CHAPTER

3 Philosophical Systems
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After finishing this chapter, you will be
able to:
Understand the broad classification
Understand salient features of the of Indian philosophical systems
school philosophical systems belonging to the
Vedic
Understand salient features
school of the philosophical systems
belonging to the non-Vedic

This is an idol of
of
Pår[vantha, the 23rd Tirthankara
Jainism found in
Madhya Pradesh. According to the
Jain sources Pâr[vantha lived
BCE. He was born during 872 BCE-72
to
King A[vasena and Queen
Vamadevi of Värnasi and
belonged to the lk_väku
dynasty. He lived as a
prince until the age of 30 after
which he renounced the
world to become an ascetic.
According to the Svtmbara texts, Pär[vandha's
four restraints were
non-violence
possession (aparigraha), non-stealing(ahimsä),
non-

truth (satya). (asteya) and

 Prilosophical Systems 55
3.1
IKS IN ACTION
Father-Son Conversation in Taittiriya-upanisad
pani_ads mainly confine the discussions to they die they becone one with the fod, theretore
stions that are exiStentiai in
and nature food must
To0d must be
beerBrahman.
individual to deeply intro
constantly c o a x e s an Howeyer, after sorne more intrespection, rie
hout his 'true identity. In this process, they provide was unsatisfied and
everal alternative means to inquire into
approached his father again
various The father
that are
merely repeated, "t can onty be krgun
questions phiosopnicai in
nature. Origin through deep introspection with a
single-pointed
of the Universe, the human beings and other living focus (tapas) Bhrgu was therefore ent back to
"

do
organisms, goals of life, the variant and invariant more tapas to know Brahrman
aspects of the reality, the planes of existence of This process continued and
an individual, the notion of Brahman and means a deep understanding of theErrgu develdped
layers o the
of knowing the Brahman are some of the thernes consciousness such as vital force (pråna), nind
discussed. (rnanas), and knowledge (vijñána) a Brahman
Due to the peculiar nature of the subject matter, respectively, only to refute it later by self-reflection
Upani_ads employ several methods of imparting He finally realised that bliss (änanda) is Brahnan
knowledge. Teaching in the Upani_ads is often done and since he did not have any more confusiong
in a conversational mode between the teacher and and conflicts in his mind he concluded that bliss
the student. In this format, the student is constantly is Brahrnan.
persuaded to develop deep understanding through This episode highlights how the Vedic seers
self-inquiry, rather than giving a ready answer to continuously strived to know the truth wth
the question that he is facing. The conversation repeated questioning of their understanding and
between the father-son duo in Taittiriya-upani_ad experiences. The episode also brings out the fact
is an example. that philosophical questions such a5 understanding
Bhrgu desirous of knowing Brahman approaches 'the reality'is to be deeply contemplated and
his father Varuna and asks him to share with him the experienced by the self through whatever effom t
and knowiedgeable person can at best
knowledge of Brahman. The father curtly replies, requires, a

that from which all the beings are born, that be only a guide to him
which supports their life, that into which they This episode brings another interesting aspect
enter and dissolve in the end is Brahman". Further, of acquiring knowledge. An elderly, wise and

ne tells his son that it can only be known through knowledgeable individual has an opinion about

the deep philosophical issue. However, by merely

oeep introspection with a single pointed focus does not get the knowledge
one
accepting it
(tapas).
Rather it needs efforts on the part of
the seeker to

nrgu starts the tapas and realises that beings

out of food (here food does not have the
self-reflect gain the knowledge
to
e 0orn This importance given to
one's own experience of
iteral meaning, it points to the larger system o of Indian philosophical
truth has been the hallmark
nanitesting in this earth, sustaining life
systems.
forme), they live with the support of food, and when

theft? A religious preacher

Let should one not commit
wosl Slder
a simple question, "Why other
such actions. On
the hand, a modern-day
to the injunctions that prohibit law of the land
and would
Pnt
onalistic professional
professional would say,ecu "because it is against the
rant point is why should the God or the
say,
tr c life". The importan resolve
in that can
c e costs and complexities is something fundamental to individual an

sovereig ISsue commands? If there then it provides sound footing to

Sue
dilemmas
a
and
handle

faces in life, is to be hapPy

e s t i o n s that one Individual
the goal of every
fundamental level,
Onusions in life. At a
 Systom-Concopis a
Knowlodgo
Introduction to Indian
56
longing for 'sadna
iness
Nobody is
known to have
been

is not yet well

and griel'
or
evolve in life.
the notion ness
of happines understood despi
simple truth,
progress
this
thelr life. Despite instinct of living beings.
being the most
fundamental
are
towards avoiding what easant and attaining
is u n p l e a s a n t
. .

of living beings in life, we inaui quire i

All the endeavours to several questions
for answers
destinati.0 Cert
In the search s o u r c e and
is my
what is pleasant.
about life; Who
am "T and what
universal laws for a n
What are
fundamental questions
and that of (iod?
Are there any individ
existential nature belongs to th"
Universe
the nature of the of
such questions
forever? A study of of the world. In this ch
remain happy in diferent parts
of philosophy. Philosophical thinking flourished aptrr
the Indian philosophical systems.
shall s e e s o m e
details of have deyele.
to the questions that we raised, people
we
answers
In the process of finding
world and shown the way to attain the final goal of life TThi.
their holistic understanding of the
holistic view of the world is called Dar[ana. The word Dar[ana is derived from the Sansbkrit
true worldview and
suggesting that these philosophical systems provide
a
root, drs, 'to see,
vision for life and help us resolve the issues that we face in our life. These different traditions
of Darsanas or "Schools of Philosophy' have enriched Indian thinking and had their influence
on all aspects of life, including worship, rituals, art, literature, and medicine.

