
. Thus Nu
b
starts to decrease faster at
X = 0.40.6 and reaches a minima towards the middle portion of
the bottom wall (see Fig. 12(a)). It may be noted that larger gradi-
ents in heatfunctions corresponding to 0.4 6 jPj 6 0.6 are observed
to the corner of the bottom wall for Da = 10
3
whereas 0.2 6 jPj
6 0.25 occur for Da = 10
4
and jPj = 0.080.1 for Da = 10
5
. Thus
larger values of Nu
b
are observed at corners of the bottom wall
for higher Da.
The distribution in Nu
b
for Da = 10
5
with Re = 100 (see
Fig. 12(a), upper panel, dotted line) is similar to the distribution
with Re = 1. This is due to the conduction dominant heat transfer
and less magnitudes in heatfunctions (jPj = 00.001) (Fig. 5(a)) sig-
nifying smaller heat transfer rates. However, non-symmetric dis-
tribution in Nu
b
is observed at higher Da(Da = 10
4
10
3
). It is
observed that Nu
b
reaches a minima at X = 0.3 with Nu
b
smaller
than that with Da = 10
5
. Lower gradients in jPj corresponding to
0.0023 6 jPj 6 0.0024 are observed for Da = 10
4
whereas larger
gradients in jPj(jPj = 0.00030.0006) were observed in this zone
for Da = 10
5
(Fig. 5(a) and (b)). Thus heat transfer rates in this
zone for Da = 10
4
are lower than those for Da = 10
5
. Similar to
Re = 1, Nu
b
attains a maxima at the corners of the bottom wall.
It is interesting to note that similar to Da = 10
4
, Nu
b
rst
reaches a minima at X = 0.1 and Nu
b
is less compared to lower Da
for Da = 10
3
, due to lesser gradients in heatlines corresponding
to 0.005 6 jPj 6 0.006 in this zone. Further Nu
b
increases and
reaches a maxima at X = 1 for Da = 10
3
. It is also observed that
the maxima in Nu
b
at X = 1 is larger compared to that at X = 0.1,
whereas larger values of Nu
b
4
at X = 0.1,
compared to X = 1. This is based on the fact that larger gradients
in heatfunctions corresponding to 0 6 jPj 6 0.0032 are observed
at X = 1 whereas that varies within jPj = 0.00550.006 at X = 0.1
for Da = 10
3
(see Fig. 5(c)).
The upper panel plot of Fig. 12(b) illustrates the local heat
transfer rates along the right wall (Nu
r
) for case 1. A maxima in
Nu
r
for smaller Da is observed at Y = 0, thereafter that decreases
0
3
6
9
12
15 Case 1
Bottom Wall (a)
Da=10
-3
Da=10
-4
Da=10
-5
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Distance, X
0
3
6
9
12

L
o
c
a
l

N
u
s
s
e
l
t

N
u
m
b
e
r
,

N
u
b
Case 2
Da=10
-3
Da=10
-4
Da=10
-5
0
3
6
9
Case 1
Da=10
-3
Da=10
-4
Da=10
-5
Right Wall (b)
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Distance, Y
0
3
6
9
N
u
r
Case 2
Da=10
-3
Da=10
-4
Da=10
-5
0
3
6
9
Case 1
Da=10
-3
Da=10
-4
Da=10
-5
Left Wall (c)
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Distance, Y
0
3
6
9
N
u
l
Case 2
Da=10
-3 Da=10
-4
Da=10
-5

L
o
c
a
l

N
u
s
s
e
l
t

N
u
m
b
e
r
,

L
o
c
a
l

N
u
s
s
e
l
t

N
u
m
b
e
r
,

Fig. 12. Variation of local Nusselt number with distance at (a) bottom wall (b) right wall (c) left wall for Pr = 7.2, Gr = 10
5
, Re = 1 () and 100 (). In each plot, upper panel
corresponds to case 1 and lower panel corresponds to case 2.
linearly to attain a minima at Y = 1. Larger values of Nu
r
due to lar-
ger gradients in heatfunctions (jPj = 0.050.1) are observed to the
bottom portion of the right wall for Da = 10
5
. On the other hand,
smaller gradients in heatfunctions (jPj = 00.04) are observed
along 0.3 6 Y 6 1 of the right wall (Fig. 5(a)) and thus Nu
r
decreases
along the length. Similar qualitative trend is observed for Da = 10
4
but lower Nu
r
compared to Da = 10
5
is observed. Further, Nu
r
slowly increases to a maxima at Y = 1. It may be noted that jPj var-
ies within 0.20.22 along Y = 0 0.2 whereas larger gradients in
jPj (jPj= 0.020.2) are observed along 0.2 6 Y 6 0.9 of the right
wall for Da = 10
4
. Thus Nu
r
rst reaches a minima at Y = 0.15
and thereafter increases monotonically along the length. It is inter-
esting to observe that Nu
r
increases linearly along the right wall
and that reaches maxima at Y = 1, for Da = 10
3
. This is based on
the fact that large gradients in heatfunctions are observed towards
the top portion of the right wall as largely intense heatlines corre-
sponding to 0 6 jPj 6 0.2 are observed towards the top portion of
the right wall (Fig. 5(c)).
r
for Re = 100 is qualitatively similar dis-
tribution to that of Re = 1 for Da = 10
5
and 10
4
. It may be noted
that smaller values in Nu
r
are observed due to less intense heat-
lines corresponding to jPj 6 0.001 along a large portion on the
right wall for lower Da (Fig. 5(a), (b)). However, larger gradients
in heatfunctions (jPj = 00.0035) are observed along the right wall
for Da = 10
3
. Thus larger distribution in Nu
r
is observed compared
to lower Da. Also, it may be noted that dense heatlines (jPj = 0
0.002) are observed to the top portion of the right wall signifying
larger Nu
r
in this zone for Da = 10
3
. Thus Nu
r
reaches a sudden
maxima at Y = 1.
The upper panel plot of Fig. 12(c) illustrates the local heat trans-
fer rates along the left wall (Nu
l
). Due to the symmetry in heatline
distribution irrespective of Da, the variation in Nu
l
is similar to that
of Nu
r
for Re = 1 and may be explained in a similar manner.
It may be noted that larger values of Nu
l
are observed compared
to Nu
r
irrespective of Da, due to larger gradients in heatfunctions
for Re = 100. It is observed that jPj varies within 00.003 along
the left wall whereas that varies within 00.0008 along the right
wall for Da = 10
5
(Fig. 5(a)). On the other hand, smaller magni-
tudes in heatfunctions corresponding to jPj 6 0.0001 are observed
to the top portion of the left wall signifying lower Nu
l
in this zone.
Similar qualitative trend is observed with Da = 10
4
. It is interest-
ing to observe that Nu
l
rst reaches a maxima at Y = 0.2 and there-
0
3
6
9
Case 3
Bottom Wall (a)
Da=10
-3
Da=10
-4
Da=10
-5
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Distance, X
0
3
6
9
12
15

L
o
c
a
l

N
u
s
s
e
l
t

N
u
m
b
e
r
,

N
u
b
Case 4
Da=10
-3
Da=10
-4
Da=10
-5
-2
0
2
4
6
Case 3
Da=10
-3
Da=10
-4
Da=10
-5
Right Wall (b)
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Distance, Y
0
3
6
9
N
u
r
Case 4
Da=10
-3
Da=10
-4
Da=10
-5
-2
0
2
4
6
Case 3
Da=10
-3
Da=10
-4
Da=10
-5
Left Wall (c)
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Distance, Y
0
3
6
9
N
u
l
Case 4
Da=10
-3
Da=10
-4
Da=10
-5

L
o
c
a
l

N
u
s
s
e
l
t

N
u
m
b
e
r
,

L
o
c
a
l

N
u
s
s
e
l
t

N
u
m
b
e
r
,

Fig. 13. Variation of local Nusselt number with distance at (a) bottomwall (b) right wall (c) left wall for Pr = 7.2, Gr = 10
5
, Re = 1 () and 100 ( ). In each plot, upper panel
corresponds to case 3 and lower panel corresponds to case 4.
after, that reaches a minima at Y = 0.5 and then monotonically in-
creases to reach a maxima at Y = 1 for Da = 10
3
. Larger gradients
in heatfunctions with jPj = 0.0050.006 are observed at Y = 0.15
0.2 whereas smaller gradients corresponding to 0.003 6 jPj 6
0.005 are observed over a large zone near the central portion of
the left wall. Thus Nu
l
rst reaches a maxima that further decreases
to a minima at Y = 0.5 (Fig. 5(c)). Dense heatlines from the center of
bottom wall with jPj = 00.001 are observed at Y = 1, illustrating a
maxima in Nu
r
(upper panel of Fig. 12(c)).
3.6.2. Case 2: Non-uniform heating of bottom wall
The lower panel plots of Fig. 12(a)(c) represent the distribution
of local heat transfer rates along the bottom and side walls for case
2. It is observed that Nu
b
for non-uniform heating is less than that
for uniform heating case at the edges irrespective of all Da as there
is no discontinuity in temperature due to sinusoidal type of heat-
ing. Thus Nu
b
is zero near the junction of hot and cold walls.
Symmetric distribution in Nu
b
is observed for Re = 1 due to sym-
metric distribution in sinusoidal heating of the bottom wall and
also due to symmetric distribution in heatlines irrespective of Da.
It is observed that Nu
b
increases towards the middle portion of
the bottom wall and a maxima is observed at X = 0.5 for Da =
10
5
and Re = 1. This is based on the fact that larger gradients in
heatfunctions corresponding to largely intense heatlines (jPj =
00.01) is observed at the center of bottom wall (gure not
shown). Also, sinusoidal heating provides maximum temperature
at X = 0.5 and the temperature decreases towards the end. The var-
iation of Nu
b
within 0.3 6 X 6 0.7 is qualitatively similar to that of
case 1 for Da = 10
4
. Heatlines corresponding to 0.1 6 jPj 6 0.4 are
observed along X = 0.20.3 and 0.70.8, signifying larger Nu
b
in
that zone. Thus a maxima in Nu
b
is observed in this zone. Qualita-
tively similar variation in Nu
b
3
. Sinusoidal
variation in heat transfer rates (Nu
b
) are also observed with a max-
ima at X = 0.30.4 and 0.60.7 and local minima at X = 0, 0.5 and 1.
Largely intense heatlines corresponding to jPj = 0.10.4 are ob-
served signifying a maxima in these zones and less intense heat-
lines with jPj = 00.05 (gure not shown) at the center
illustrating a minima in Nu
b
. Although lower values of Nu
b
are ob-
served at the edges compared to case 1, but larger values of Nu
b
compared to case 1 are observed towards the center of the bottom
wall as larger heating effects are observed at X = 0.5. This is also ex-
plained by the larger heatfunction gradients in case 2.
The distributions in Nu
b
for Da = 10
5
and Re = 100 are similar to
that of Da = 10
5
and Re = 1, due to conduction dominant heat
transfer and very low magnitudes in heatfunctions. Non-symmet-
ric sinusoidal variation of Nu
b
for Da= 10
4
and 10
3
is observed
at higher Re. A local minima of Nu
b
at X = 0.4 and a maximum
Nu
b
at X = 0.60.7 (Nu
b
= 5.8) is observed for Da = 10
4
. Heatlines
corresponding to jPj = 0.00150.0016 are observed along X = 0.4
signifying lesser heat transfer rates in this regime. Largely intense
heatlines corresponding to jPj = 00.0008 are observed within
X = 0.60.7 (gure not shown) illustrating larger Nu
b
in this regime.
High values of Nu
b
are also observed for Da = 10
3
compared to
those for lower Da at Re = 100. Sinusoidal variation is clearly ob-
served from the heat transfer rates with a maxima at X = 0.60.7
and a local minima at X = 0.250.3 at Da = 10
3
. Less intense heat-
lines corresponding to jPj = 0.00220.0024 are observed along
0 6 X 6 0.3 of the bottom wall whereas dense heatlines with jPj
varying within 00.0015 at X = 0.60.65 illustrate higher heat
transfer rates in this zone (gure not shown).
The lower panel of Fig. 12(b) illustrates the local heat transfer
rates for cold right wall for various governing parameters. The spa-
tial distribution of Nu
r
is almost similar to that of case 1 except that
a minima is observed to the bottom corner of right wall, due to
non-uniform heating. An overall decreasing trend in Nu
r
is ob-
served for Da = 10
5
similar to case 1. At higher Da(10
3
), Nu
r
is
found to increase linearly towards the top end, due to dense heat-
lines corresponding to 0 6 jPj 6 0.4 in that zone. The distribution
is qualitatively similar to that of case 1 along a large zone on the
right wall and a similar explanation based on heatlines follows.
Lower distributions of Nu
r
are observed for Re = 100 compared
to Re = 1, similar to case 1. Lower magnitudes of heatlines with
jPj 6 0.0001 occur at the top portion of right wall even at higher
Da for Pr = 7.2 and Gr = 10
5
. Overall, the distribution in Nu
r
is qual-
itatively similar to that of case 1 and a similar explanation follows.
It is observed that jPj varies within 0 6 jPj 6 0.003 along
0.6 6 Y 6 1 of the right wall for case 1 whereas that varies within
0 6 jPj 6 0.002 in the same region on the right wall for case 2 at
higher Da. Thus larger values of Nu
r
is observed with case 1 com-
pared to case 2.
The lower panels of Fig. 12(c) illustrate the local heat transfer
rates for cold left wall for various governing parameters. Due to
the symmetry in heatline distribution irrespective of Da, the vari-
ation in Nu
l
is similar to that of Nu
r
for Re = 1 and the trend may
be explained in a similar manner. Also, the variation in Nu
l
for
Re = 100 (lower panel) is qualitatively similar to that of case 1. Sim-
ilar to Nu
r
, lower Nu
l
values are observed compared to case 1 and
that may be explained based on similar arguments for case 1. It
may be noted that larger gradients in jPj are observed along the
left wall with jPj = 00.004 whereas smaller gradients in heatfunc-
tions corresponding to 0 6 jPj 6 0.0023 are observed along