3.1 INDIAN PHILOSOPHICAL SYSTEMS-DEVELOPMENT

AND UNIQUE FEATURES
Phrases such as 'happiness'
require 'individuals' as the unit of analysis. Further, as one inquires
deep into this question, the focus shifts to the Universe, which
vidual make his inferences and choices in life.
to
provides the context for the indi
sal force (known as the
Inevitably, the notion of an Univer: all-pervading
Divinity or God) also becomes another important dimension in this
ysis. Therefore, the study of these
aspects invariably happens in
ana"
aspects: an individual (fiva), the Universe
a context consisting of tnree
(Jagat), and the God
The beginning of the philosophical inquiry in India can be (l[vara).
traced to the Vedic literature.
Ine
The philosophical Kgvedic seers
enquired about the forces causing
phenomena such as rain, day and night, growth natur
systems provide
true worldview and a
vision for ot
Ife and heip and
resolve the issues
us recognised these forces as devats
that weface our life.
in
See several mantras in praise of these
(gods). Hence,
The teachings Devatäs, descriol
of the Upanisads their nature and deeds. The Rgvedic hymns delved
SEEESt that attainment of the
Tgorous inquiry trying to realise the root force behind into
knowledge of Brahman is the
highest goal of human life. functioning of these Devats. They realised the
'Puru_a, all-encompassing con o
evedam all this is supreme bein8 and
sarvam).
there is no other According to
them, nothing but the
Puru_a' (TT a me, death, Purusa
way to go. knowing the Puru_a is the and
We also see
serious
a
path to overcOme
of
Rgveda. The sükta inquiry ahbout the origin of the
is
world was created? It inquisitive about what Universe in the famous -súkta

begins with the was there in the Na whole

non-existence (Asat) and then speculation that beginning, Det

ís
Was it covered with
water? proceeds to ask several there was neither exis Sat) no
Who knowsquestions; What was 1t C ed
creation came into The with:
existence? The darkness? and
Upani_ads full of such
are one
who created who can here this

philosophical inquiries and

this, does he know
this or does articulathe
not?
thoughts. What was descrideu "Drusa Pur
 Philosophical Systems 57
.he Rgveda is referred to as
Brahman in the
nceDts that are discussed widely in the Upani_ads. Brahman and
Upani_ads. The teachings of the
are the
that attainment of the
knowledge Branman the highest goal
ot is Upani_ads suggest
of human life.
said to be beyond ords,
cannot be expressed completely by anyone, Brahman is
nted various ways
adopte to describe Brahman.
It
hence
Upanisads have
is said to be
far after having known it nothing else is to be known. The the ultimate reality to be known,
ruth cannot be known using the sensory organs as we wouldUpani_ads further clarify that this
in the case of
it called for preparing any worldly entity.
oneselr to
experience the truth from
within. The ultimate goal of the
Ilnanisads is to prepare individual for this eventual 'personal
an

nassages and anecdotes to drive the experience. There are multiple

goal of one's life, the path of
achieving it. liberation, and the means of
The philosophical inquirycontinued in India further
giving rise to several schools, each one
developing its Unlike the Western
counterpart,
own understanding of the world. Each of these
schools the Indian philosophical
thought
presents its view with rigorous intellectual exercise and is closely intertwined with
uncompromised importance on the self-experience. The religious thought.
ideas were codified in the basic texts of their Dar[ana, The ultimate goal of the human
in the form of sktras in most cases, and commentaries life is clearly spelt out and the
and sub-commentaries through the guru-[i_ya tradition path for attaining the same is also
articulated in all the daraanas.
spread the thoughts further. Before we study the specific
characteristics of the schools and their differences it is important to know certain broad
parameters and unique aspects of the Indian philosophical thought and their relevance to
various schools of thought.

Unlike the Western counterpart, the Indian philosophical thought is closely intertwined
with religious thought. The philosophical systems provide a broad basis for addressing
larger existential issues of individuals and the religious schools draw from these to
suitably configuring socio-cultural practices, norms of behavior, ethical standards, and
values that shape one's life. The religious dimension provides the operating principles
for the mundane life based on these specific configurations.
be thought about; Vedic schools of
T w o generic classes of philosophical systems could
of thought as we will see shortly), and Non-vedic
philosophy (which has six schools philosophy).
and the Crvka
schools (Jaina philosophy, Buddhist philosophy,
classification based on the religious dimension, all the religious-oriented
Despite the parameters. This includes the notion
on certain
common
philosophical systems agree birth-death cycle (Samsra), and the
action (Karma),
of accumulation of fruits of of liberation
all talk about the common goal
notion of freewill. On account of this, they from the Western.
Indian philosophical systems
distinguish the
Mukti)'. These aspects out and the path for attaining
the
the human life is
clearly spelt
T h e ultimate goal of However, the darsanas have divergent
daraanas.
articulated in all
the
same is also
these.
opinions onthe specifics of (ñ na) and other related
knowledge, the term knowledge
about schools of philosophy also
Since dar[ana is all Furthermore,
all the Indian
defined. of valid knowledge.
are well the establishment
terminologies for
tools (Pram Fa) the set of epistemological
tools
epistemological other in
employ from the
each school differs
However,
considered for analysis.
 System-Concepts and Applications
Introduction to Indian Knowledge
8
and found
views on some of the philosophical concepts ndationa
Despite divergent healthy culture of respectful and
premises between these
coexistence
schools, there is a
of these schools of thought. There was no effort to demean,
peaceful
miss

one school by the other using any emotional, dogmatic, irrationa

or downgrade healthy tradition of the followers
there was a
or unscientific methods. Instead,
the schools to engage in dialogues
and debates. These demanded a highly advanced
intellectual exercise, be it writing a book refuting
the argument of the opposing point
strict rules of debate.
of view or engaging in the dialogue following
One of the Vedic schools, Nyaya provided a de facto framework for all other schools
to engage in such intellectual debates. In fact, the ontologies of S mkhya and Vai[esika
schools have been adopted by most other schools with little modifications to suit their

theories.
There are historical accounts of several such debates that took place throughout the
country for several centuries, which continue even today. Thus, several schools of
philosophy have flourished in India, interacted extensively with each other, and have
organically co-existed for millennia.
Figure 3.1 provides a schematic of the classification of the Indian philosophical systems
into Vedic and non-Vedic systems.