0.2 6 Y 6 1 on the right wall at higher Da (Da = 10
3
). Thus larger
values of Nu
l
is observed compared to those of Nu
r
.
3.6.3. Case 3: Linearly heated side walls with uniformly heated bottom
wall
The solid line in upper panel plots of Fig. 13(ac) illustrate the
local Nusselt number vs. distance along the bottom and side walls
for case 3. Due to linearly heated side walls, the heat transfer rate,
Nu
b
, is 1 at the edges of the bottom wall. It may also be noted that
due to symmetry in the temperature eld and conduction domi-
nant heat transport, the heat transfer rate is symmetric along the
bottom wall and is almost constant at Da = 10
5
and Re = 1 (gure
not shown). Also, parallel and uniformly distributed heatlines with
jPj = 00.04 are observed along the bottom wall. Lower values in
Nu
b
are also observed for Da = 10
4
due to uniform distribution
of heatlines corresponding to 0 6 jPj 6 0.05 along the bottom wall.
On the other hand, it is observed that Nu
b
has a maxima at X = 0.25
and 0.65 and a minima is observed at X = 0.5, similar to case 2 for
Da = 10
3
. This trend is observed due to multiple heatline circula-
tion cells within the cavity. Smaller gradients in jPj corresponding
to 0 6 jPj 6 0.01 are observed at X = 0.5, illustrating a minima in
this zone. Also, largely intense heatlines corresponding to
0.05 6 jPj 6 0.1 are observed at X = 0.25 and 0.65 signifying larger
Nu
b
in this zone.
It may be noted that constant and low values in Nu
b
are ob-
served for Da = 10
5
due to less magnitudes in heatlines corre-
sponding to jPj = 00.0008 along the bottom wall (see Fig. 10(a))
even at high Re(Re = 100). It is interesting to observe that variation
in Nu
b
is symmetric to the bottom wall for Da = 10
4
. This is based
on the fact that uniform distribution in heatfunctions correspond-
ing to jPj = 00.001 is observed along the bottom wall. Note that,
smaller gradients in jPj corresponding to 0.0012 6 jPj 6 0.0013
are observed along X = 00.15 (Fig. 10(b)). Thus smaller Nu
b
is ob-
served in this regime. Similar trend is observed near the right cor-
ner of the bottom wall. However, it is interesting that non-
symmetric distribution in Nu
b
3
. Note that
Nu
b
rst reaches a maxima at X = 0.2 and further, that decreases
linearly to a minima at X = 1. Largely intense heatlines correspond-
ing to jPj = 0.00120.0023 are observed at X = 0.150.25 illustrat-
ing a maxima in Nu
b
in this zone (Fig. 10(c)). In contrast, lower
magnitudes in heatlines with jPj 6 0.001 are observed towards the
right corner of the bottom wall, signifying lower Nu
b
.
The solid line in upper panel of Fig. 13(b) illustrates the heat
transfer rates along the right wall for Re = 1. The heat transfer rate
at the bottom edge is zero due to linearly heated side wall. It is
interesting to observe that Nu
r
has a maxima at the top edge due
to larger gradients in heatfunctions, irrespective of Da. Uniform
and low values in Nu
r
are observed for Da = 10
5
, due to conduc-
tion dominant heat transfer illustrated by the uniform variation
in heatfunctions on the right wall (gure not shown). It may be
noted that Nu
r
is negative up to Y 6 0.6 and thereafter that in-
creases to a maxima at Y = 1 for Da = 10
4
. Negative values of Nu
r
are observed due to change in the sign of the gradient of heatfunc-
tion as described by the denition of heatfunction along the right
wall (Eq. (16)). This is also based on the fact that heatlines corre-
sponding to jPj = 0.050.07 start from 0 6 Y 6 0.6 of the right wall
and these end towards the top portion of the right wall signifying
larger Nu
r
at Y = 1. It is interesting to observe that the heat transfer
rate (Nu
r
) shows an oscillatory trend with a maxima and minima
attaining alternatively for Da = 10
3
and Re = 1. Also, Nu
r
is found
to be positive up to Y = 0.4, thereafter, that becomes negative up
to Y = 0.7 and nally that increases monotonically with distance.
This is based on the fact that largely dense heatlines are observed
along the multiple heatline circulation cells near Y = 0.2. Thus a
maxima is observed. It is also observed that dense heatlines corre-
sponding to jPj = 00.1, that emanate from 0.4 6 Y 6 0.7 of the
right wall end towards 0.7 6 Y 6 1 of the right wall. Thus large neg-
ative Nu
r
is observed at Y = 0.6.
Negative heat transfer rates are observed along the right wall
except at the top corner, due to less intense heatlines with
jPj 6 0.0002 and negative gradients of jPj signifying less heat
transfer, occurring along a large zone on the right wall for
Da = 10
5
at Re = 100 (see Fig. 10(a)). Similar qualitative trend is
observed with Da = 10
4
. However, positive Nu
r
is observed along
0 6 Y 6 0.5 of the right wall for Da = 10
3
. It is observed that Nu
r
continuously decreases with distance to reach a minima at
Y = 0.70.8, thereafter that increases to a maxima at Y = 1. Lower
gradients in heatfunctions corresponding to jPj = 0.00010.0005
are observed along 0.7 6 Y 6 0.8 on the right wall signifying low
Nu
r
in this zone. Higher heat transfer rates corresponding to largely
intense heatlines (jPj = 0.00060.001) are observed along the low-
er half zone of the right wall (see Fig. 10(c)). Thus a primary max-
ima in Nu
r
is observed at Y = 0.2. Dense heatlines (jPj = 00.0005)
from central portion of the bottom wall travel a longer distance
around the heatline circulation cells and end at Y = 1 on the right
wall illustrating larger Nu
r
in this zone.
The upper panel of Fig. 13(c) illustrates the heat transfer rates
along the left wall for case 3. Due to the symmetry in heatline dis-
tribution irrespective of Da, the variation in Nu
l
is similar to that of
Nu
r
for Re = 1 with case 3 and that may be explained similarly.
It is observed that Nu
l
is almost zero along the left wall for
Da = 10
5
, due to quite less gradients in heatfunctions correspond-
ing to jPj = 00.0005 for Re = 100 (see Fig. 10(a)). It is observed that
Nu
l
slowly increases with distance and larger gradients in heat-
functions (jPj = 00.002) are observed along the right wall for
Da = 10
4
, compared to lower Da at Re = 100. It is interesting to ob-
serve the variation in Nu
l
for Da = 10
3
at Re = 100. Note that, Nu
l
is
minimum at Y = 0, thereafter that gradually increases to a maxima
at Y = 1 for Da = 10
3
. Negative values of Nu
l
are observed for
Y 6 0.2 due to the fact that heatlines that emanate from this region
end towards the top portion on the left wall. Larger negative values
of Nu
l
are observed at Y = 0.1 due to larger negative gradients