Dar[anas
Vedic Non-Vedic

Sámkhya Yoga Nyaya Vaises_ika|| Mimäms Vedänta Carväka Jaina Bauddha

FIGURE 3.1 Indian Philosophical Systems (Dar[anas)

3.2 VEDIC SCHOOLS OF PHILOsOPHY
Figure 3.2 summarises some of the
salient features of vedic
common goal, i.e. to answer questions such as, "Who am 1?" schools. All the schools have a
liberation? To know oneself and and "What is the
escape from the cycle of birth-death and process for finai
knowledge needs be
obtained. The schools differ in
to get liberated, correct
knowledge and use it as the means for the ultimate presenting how to obtain the right
philosophical discussion is the three liberation of the 'self. The context for
schools have employed inter-related concepts of God tne
several constructs Universe -

Individual.
A
for self-evolution and liberation. The six involving these three entities in
discussing the
schools pau
In the of Såmkhya and Yoga systems, there is differ
case
the
in the approach taken to
reach the got
evolution of centrality to role of the 'matter in
journey. A good understanding of the of the
for liberation. On the other
hand, Nyàya and nature leading the context paves tne
the importance of obtaining the
"right
Vai[e_ika systems have prominently
systems elaborately focused on getting knowledge' in the focused o
journey of liberation. Therefore,
the right thes
the other hand, Mimamsa and
vedanta knowledge oneself and the other
of
proposed that the Vedic entities.
repository provides guiaain
o
 rney of
liberation. While
the Vedic corpus Philosophical Systems 59
or
part of
Mimms
the
ritualistic

leading
the to Self-experience (Jn na-kända). (Karma-kanda), Vednta stressed on the
emphasised on theimportance of
knowledge
Goal To knowwho am I? The
process for final liberation.
Context "God-Universe-Individual"
for searching
as
the truth and
the three
inter-connected
attaining the Goal aspects
Approach
Properties of Valid knowledge
"matter" and its role of the "reality" Direct Guldance
of Vedic Corpus

Philosophical
System Sämkhya Yoga Nyaya Vaiae_ika Mimámsa Vedänta

FIGURE 3.2 The Six Vedic

Schools- Some Salient Aspects

3.3 SAMKHYA AND YOGA SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY

The Sämkhya-Yoga philosophical system begins with the basic premise that Prakrti, the source
of the physical Universe and the 'self' are sub-ordinate to a larger force called Purusa and
liberation of the 'self' involves getting to know the right
Vedic schools acknowledge
knowledge of the Puru_a Prakrti and their relative role.
and
the authority of the Vedic text
According to these schools of thought, Prakrti is the first whereas Non-Vedic schoois dont
cause of the Universe (of everything except the spirit) and The context for philosophical
matter and
entirely accounts for whatever is physical, both
inter-related
discussion is three
Universe
-

constituted of the tri-guFas. Concepts of God -

Torce. Prakrti is conceived as

The evolution of Prakrti causes the Universe, bringing the Individual.
of the
multi-various forms and entities. The preponderance
the link between Dotn

ree Gunas and their role in establishing for both the philosophical
systems. Finaly,
ground
the true
nature

is another common realisation of

involves the
d dnd Prakrti process of
final liberation

of D
of
s agree that the ultimate God (lavara).
On the

Prakrti and Puru_a. the existence

of an
has an emphasis
on a

being. Yoga
Sämkhya school does not acknowle existence
of a supreme
activities
of the
mind. To
facilitate

this

other hand, Yoga acknowledges the for

cessation
of all
step-by-step
approach tor analyss

more structured, practical methodolog provides

a practical
of
contemplation
and

this process, the of p h i l o s o p h y more

Yoga
8a
system
school
emphasises

journey On the other hand, S mkhya

er
eading to experiential knowledge. avalable

no
is
there
system,
avalabie o
3.3.1 Samkhya-dar[ana ofthe
Sämkhya material
has
a
verses and
a u t h o r i t a t i v e

author
the anu
to be
of all pains
seventy
earliest
in
p p o s e d
this.
The
This is a
is work in ause
work

material to
substantiate
s u b s t a n t í a t e

tnis This

O
I [ v a r a k r s n a .

to
Samkhya is th yd-karik
by Sämkhya
argu

lucid expo îkhya

system.
 System-Concepts and Applications
Knowledge
60 Introduction to Indian
a proper understand
By
($amkhya).
correct knowledge
sufferings is the lack of the and the way to end it can be
evnlOfth
the causes of pain ined.
ontology of Sâmkhya-dar[ana,

Purusa and Prakrti

constitute everything in thi
two basic elements this
According to the Sâmkhya system, consciousness, sentient, chaord
matter (Prakrti) and spirit (Puru_a). Puru_a is the
pure
eternal, and passive. Prakrti on the other hand is the r nangeless
to the Sämkhya system, cause of all activities including the entire creation. When
According the Puru_a it assum
two basic elements constitute the Prakrti comes in association with
everything in this world, matter diverse shapes and forms, gross and subtle, and manifes
(Prakrti) and spirit (Puru_a). as body, senses, and the mind. Prakrti is made of the thre
Prakrti is made of the three basic basic constituents namely sattva, rajas, and tamas. These
constituents namely sattva, rajas, are also called gunas and are known only through inference
and tamas.
Sattva is the faculty that is light and causes knowledge and
pleasure. Rajas is the one that causes movement and is the cause of pain. Tamas is hea
causes ignorance, and causes indifference. Before the manifestation of the Prakrti its
constituents, sattva, rajas, and tamas are in equilibrium.
The evolution of the Prakrti results in creating the following elements:
"Mahat, which is also called 'Buddhi'
Ego or Self-consciousness (Ahañkära), which introduces the sense of l and 'mine'
Mind (Manas), the master of the organs and the conduit between the internal and
external instruments
Five sense organs (Jñänendriyas): ears, skin, eyes, tongue, and nose
Five organs of action (Karmendriyas): the mouth
and anus
(speech), hands, feet, sex organs,