in heatfunctions corresponding to 0.002 6 jPj 6 0.005 (see
Fig. 10(c)) in this zone. Largely intense and compressed heatlines
are observed towards the top portion of the left wall, signifying lar-
ger Nu
l
at Y = 1 for Re = 100 and Da = 10
3
(see Fig. 10(c)).
3.6.4. Case 4: Linearly heated left wall with cooled right wall
The lower panel plots of Fig. 13(ac) illustrate the local Nusselt
number vs. distance along the bottom and side walls, for case 4.
Fig. 13(a) illustrates that the heat transfer rate (Nu
b
) is one at the
left edge of the bottom wall due to linearly heated left wall
whereas that has a maxima at the right edge due to cooled right
wall attached with the hot bottom wall for Re = 1 and 100. Lower
gradients in heatfunctions corresponding to 0 6 jPj 6 0.05 are ob-
served towards the left corner of the bottomwall whereas that var-
ies within 0 0.3 towards the right corner of the bottom wall for
Re = 1. Thus increasing trend in heat transfer rates is observed to-
wards the right edge of the bottom wall and Nu
b
attains a maxima
at X = 1 for Re = 1 and Da = 10
5
(gure not shown). Similar quali-
tative trend is observed with Da = 10
4
and 10
3
. However, larger
Nu
b
is observed at Da = 10
3
due to largely intense heatlines corre-
sponding to 0 6 jPj 6 0.7 along the bottom wall whereas lower
magnitudes in heatfunctions are observed corresponding to
0 6 jPj 6 0.3 for Da = 10
5
and 10
4
.
Qualitatively similar distribution to that of Re = 1 is observed for
Re = 100 with all Da. It may be noted that smaller magnitudes in
heatfunction are observed for higher Re, as described in Eq. (16),
under identical Pr. Thus smaller magnitudes in heatfunctions
(jPj = 00.0005) at larger Re imply larger heat transfer rates and
thus larger Nu
b
is observed at Da = 10
3
for Re = 100 compared to
Re = 1.
Fig. 13(b) (lower panel) illustrates the heat transfer rates along
the right wall. It is observed that the variation in Nu
r
is qualita-
tively similar to that of case 1. Thus, the detailed discussions on
distributions of Nu
r
based on heatlines are omitted for the brevity
of the manuscript.
Fig. 13(c) (lower panel) illustrates the heat transfer rates along
the left wall for case 4. It is observed that the distribution of Nu
l
along the distance is qualitatively similar to that of case 3 for
Re = 1. The dotted lines in the lower panel of Fig. 13(c) illustrate
variation of Nu
l
with distance for Re = 100. Similar qualitative dis-
tribution is observed for cases 3 and 4 irrespective of Da. However,
larger gradients in heatfunctions are observed in case 4 (jPj = 0
0.004) (gure not shown) compared to case 3 (jPj = 00.002) for
Da = 10
3
(see Fig. 10(c)). Also a maxima in Nu
l
is observed at
Y = 1 corresponding to dense heatlines in this zone. Overall larger
values of Nu
l
are observed over a large region on the left wall for
case 4.
3.7. Overall heat transfer and average Nusselt numbers
The overall effects onheat transfer rates are showninFig. 14(ad)
andFig. 15(ad) wherethedistributions of the averageNusselt num-
ber at bottomand side walls versus logarithmic Grashof number are
shown for cases 14. The average Nusselt numbers are obtained
using Eq. (14) where the integral is evaluated using Simpsons 1/3
rule. In each plot, solid line represents the distribution for Re = 1
and the dotted line represents the heat transfer rates for Re = 100.
The average Nusselt numbers distributions vs Grashof number for
various Da(10
5
10
3
) is shown for two limits of Pr (0.7 and 7.2).
3.7.1. Case 1: Uniform heating of bottom wall
The overall effects upon the heat transfer rates for Pr = 0.7,
along the bottom and left wall, for uniform bottom wall heating
case (case 1) are displayed in upper panel of Fig. 14(a) and (b),
respectively. The inset plot of Fig. 14(b) illustrates the average Nus-
selt number distributions for right wall for Pr = 0.7. It is observed
that average Nusselt numbers (Nu
b
, Nu
l
and Nu
r
) are invariant with
Gr irrespective of Re at low Pr signifying the conduction dominant
heat transfer for Da 6 10
4
(Fig. 14(a,b)). Fig. 14(a) shows that the
constant and low values of Nu
b
occur as the heatlines are observed
to be perpendicular to the bottom and side walls (gure not
shown). It may be noted that, Nu
b
is constant up to Gr = 10
4
for
Da = 10
3
and thereafter, that increases exponentially to reach a
maxima at Gr = 10
5
. It is observed that jPj varies within 0 6 jPj 6 2
along the bottom wall for Gr = 10
5
and Re = 1. Similar qualitative
trend is observed for Re = 100.
The trend on variation of Nu
l
b
for
Da 6 10
4
due to conduction dominant mode irrespective of Re
for Pr = 0.7 and Re = 1 (upper panel of Fig. 14(b)). Note that Nu
l
is
found to be constant up to Gr = 2 10
4
and thereafter that gradu-
ally increases during the convection dominant mode for Pr = 0.7
and Re = 1. Lower values in Nu
l
are observed due to smooth and
parallel heatlines at Gr = 10
3
, in the conduction dominant regime,
compared to those with larger Gr where dense heatlines are ob-
served. Qualitatively similar distribution is observed for Re = 100.
But it is interesting to observe that lesser Nu
l
over the entire range
of Gr for Re = 100 compared to those for Re = 1 at Da 6 10
4
. This is
based on the fact that smaller gradients in heatfunctions occur for
Re = 100, even at higher Gr(Gr = 10
5
) for Da = 10
3
as jPj varies
within 00.01 whereas that varies within jPj = 03 for Re = 1 in
presence of other identical parameters, along the left wall. How-
ever, larger values of Nu
l
are observed for Re = 100 compared to
Re = 1 at Da = 10
3
. Also convection dominant heat transfer is ob-
served for Gr P2 10
4
. It is observed that jPj varies within
0 2 for Re = 1 whereas that varies within 0 6 jPj 6 0.05 along
the left wall for Re = 100 (Gr = 10
5
). It may be noted from Eq. (22)
that the non-homogeneous Dirichlet boundary condition is given
as P0; 0
1
Re Pr
Nu
l
and thus an increase in Re leads to a decrease
in heatfunctions as Nu
l
is not increased much with Re. Thus lesser
gradients in heatfunctions are observed for Re = 100 implying lar-
ger Nu
l
compared to Re = 1, under other identical parameters.
The inset plot of Fig. 14(b) illustrates overall heat transfer rates
along the right wall. At low Re, symmetry in heatline distribution is
observed within the cavity irrespective of Gr and Da for Pr = 0.7.
Thus the distribution in Nu
r
is similar to Nu
l
. Also the trend on var-
5.5
6
6.5
7
Case 1
Da=10
-3
Da=10
-4
, 10
-5
Bottom Wall (a)
10
3
10
4
10
5
Grashof Number, Gr
2
2.5
3

A
v
e
r
a
g
e

N
u
s
s
e
l
t

N
u
m
b
e
r

Case 2
Da=10
-3
Da=10
-4
Da=10
-5
2.5
3
3.5
4
Case 1
Da=10
-3
Da=10
-4
Da=10
-5
Left Wall (b)
2.5
3
3.5
Right Wall
Da=10
-3
Da=10
-4
Da=10
-5
10
3
10
4
10
5
Grashof Number, Gr
1
1.5
2

A
v
e
r
a
g
e

N
u
s
s
e
l
t

N
u
m
b
e
r
Case 2
Da=10
-3
Da=10
-4
Da=10
-5
0.8
1.2
1.6
Right Wall
Da=10
-3
Da=10
-4
, 10
-5
6
9
12 Case 1
Da=10
-3
Da=10
-4
Da=10
-5
Bottom Wall (c)
10
3
10
4
10
5
Grashof Number, Gr
0
2
4
6
8

A
v
e
r
a
g
e

N
u
s
s
e
l
t

N
u
m
b
e
r
Case 2
Da=10
-3
Da=10
-4
Da=10
-5
2
4
6
8
10
Case 1
Da=10
-3
Da=10
-4 Da=10
-5
Left Wall (d)
2
4
6
Right Wall
Da=10
-3
Da=10
-4
Da=10
-5
10
3
10
4
10
5
Grashof Number, Gr
0
2
4
6