Five generic classes attributable to objects perceived

sound, touch, form or colour, taste, and smell
through sense organs (Tanmatrasj
Five gross elements
(Bhütas): ether, air, fire, water, and earth.
Figure 3.3illustrates the evolution of
Prakrti described above. When the Puru_a s
conditioned by the twenty-three
from one body to another. This is
elements, it
perpetuates this process wherein Puru_a gor
the cause
long as it does not discriminate the difference of all mundane existence, and this continues
self comes out of this between Puru_a and Prakrti?. Once the
ignorance, through the actual conse
from the Prakrti and its knowledge, he realises that he 1s
sepai
liberation (kaivalya, i.e. manifestations,
he does not feel
mok_a) the Sámkhya doctrine.
in pleasure, etc. anymore. nis called i **

Manas

Prakrti Five Sense ans

Mahat Ahamkära (Uhanendriyas)

Puru_a Five Organs of Action
(Karmendriyas)
Five Tanmatras Five

FIGURE Elements
3.3 Prakrti and its
Evolution into Matter
 3.3.2 Yoga-dar[ana Phiiosophical Systems b
olof philosophy is said to
voga as a have been
sütras. S o m eIndologists assign a date ot sth founded by
this work with Patanjali, who century CE for thisPatañjali through yoga his
associate
wrote the work, while
ahäbh sya for PâFini's grammar. In that
case, it will be
many others
nd century BCE. Yoga serves as a
Twenty three
a realisation of the difterence of Prakrti and methodology the seed,
elements
out of which the
act as

rately establishes the Purusa. It

(consisting
body
apds to go through to have necessary
practices an individual of the internal
(subtle)
the realisation
ofthis separation instruments and the erternal
The unique thing that estabisnes Yoga as distinct Tgross) organs) is produced
he ather dar[anas is that its
among ACcording to Yoga philosophy to
emphasis on
the mind, its various states, its understanding
cognitive activities, and
attain liberation, an individual
must focus on
the physical,
methods to control it. The other
schools have a psycholo8ical, and morai states
of opinion on the matters of difference
of moksa with Yoga. However,
epistemology, and the concept of his being

they accept methods

mina. prescribed in yoga to
gain controi over the
The Yoga philosophy rests on the basic premise that if a
nature, and experience bliss eventually, he must focus on the
person wants to understand his true
states of his being and make
simultaneous progress on all thephysical, psychological., and moral
three. To achieve
prescription is to
develop the capacity for this, basic the

Yoga-sütras begin with the definition thatsingle-pointed concentration of the mind.

Therefore.
"Yoga is the cessation of mental modifications
Unless a
person arrives at this stage, it will not be
of possible for him to understand the
'existence and the secrets of nature may not get revealed. notion

Therefore, the operational part

0ga provides a practical set of
'actionable' steps that an aspirant can go through of
O reach this state. Further Yoga system observes that a sequentially
uIspassion makes a
journey of constant practice with
person perfectt and he will feel within himself the universal truth with
Sense of separateness. While Sämkhya prescribes a method of analysis and contempiation
gd drgues for mind control through sustained practices as prescribed. Yoga system pruvides
gnt-step process to gradually attain complete cessation of the activities of mind Figure
" presents the eight steps in a pictorial fashion. The details of the eight steps tollows

d m a : The ultimate journey to complete cessation of the activities ot the mind starts
the first step which is forbearance orcontrol mind. and speech.
with body, over

activities are prescribed for practice in this stage: abstaining trom harming (Ahimsa).
Five

t h e truth (Satya), not stealing

others' belongings (Asteya). keeping away trom

DDrahmacarya), and resisting from accumulating

wealth
(Aparigraha).byAccording to
and status sadhaka
these are to be followed irrespective ol time, place,
a

dnjali
this is called mahavrata (greatest of all austeritues)

The five kinds of forbearances, specified

in the previous step relate
to
d: On the other hand,
in the second
stage. tive
kind g Irom negative injunctions. commands a r e
prescribed The five niyamas
which are positive with what one pussesses

inchud.Uervances,
de Cieanliness of body and mind (Sauca). being happy the senses
ditticulties ant puritying
cold and other physical the
a, tolerating heat,
(Svathyaya) and
other scriptures
of Vedas and an
Dody (Tapas), the study
by
are to be practiced

mad These two stages

(I[vara-pranidhana).
in on of I[vara
Ihdividual (sädhaka) at all times.
2 Introduction to Indian Knowieu

Yama: Forebearance (Control over mind, body and speech)

Observances (Positive commands)

Niyama:

Asana: Physical fitness, comfort and posture

Pranay ma: Breath control or regulation

Pratyahra: Withdrawing the cognitive senses from their

subjects

Dharana: Continuous contemplation (Fixing of the mind on

something8, external orinternal)
Dhyana: Absorption (Fixing of the mind on the object thought,
making the mind one with it)
Sam dhi: State of Oneness (Becoming the object of thought
itself)
FIGURE 3.4 A_tänga-yoga-Eight Step Process

Asana: A meditative posture where

sit
comfortably for a long time. Various
one can
modes of
keeping the body in
position at the time of performing Yoga are prescribea
in this stage. As per Yoga-sktra, the sitting posture must be firm and comfortable tor
the sädhaka*

Henceforth, all the aspects are of the meditation process.