A
v
e
r
a
g
e

N
u
s
s
e
l
t

N
u
m
b
e
r
Case 2
Da=10
-3
Da=10
-4
Da=10
-5
0
2
4
Right Wall
Da=10
-3
Da=10
-4
Da=10
-5
Fig. 14. Variation of average Nusselt number with Grashof number (Gr) with Pr = 0.7 [a and b] and Pr = 7.2 [c and d], Gr = 10
5
, Da = 10
5
, 10
4
, 10
3
, Re = 1 (-) and 100
( ). In each plot, upper panel corresponds to case 1 and lower panel corresponds to case 2.
iation in Nu
r
for Re = 100 is qualitatively similar to that of Re = 1.
However, it is interesting to observe that lower distributions in
Nu
r
are observed for Re = 100 compared to Re = 1. This is due to lar-
ger distribution in Nu
r
for Re = 1 compared to Re = 100. This is also
explained by the larger gradients in heatfunctions (jPj = 00.5)
along the right wall for Re = 1 whereas that varies within jPj = 0
0.003 for Re = 100 at Da = 10
3
and Gr = 10
5
.
The upper panel plots of Fig. 14(c) and (d) illustrate the overall
heat transfer rates along the bottom and left walls for Pr = 7.2. The
inset plot of Fig. 14(d) displays the overall heat transfer rate for the
right wall. The trend on variation of Nu
b
is similar to that of Pr = 0.7
for Da 6 10
4
over a large range of Gr due to conduction dominant
mode for Re = 1. However, an exponential increase in Nu
b
are ob-
served for Gr P2 10
4
. Note that, larger gradients in heatfunc-
tions corresponding to 0 6 jPj 6 0.22 are observed along the
bottom wall for Da = 10
4
whereas that varies within 00.1 for
lower Da (see Fig. 4(a) and (b)). It is interesting to observe that lar-
ger values in Nu
b
are found for Gr P3 10
3
for Da = 10
3
. Larger
Nu
b
corresponding to intense heatlines along the bottom wall
(jPj = 00.5) are observed at higher Gr (see Fig. 4(c)). Larger values
of Nu
b
are also due to larger local heat transfer rates along the bot-
tom wall (Nu
b
) for Da = 10
3
as seen in Fig. 12(a), upper panel.
Similar qualitative distribution is observed for Re = 100. How-
ever, it is interesting to observe the trend with Da = 10
3
. Larger
heat transfer rates along the bottom wall are observed for
Gr 6 1.5 10
4
whereas lower heat transfer rates compared to that
of Re = 1 are observed for Gr P1.5 10
4
. This is due to the fact that
smaller values of Nu
b
are observed over a large region on the bot-
tomwall for Re = 100 compared to Re = 1 at higher Gr(Gr = 10
5
) (see
Fig. 12(a), upper panel). It may be noted from Eq. (16) that
jrPj
1
Re Pr
rh
. It is observed that at Gr = 10
3
and Da = 10
3
, heat-
function varies within 00.1 for Re = 1 (DP
Re=1
) whereas that varies
within 00.002 for Re = 100 (DP
Re=100
). Therefore, it may be noted
that
DP
Re1
100
< DP
Re100
. This explains why larger values of Nu
b
are
0.8
0.9
1
1.1
Case 3
Bottom Wall (a)
Da=10
-3
Da=10
-4
Da=10
-5
10
3
10
4
10
5
Grashof Number, Gr
3
3.5
4

A
v
e
r
a
g
e

N
u
s
s
e
l
t

N
u
m
b
e
r

Case 4
Da=10
-3
Da=10
-4
Da=10
-5
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
Case 3
Left Wall (b)
Da=10
-3
Da=10
-4
Da=10
-5
0
0.4
0.8
Right Wall
Da=10
-3
Da=10
-4
Da=10
-5
10
3
10
4
10
5
Grashof Number, Gr
0
0.6
1.2
1.8

A
v
e
r
a
g
e

N
u
s
s
e
l
t

N
u
m
b
e
r
Case 4
Da=10
-3
Da=10
-4
Da=10
-5
2.8
3
3.2
3.4
Right Wall
Da=10
-3
Da=10
-4
Da=10
-5
0
1
2
3
4
5
Case 3
Bottom Wall (c)
Da=10
-3
Da=10
-4
Da=10
-5
10
3
10
4
10
5
Grashof Number, Gr
2
4
6
8

A
v
e
r
a
g
e

N
u
s
s
e
l
t

N
u
m
b
e
r
Case 4
Da=10
-3
Da=10
-4
Da=10
-5
0
1
2
3
4
5
Case 3
Left Wall (d)
Da=10
-3
Da=10
-4
Da=10
-5
-2
-1
0
1
2
Right Wall
Da=10
-3
Da=10
-4
Da=10
-5
10
3
10
4
10
5
Grashof Number, Gr
0
2
4
6