PråFayäma: This stage focuses on controlling the breath. Breath is d
to
the mind, hence directly
having it in control is the key to controlling the activities conhe
mind. Patañjali prescribes four
types of pränyäma practices meant for rolling
the mind. con
Pratyahra: The next stage of practice is their
objects, bringing them to a state as if withdrawing the cognitive senses
The first five they were not in contact witn bjects.
stages are external in terms of uc d help
the practitioner effort
purify the thoughts and
various distractions. Once this
(bahiranga-prayog
regulate or moderate the oiding
efforts stage is inner
reached, it will be possible to se interna
(antaranga-prayoga). The last three fOcus
on this.
stages of the 8-step process p e details
Dharaná: Focusing the mind on an
constant practice Is the next object, not letting itit perceive other objects
stage of this
process.
perceive otne
Dhyana: Meditating
achieved by fixing the continuously on an t is
mind object without break is called dhyna.
on
something, external (such calleu n. a del
as a
picture, OM
"b
 Philosophical Systems
or internal (using the tip of the nose, and
the
reference to focus inside space between the two
or
visualising OM in the
mind). eyebrows as a
Samãdhi: The final step in this process is
meditation, known as samdhi. Once a being completely absorbed into the object of
person reaches here the
completely cease, leading to the realisation that he, the
activities of his mind
from Prakrti and thus becomes conscious 'self' is
liberated, free from all separate
Cessation all mental activities of the mind, the
of pains.
final goal of
product. On account of the journey in the path of Yoga has a very useful bye
address mind control,
the vexing problem of stress-induced Yoga can help an individual
that modern society is facing. We have lifestyle leading to health and wellness
wellness, and psychology. The currentbriefly touched upon this aspect in the chapter challenges
Yoga practices. However, it must be popularity of Yoga globally stems from this on health,
of realising the true nature understood that Yoga is a aspect of
of oneself and way of life, with a grand
world arising out of the liberate one from the purpose
duality of pain and pleasure. We should limitations of the mundane
objective of Yoga as a dar[ana. never lose
sight of this ultimate

3.4 NYAYA AND VAIZEIKA

The
SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY
By
Nyya-Vai[eika school begins the analysis with the world that
experience, means all varieties of valid
it individual an
Therefore, it starts with the knowledge, whether perceptual or experiences.
non-perceptual.
experience must necessarily be assumption that whatever is
obtained by
the
real. The
Nyya-Vaise_ika school proceeds withuncontradicted
experience to understand reality, also known an analysis of
in their as knowable. Both
journey of the 'knowable' and define various Nyya and Vai[e_ika set out
process, two
possibilities categories
emerge to conduct the study in
to describe the same. In this
ways of knowing the reality' and the second is about greater detail. The first is about the
The Vaise_ika school the 'objects in the
provided a greater emphasis on the latter, mainly reality that is knowable
itself in its various studying the reality
aspects. On the other hand, the Nyya school
an
investigation into the problem of knowledge in its relation to proposed a
methodology for
Schools place a
greater emphasis on obtaining the 'right'
reality. Nyya and Vai[eika
knowledge for liberation.
3.4.1 Ny ya-dar[ana
The original theory of Nyaya school is found in the
Nyya-sütra, set of
by Gautama. The aphorisms are aphorisms developed
a

organised
followed by many other seminal works.
into five chapters, each
having two sections. It was
By the end of the 11th century CE, Gange[opdhyya
ooR different positions on some of the theories of the
School and established a new school called
Navya-nyaya, Yoga provides a structured and
meaning the new Nyäya School. The navya-nyya school has practical eight-step process to
contributed extensively to discussing details of inference gradually reach a stage of complete
and verbal cognition. These discussions and the set ot cessation of the activities of Citta.
Yoga can help an individual
technical terminologies developed by the navya-nyya address the vexing problem of
School have influenced the other schools so much that in
stress-induced lifestyle leading to
the later times all other schools laid significant emphasis health and wellness challenges

on these topics and adopted the language to discuss the that

modern society is facin8
ISSues in their respective schools as well.
b4 Introduction to Indian Knowledge System-Concepis and Applications

The Nyàya philosophy starts with the proposition that one attains liberation
one attains
liberation only whe
he acquires the knowledge of the truth. of
The knowledge the truth drives
an individual escapes the cycle of birth-death leading to final liberation.
away m
ration. The Nuesag
Nyaya systerr
therefore. placed enormous emphasis on the means of obtaining 'right knowledae
the unique contribution of Nyya school is its detailed inquiry of knowledge nowledge. Therefore
(Prama
cognition and its means (Pramäna). The elucidation of the correct way of thinking andand dvd
at the right conclusions, the art of debating, well laid out rules for a
most reasonable conclusion are the main contributions of the
debate 1Ve t tre to arri
Nyaya school. On account nf..
Nyaya is commonly understood as 'argumentation. Nyaya concepts and the art of
establish true knowledge became a useful tool for all debatina
philosophical systems. It has over
assumed the de facto methodology to establish valid knowledge. The details of te
these have be
explained in Chapter 7 (see Section 7.4 for details).
The goal of a self is not to
gain pleasure but to be liberated from all kinds of pains
for all. This is liberation
according to the Nyya school. Iavara or the God is the creatoronc
this universe. An individual self must
try to gain the correct knowledge of the self,
not the
body, or the mind or the senses, which often i.e., he
people mistake "the self out of
Then he ceases to have attachment
for the fruits of his actions, as all actions an delusic
does are aimed at individ.a
gaining worldly pleasure. When he gives up the desire for the results of n.