A
v
e
r
a
g
e

N
u
s
s
e
l
t

N
u
m
b
e
r
Case 4
Da=10
-3
Da=10
-4
Da=10
-5
2
4
6
Right Wall
Da=10
-3
Da=10
-4
Da=10
-5
Fig. 15. Variation of average Nusselt number with Grashof number (Gr) with Pr = 0.7 [a and b] and Pr = 7.2 [c and d], Gr = 10
5
, Da = 10
5
, 10
4
, 10
3
, Re = 1 () and 100 ( ).
In each plot, upper panel corresponds to case 3 and lower panel corresponds to case 4.
observed for Re = 100 compared to Re = 1 at low Gr. However at
Gr = 10
5
, jPj varies within 00.55 for Re = 1 (DP
Re=1
) whereas that
varies within 00.0035 for Re = 100 (DP
Re=100
) along the right wall.
Lower values of Nu
b
are observed at Re = 100 compared to that of
Re = 1 as
DP
Re1
100
> DP
Re100
. Exponential variation in Nu
b
is observed
(upper panel of Fig. 14(c)) similar to lower Re at higher Gr and this
may be explained based on earlier discussions.
The trend on variation of Nu
l
b
for lower
Da due to conduction dominant mode, irrespective of Re for Pr = 7.2
(see upper panel of Fig. 14d). Note that, Nu
l
is found to be constant
up to Gr = 4 10
4
and thereafter that gradually increases during
the convection dominant mode for Da = 10
4
and Re = 1. Lower val-
ues in Nu
l
are observed due to less intense heatlines at Gr = 10
3
compared to larger Gr which also correspond to dense heatlines
(jPj = 02). Lower values of Nu
l
for Da 6 10
4
can be further ex-
plained based on lower distribution in Nu
l
. It is interesting to ob-
serve that larger values in Nu
l
occur over the range of Gr for
Da = 10
3
and Re = 1. Larger gradients in heatfunctions correspond-
ing to intense heatlines along the left wall (jPj = 00.48) are ob-
served at higher Gr for Da = 10
3
(see Fig. 5(c)) whereas that
varies within jPj = 0 0.22 for Da = 10
4
. This may also be ex-
plained based on larger local heat transfer rates along the left wall
(Nu
l
) for higher Da (gure not shown).
l
for Re = 100 is qualitatively similar to
that of Re = 1. However, it is interesting to observe that heat trans-
fer rates are lower for Re = 100 than that for Re = 1 at Da = 10
5
whereas larger heat transfer rates are observed for Re = 100 and
Da = 10
3
. The similar qualitative trends are observed at higher
Da for Pr = 0.7 (see upper panel of Fig. 14(b)). The variations in
Nu
l
vs Gr based on heatfunctions may be explained in a similar
manner as discussed for the cases with Pr = 0.7.
Due to symmetry in heatline distribution within the cavity, var-
iation of Nu
r
l
for Re = 1 (upper panel of
Fig. 14(d)). However, lower distributions in Nu
r
are observed for
Re = 100 irrespective of Da compared to Re = 1. Similar qualitative
trends are also observed for Pr = 0.7 as seen in inset plot of
Fig. 14(b) and similar explanation follows.
3.7.2. Case 2: Non-uniform heating of bottom wall
The overall effects upon the heat transfer rates along the bot-
tom and left walls for case 2 are displayed in lower panels of
Fig. 14(ad) for Pr = 0.7 and 7.2 at Gr = 10
5
and Re= 1 and 100 for
varying Da = 10
5
10
3
. The inset plots in Fig. 14(b and d) display
the average Nusselt number distributions along the right wall. It
was found that the distributions in heatlines are qualitatively sim-
ilar to that of case 1 irrespective of Re for all Da under other iden-
tical parameters. Thus the distribution in average Nusselt numbers
is qualitatively similar to that of case 1 and the detailed explana-
tion on the variation of Nu
b
, Nu
l
and Nu
r
with Gr are omitted for
the brevity of the manuscript. However, overall lower values in
average heat transfer rates are observed in this case due to smaller
gradients in heatfunctions in case 2 compared to case 1.
3.7.3. Case 3: Linearly heated side walls with uniformly heated bottom
wall
along the bottom and left wall for case 3 are displayed in upper pa-
nel of Fig. 15(a) and (b) respectively. The inset plot of Fig. 15(b)
illustrates the average Nusselt number distributions for right wall
for Pr = 0.7. The solid line represents the variation for Re = 1. As the
side walls are linearly heated, signicant amount of heat is being
transferred to the top portion of the side walls from the bottom
wall as well as the bottom portion of side walls as observed from
the heatlines that start and end on the same wall. The average heat
transfer rates (Nu
b
, Nu
l
and Nu
r
) for Da 6 10
4
are found to be
invariant of Gr due to dominant effect of conduction as evident
from the heatlines being perpendicular to the hot bottom wall (g-
ure not shown). Note that, Nu
b
reaches a minima at Gr = 10
5
for
Da = 10
3
(upper panel of Fig. 15(a)). This is due to the fact that
lower gradients in heatfunctions corresponding to 0 6 jPj 6 0.5
are observed along the bottom wall at Gr = 10
5
(see Fig. 8(c))
whereas smooth and parallel heatlines with jPj = 00.75 are ob-
served along the bottom wall at low Gr for Da = 10
3
(gure not
shown). Although Nu
b
is found to be constant for Da 6 10
4
, but
a maxima in Nu
b
is observed for Gr = 10
5
and Da = 10
3
at Re = 100.
The variation in Nu
l
is almost constant over the range of Gr, irre-
spective of Da for Re = 1 and Pr = 0.7. This is due to the fact that
conduction dominant heat transfer exists irrespective of Gr for
Da 6 10
4
. Negative heat transfer rates (Nu
l
) occur to the bottom
portion of the left wall due to heatlines that start from bottom por-
tion of the left wall and end on the top portion of left wall at
Da = 10
3
(gure not shown). Thus lower Nu
l
are observed signify-
ing overall low Nu
l
at higher Gr. It is interesting to note the distri-
bution in Nu
l
for Re = 100. Similar to case 1, lower heat transfer
rates are observed at Re = 100 compared to Re = 1 for Da 6 10
4
whereas Nu
l
is larger than that for Re = 1 at Da = 10
3
.
The inset plot in upper panel of Fig. 15(b) illustrates overall heat
transfer rates along the right wall. Due to symmetry in heatlines
distributions, the variation of Nu
r
is similar to Nu
l
for Re = 1. Similar
to earlier cases with Nu
l
and Nu
b
, lower values of Nu
r
are observed
at Re = 100, compared to those of Re = 1, irrespective of Da and sim-
ilar explanations based on Nu
l
and Nu
b
may be made. It is interest-
ing to observe that Nu
r
is constant up to Gr = 2 10
4
and
thereafter, that reaches a minima at Gr = 10
5
. Also, overall smaller
values of Nu
r
3
compared to lower Da,
over the entire range of Gr. This is based on the fact that heatlines
from a small portion of the bottom wall ends towards the right
wall irrespective of Gr at Da = 10
3
, whereas symmetric distribu-
tion in heatlines is observed for lower Da. Negative heatfunction
gradients are observed at Da = 10
3
and Gr = 10
5
signifying overall
smaller heat transfer rates and thus Nu
r
reaches a minima at
Gr = 10
5
.
The upper panel plots of Fig. 15(c) and (d) illustrate overall heat
transfer rates along the bottom and left walls, respectively for
Pr = 7.2 with Da = 10
5
10
3