actions, he no more accumulates

the effects of his actions,
of the birth and death good or bad, which are the cause
cycle. When an individual has finished
past actions there is no reason for his birth and he will experiencing the effects of n.s
be free from the birth-death cce
Ultimately, he will be free from pain.
3.4.2 Vai[e_ika-dar[ana
Vaisesika was
propounded by KaFda and his work was
chapters, each organised into aphorisms
consisting of two sections. The exact date of
in e

the work is hard to

however, it is believed that it is earlier than
estab
Nyàya deals with 'ways of A 5th Nyâya-sutras
knowing the reality and Vaiae_ika
century CE commentary on Vaisesika-sutrds
authored by
Pra[astapäda. A lucid exposition
Vai[e_ika-sktras is available in the commentares a ornáva
with obects in
the realty that is
krowabie
iyaya and vaisesika schools (Udayana, 984 CE). Kandali (Zridhara) and UpasK
place a
Ereater emphasis on
(Samkara Mi[ra, 1650 CE).
obtaining the
rght knowledge The word
Vai[e_ika is derived from the word
for liberation
meaning difference or
unique attributes in a thing ACco
to this
Universe. Although school, diversity, not
types. It 1s by virtue
the multitude of
forms and shapes exist unity is
fundamentd certa
of this that
"knowables' they can be
reduceu
and karma, but also are divisible into three
into
sub-classes such as
classes or ua some
sense of cows, redness,
'alikeness
two things that
in the manner
described above, it
or moving. wn
there
s
are
resemble each other must be remembered
there are
two of them. aspect,
in
every there must be ctive since
concept of Vi[e_a. The something
This is the basic
along this ine to systernatically Vai[e_ika St
proceeds

universe using certain present the 'knowables'

that form all the
Ps In the
categories rea
Samanya is a very
things into one category,important
consider
aspect in the scheme of
classification. When
hen
classify man we
animals 'cow because they the common features in
bear sone
similarities. For example,
them. That commo" we
particular set O

we
designate poality, wn d
 Philosophical Systemms
Owness is the reason o r al
such animals
being referred to as a cow. it is an
e
we shall serty that all these animals carry by their nature. This is called
inhee of this säm nya. we can group. categorise or generalise things.
såmänya or jäti
Because ssentially becomes important as Vaise_ika school considers all entities to be
Vise . meach other. In this approach, the ditference is sought by an examination of the
ditBerenti froi

dittents of an object ot knowledge. Proceeding in this

c o r difierentiating by examining the constituents finely
The word Vai[esika derived is

maisesika school eventually proposes smallest particles, from the word Viaesa, meaning
difference or unique attributes in
ate atomic material (Paramanus), which have no more
anstituents and are theretore not further divisible. Hence thing.
The Vai[e_ika school presents the
a called 'vi[e_a' in
Vaisesika school
accepts property knowable' that form ali the rea
Using matter, the difference of
thiselemental
entities in the Universe using
ParamFus.
bodies can be explained. certain categories
the constituted
to KaFda, six sub-categories constitute existence,
According The final liberation
ot them is
considered the essence of the supreme good".
and knowledge of the
knowledge produced by proper understanding
six
comes as a result of real
or salvation leads
out in the sutra. The desire to end the misery of the birth-death cycle one

categories listed This

the knowledge of the categories from a master. knowledge removes ignorance
to acquire etc. As he does not accumulate further
onceand for all and the individual is free from love, hate,
merit or demerit on account of this
clarified knowledge of the reality, in a certain finite
any merits and demerits. leading to
he would have exhausted all the exiting
of birth-death,
cycle
final liberation.

AND VED SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY

3.5 PÜRVA-M*M
remarked that the
Vedic corpus, where w e
discussed the details about the
In Chapter 2, we
details on the ritualistic aspects.
This portion i s
Vedic has
Brahmanas, the portion of the corpus
the other hand, the Upanisads lay
referred to as karma-k Fda of the Vedic corpus. On The
ypically is known as Jñäna-kända.
of the Brahman. This portion
emphasis on the knowledge and the Ved nta
edter school has established its
tenets based on the
karma-k Fda
is also known
school
ruva-mimms based on the Jñäna-k Fda.
The Ved nta
tenets
h a s established its
Vedic corpus.
latter portion ot the
reliance on the
of its This
on a c c o u n t principles.
otara-mim ms of the philosophical
beliefs in several endless
schools share common
rebirth, and long
and seemingly
n the the existence of karma, to liberate the
ätman
ne notion of tman,
is
these two systems
Cue the c o m m o n goal
of
the path to liberation.
fro irth-death. Therefore, the major
difterence lies in
obtained
However, l i b e r a t i o n is
Clutches of birth-death. believed that
ultimate
In e school, it is them eventually

of the Pürva-mim msa and extinguishing

Onhe dSe v a r i o u s rituals
that purify
the karma
detachment from worldly
activities

In ca in 1S argued
that total
will then experieee
thc

i s the case of the Vedänta

the on
ved ntane arg
karma. With
a
school, it is
rified mind
school,
punuc
one

all the
ulriny way to exhaust
imate knowlec
ledge 'within' to liberate.

3.1 Pkrva-mim ms -dar[ana consideration,

profound thought,
reflection, school of
The word
P u r v a - m i m à m s à

meanings: the
different context
of
conveys
nvestigat amsä' discussion.
In the
amination,
and
66 Introduction to Indian Knowiedge System-Concepts and Applications
philosophy Mimâms means 'reflection' or "critical investigation' and is primari
tradition of deep contemplation on
the meanings of
Vedic texts which it relisedon n
authority for its principles. Between the Samhih
The Pürva-Mim msä school has Brahmanas, the Purva-mimamsa school places nità anc
established its tenets based on emphasis on the BrähmaFas and draws fromit e 8reate
the karma-knda and the Vednta as it is the part ot vedic corpus that has substantia
elaborate Droe
school has established its tenets details on the Vedic rituals.
based on the Jñäna-kända.
The Pürva-Mimamsä text
The Pürva-mimäms school was
established by
rules for
provides
the interpretation of the
who is said to be the student of Veda Vyása. Jaimini Jaimit
his present
ented
Vedas and
provides philosophical aphorisms numbering over 2500 in twelve
chapters
justifications for the observance which are further divided into sixty sections. The tex:
of Vedic rituals. provides rules for the
interpretation of the Vedas and also
provides philosophical justifications tor the
Vedic rituals, by offering meaning and significance of Vedic rituals to attain observance of
centuries many commentaries Mok_a. Over the
written on this text, most
were
bhäsya written by Sabara-svmin, the only important being the Säbara.
extant commentary on all the 12
Mimms-sütras. The major commentaries were written on the text as well as
chapters of the
the Säbara-
bhasya by Kumrila Bhata and Prabhkara Mi[ra. These texts
robust rules of language
have collectively put together
analysis which enables one to not only examine
in any
scripture but also examine the alternate related or reverse injunctive propositions
understanding. for better propositions
The main aim of the school is to
ascertain the
portions of Veda which lay importance on the karma, meanings
of the Samhit and BrähmaFa
dharma, a quality that is performing rituals, and thereby attaining
acquired by an tman which prompts him to the
such as
svarga (heaven). Eventually,
with purified actions, such a respective results
(mok_a). one does not resort to dharmic actions, then he
If person attains liberation
is likely to continue in the
birth and death (Figure
3.5). Hence it is also called cycle or
the intended 'dharma-m+mms.
meaning of the Vedic texts in this context, the school Along with ascertaining
explanation as to how a ritual performed
provides
results in the desired outcome. Thus, philosopnical
a