. It is interesting to observe that an
exponential increase in Nu
b
occurs for Da = 10
3
unlike conduction
dominance for low Da at Re = 1. This is explained by the larger dis-
tribution in Nu
b
for Da = 10
3
at Gr = 10
5
(see Fig. 13(a), upper pa-
nel). This is further explained based on largely dense heatlines at
higher Da (gure not shown). It may also be noted that, larger dis-
tributions in Nu
b
are observed at Re = 100 for higher Da(Da = 10
3
).
Dominant convection effects with increased gradients in heatfunc-
tion are observed at Gr = 10
4
. This is due to the fact that largely
dense heatlines (jPj = 00.005) along the strong secondary circula-
tion cells occur near the bottom wall (see Fig. 10(c)). This may also
be explained by large distribution in Nu
b
at higher Da (Fig. 13(a),
upper panel).
The upper panel of Fig. 15(d) illustrates overall heat transfer
rates along the left wall for case 3 and Pr = 7.2. The distribution
of Nu
l
and Nu
r
are qualitatively similar to Nu
b
for Re = 1 and may
be explained similarly. However, smaller values in Nu
l
are ob-
served due to negative and positive heat transfer rates occurring
with an oscillatory trend along the length at Gr = 10
5
for Re = 1
and Da = 10
3
(Fig. 13(c), upper panel). It is interesting to observe
the distribution in Nu
r
for Re = 100 at Da = 10
4
. Smaller distribu-
tion in Nu
l
is observed for Gr 6 3 10
4
whereas larger heat transfer
rates compared to Re = 1 are observed for Gr P3 10
4
. This trend
may be explained based on the explanation given for variation of
Nu
b
for Pr = 7.2 and Re = 1 and 100 in case 1. Larger values of Nu
l
3
than those with lower Da. However, it
is observed that Nu
l
slowly increases with Gr and that reaches a
minima at Gr = 2 10
4
is observed. This is due to the fact that large
negative gradients in heatfunctions are observed along the right
wall at Gr = 2 10
4
and thus non-monotonic distribution in Nu
l
is observed. Largely intense heatlines along the heatline circulation
cells are observed at higher Gr and Nu
l
reaches a maxima at
Gr = 10
5
(see Fig. 10(c)).
The inset plot in upper panel of Fig. 15(d) illustrates overall heat
transfer rates along the right wall for case 3. It is very interesting to
observe the distribution in Nu
r
for Re = 100. It may be noted that
the overall heat transfer rates are negative for a large Gr for
Da 6 10
4
. This is based on the fact that heatlines are found to
emanate from a large zone on the right wall and these end towards
the top portion of the right wall (see Fig. 10(b)). This is also illus-
trated by the negative variation in Nu
r
over the length of right wall.
However, larger values of Nu
r
are observed at Gr = 2 10
4
and Nu
r
reaches a maxima at Gr = 10
5
for Da = 10
3
. This is due to large
values in Nu
r
for Da = 10
3
at Y = 1 (see Fig. 13(b), upper panel).
3.7.4. Case 4: Linearly heated left wall with cooled right wall
along the bottomand left wall, for case 4 are displayed in lower pa-
nel of Fig. 15(a) and (b) respectively. The inset plot of Fig. 15(b)
illustrates the average Nusselt number distributions for right wall
for Pr = 0.7. It is observed that the distribution in Nu
b
and Nu
r
are
observed to be qualitatively similar to that of case 1 and distribu-
tion of Nu
l
is qualitatively similar to case 3 and a similar explana-
tion follows. The similar qualitative trend is observed for the
distribution for Pr = 7.2, with Re = 1 and 100. Thus the detailed
explanations are omitted for the brevity of the manuscript. But it
is interesting to observe that larger values of Nu
r
occur due to lar-
gely intense heatlines towards the right wall compared to that of
case 1. This may also be explained based on larger values of Nu
r
.
4. Conclusion
The inuence of various wall boundary conditions on the ow
and heat transfer characteristics due to lid driven mixed convec-
tion ow within a porous square cavity has been studied in the
present investigation based on heatline concept. Various features
on heating and ow characteristics based on heatlines are outlined
below.
Isothermally cold side walls and uniformly/sinusoidally heated bot-
tom wall (Cases 1 and 2):
It is observed that at low Darcy number (Da = 10
5
), the heat-
lines are smooth and parallel for all the Gr, Pr and Re. Symmetric
distribution in heatlines is observed and the thickness of the
thermal boundary layer decreases along the side walls with
increase in Da(Da = 10
3
) for higher Pr at low Re. Dominant lid
driven effects are observed at larger Re, irrespective of Da and
the thermal boundary layer is conned to the bottom and left
wall as observed from dense heatlines.
The variations in Nu
l
and Nu
r
are qualitatively similar and Nu
b
distribution is symmetric due to symmetric distribution in
heatlines at low Re, irrespective of Da. Larger values of Nu
l
are
observed for Da = 10
3
compared to Nu
r
, due to largely intense
heatlines towards the left wall at Re = 100.
An exponential increase in Nu
b
, Nu
l
and Nu
r
are found with Gr
for Da = 10
3
and Pr = 7.2.
Linearly heated side wall (s) and isothermally hot bottom wall
(Cases 3 and 4):
In general, the heatlines are parallel for smaller Gr and low Da,
but the heatlines as well as isotherms near the top wall tend to
be non-symmetric for all Da values corresponding to high val-
ues of Gr and Re. Multiple heatline circulation cells are observed
for Da = 10
3
and Pr = 7.2 at Gr = 10
5
and isotherms are found to
be highly non-symmetric. Smaller thermal boundary layer
thickness is observed at top portion of right wall based on larger
gradients of heatfunctions, for higher Re and Gr irrespective of
Da in case 3. Heat transfer rate is quite large at the right corner
of the bottom wall for case 4 (cooled right wall).
Larger values of Nu
b
are observed along the bottom wall for
Pr = 7.2 at higher Da. Oscillatory trends of Nu
r
and Nu
l
are
observed due to negative magnitudes in heatfunctions at
Re = 1. But lower magnitudes in heatlines are observed towards
the right wall at higher Da, signifying lower Nu
r
at high Da
whereas Nu
l
is observed to be gradually increasing due to lar-
gely intense heatlines occurring towards the left wall for higher
Re, under identical Da. Smooth and monotonic increase in Nu
b
is
observed in case 4. However, the distribution of Nu
r
is qualita-
tively similar to case 1 and that of Nu
l
is qualitatively similar
to case 3.
Non-monotonic variation in Nu
b
, Nu
l
and Nu
r
are observed for
some situations in cases 3 and 4.
Acknowledgement
Authors would like to thank Anonymous reviewers for critical
comments and suggestions which improved the quality of the
manuscript.
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Finite element based heatline approach to study mixed convection in a porous

square cavity with various wall thermal boundary conditions

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