status of a dar[ana it holds the

or school of philosophy.

Self

Correct interpretation of
Engages in
Vedict texts Action Incorrect interpretation
of Vedic texts

Cause
Dharmic Actions
Adharmic Actions
Effect Swarga, Eventual
Liberationn Cycle of Birth-
Death
FIGURE 3.5
Púrva-Mimams-The Path to Liberation
 Philosophical Systems 67

and happiness in this life and the next.

of human beings joy is to seek
The ultimate goal that this is possible only when one engages
philosophny argued
The Pürva-m+mämsa
school
of actions are prescribed by the
Vedic texts, and
Such
in actions that to considered dharmic.
are as
u n d e r s t a n d the Vedic sentences,
words, and meaning
propery nterpret ana concerned with
is important
jit school was centrally
the Purva-mimams
is not surprising that on
Therefore, it On account of a special emphasis
and correct nterpretation.
of language various injunctions
and prohibitions,
the philosophy of the vedic text concerning
interpretation The laws of interpretation
the correct into a good source
for h e r m e n e u t i c s .
works
Pürva-mim msa developed and applicable to literary
a r e quite general
and his s u c c e s s o r s
utilised for arriving at a right
formulated by Jaimini principles a r e widely
Vedas too.
Purva-mimamså could greatly
outside the treatises, and the legal fraternity
all old texts, particularly
legal
interpretation of
of Pürva-mim ms .
benefit from the knowledge

3.5.2 Ved nta (Uttara-m+m msä-dar[ana)

from the
considerable part of
their material as
derive a texts, known
schools of philosophy rely on three major
All Vedanta schools of philosophy
Vedänta
Upani_ads. The their tenets. This
includes
texts have put
for establishing Pürva-mimämsä

Prasthäna-traya, 550 aphorisms of language

of about
rules
robust
a collection together
the to
the Brahma-sktras,

(Vysa), the Bhagavadgita, and analysis

which
enables one

Badar yaFa schools have examine injunctive propositions

Written by of the
Ved nta
The proponents texts and
pani_ads.
commentaries
on the three major in any scripture are

principies
posituon tnat tney
detailed
written have
established the unique
Ved nta
rurva-mmams3
utilised tor arrivin8
through that version of widely
or oic
their
right
interpretation ai
aKen
in articulating
Ved nta
schools look upon a
legai
tre3tises

" In general, the predominant

texts,
particularly
vedanta
s

philosophy. absolute and are

Liberation
in
Advaita

Brahman as the
In this
section, we
shall reaching
something
new Dut

in their approach.
and not inherent

Visi_tadvaita, what is o n e s
pnilosophical of Advaita, recognising

see the salient aspects

Driely Ved nta.
nature
Dvaita schools of
conception
with the
known as
Advaita,
Advaita-vedänta philosophy, describe
propounded
a
monistic
the
ultimate reality. The Upanisads Sankara
built
(688-720 CE) as
Nirguna-brahman.
ankara God
(NirguFa-brahman)
known as
andukya
attribute-less

and
attributes,
karika (set
or
verses) ror The other
Le as one
without form, name,

work through
his
the Advaita-vedanta. the
with
dnman foundational formalised
Jiva
on
Gaudap da's structure
and
the identity or thes
e strength and of Mày ,
commentary

more doctrine Sankara

and gave include the Brahman.

ad in consIstent
of Jiva
dspects
of h i s philosophy as the merger
and highlylogical and
of mok_a
D the conception
for its
charming style
philosophical
thougnt througn
d and is
remarkable
contributions
to
ndian
thousana
pages.
ne
als
several
to
dnma-sutra
has made
immense

which run and

pronto
dankara works preserve
to
independent of lndia
s . and parts tne

u
Sankara dt
c o m m e n t a r i e s
different
in of throug8n
us arrangements

Nirguna-brahman Buddhists. However,

u s t n s t i t u t i o n a l

conceptualisation of of
tne
u n u e n e s s

A The
(emptiness
or
nothingness)

has
established

edanta. the
sknya-váda Sankara
texts,
Seiy the three major
olah ommentaries
on

e
his proposition.
b8 Introducton to TOld t

Advaita-vednta postulates oneness of J+va and I[vara and in its scheme.of things

and the Jiva deploy similar mechanisms to create the world. Iavara represents t , the isya
mechanism to create the physical universe. In the same man
macror
with May as the manner, i Jva
(ignorance) as the mechanism to create its own world constitutinga parallo use
avidy
Viewed in this manner, the Myå is the cosmic illusion for the I[vara to create the .CTOCOS

himself and avidya the source of illusion

for the jiva. The rejection of the world aedOuto
illusory by the Advaita school does not advocate cessation of all worldly activitioething
undertake under the garb of it being 'unreal. Instead, it brings out different stages
an individual experiences. So long as the identity of oneself with the Brahman is nosIedge
the empirical world, the activities, and the knowledge about these are true. This is nilar t
the conditional knowledge of the dream until one wakes up. Theretore, in the Advaita scho
two types of knowledge are proposed corresponding to two realms of reality that we hae
school
One is a transactional reality of the changing world and the associated empirical knowledoa
that we have nich helps us to engage in day-to-day chores of life. On the other hand, once the
identity with the Brahman is realised, the reality is one of changeless, oneness of everything
which is eternal, and this produces a changeless knowledge of oneself that results in blis. This
is considered to be the 'true or ultimate' knowledge.
Sankara proposed a two-stage approach to realise 'true' knowledge. By merely engaging in
the world of activities, one does not obtain the 'true' knowledge. In the first stage, we need to
engage with the world and perform the required activities to purify the mind. This is the karma
yoga that Bhagavadg+ta advocates. Once the mind is purified, the second stage is to engage
in deep contemplation and self-reflection on one's real nature which will reveal the 'true'
knowledge. Liberation in Advaita-vednta is not reaching something new but recognising what
is one's inherent nature. The two-stage approach indeed leads an individual towards this goal.

Visi_tãdvaita-vednta
Rämanuja (1017-1137 CE) proposed the philosophy of Viai_dvaita. Viai_dvaita
the bhakti (devotion) to a personal God, who has combines
name, form, and shape and who saves n
devotees from all miseries of the world and the
impersonal God as espoused in the Upani_aas
into a single school of thought. Brahman or the
ultimate reality is also referred to as
etymologically meaning that which pervades everything. The attribute-less Brahman
visu
by the Advaita school is rejected as metaphysical abstraction and
neu
Brahman is conceive
Visi_tädvaitin as God with attributes like possessing a bodily form, with infinite good
and glories. qua
The ultimate is one, according to Vi[i_tdvaita, but is not the attributeless. Matter, iva
and I[vara are three entities
are considered
recognised in the Vii_tdvaita
the body of I[vara and are sustained
as
school. The matter and tne
In other words, the three are
by Him and existing entirey int
inseparable unity, the first two being subjected to the restn
of the third in all its forms. This is the An
core of the
example of a blue lotus illustrates this concept. The blueness conceptualisation
Viai_tadvai
in

the lotus (substance). However, blueness (a quality) quite

is
distnis
depends the substance for its very
on
not considered external to the lotus.
According to Rämnuja, all things are
beingmS
of I[vara and all names his only.
are
Every word is symbol of I[vara and points
a
eventuianly
to
According Viaistãdvaita school, the cycle of birth and death and the
to noWS
are due to the forgettulness of an individual of
the relation between them associated
and
One On
Narayaa
 TOsopncal systerms 0
edom by gaining knowledge ot the nature of self and attaining the feet of the Lord
freedo
ata a b oade. Vaikuntha. However, in order to gain this knowledge, each Jiva has to put forth
d e , Va
in his liberatio The nature of the effort to be
to attain
ffort
octed requires a continuous and
unwavering meditation Visistädvaita combines the bhakti
to the
on the Supreme Being. This is referred to as personal God, and the
love
school. Bhakti is
generated with impersonal God as espoused in
Bhakti in the visi_tadvaita the Upanisads into a single school
servance of religio duties as prescribed in the
total of thought.
The concept or total surrender to the Lord
sCriptures. The quintessential aspects of
also considered as the direct to
Prapatti) is means
Dvaita Vednta are that Vi_nu
In fact, according to Visi_dvaita, both bhakti is the supreme God, the world
iberation.
are two Sides of the same coin and hence they is real and there is a difference
and prapatti between God and the jivas.
as the direct means to attain the feet of the Lord.
function

Dvaita-vedänta

of the Dvaita-ved nta school. Madhvåcrya

Madhväcrya (1238-1317 CE) is the founder
Dvaita-ved nta. Like the other schools of Vednta,
established Udupi as the center of the
the purâFas and Mahäbhârata.
Madhva derives his philosophical tenets from prasthänatraya,
Dvaita-vedänta are that Vi_Fu (Hari) is the supreme God,
the
The quintessential aspects of
God and the jivas. All jivas are dependent upon
world is real and there is a difference between
of bliss that is inherent in oneself. Finally, pure
Vi_nu, and liberation consists in the enjoyment
devotion is the means of attaining it. substances
The Dvaita school clearly admits two
independent and mutually irreducible
I[vara is independent
and the I[vara. However, of the two,
that make up the Universe: the J+va universe was
on I[vara. The matter making up the physical
whereas the j+vas are dependent refuted the idea
in the case of Advaita. The Dvaita school also
considered real, unlike illusory as
are different yet
form a part of l[vara. For Dvaita,
that the matter and the j+vas (Bheda)
of Visi_dvaita them, despite being dependent
on I[vara. Difference
are clear differences among differences: between Jiva
nere Dvaita philosophy. Madhva advocated five-fold
another.
material thing and
s
the very essence of and matter, I[vara and matter and one
aud
isvara, among j+vas, J+va According to Dvaita
human misery and bondage.
of
acknowledged the reality
the
Madhva the relationship of
the individual to be u n a w a r e of
who c a u s e s In this process,
danta, it is the I[vara brings
liberation through his grace.
school, the
with God. Hence, he alone eventually
dvaita
According to
an essential component.
should not be
confused
on the part of the Jiva is an
This svarüpa
vo that never changes. differentiates
an innate nature (svarkpa) at a deep
level and thus
w ve or a person at a
superficial
level. This acts
allow this and
provide a
conducive

is to of
one i a D sanother. The purpose of
the creation on the composition
om nature. Depending
enui manifest to
fullest of his k a r m a s accordingy
and attain
to the jiva to perform of jivas
Satt ent in the svarkpa, the
jivas for e v e r
The d o c t r i n e
and tamas gunas b i r t h - d e a t h cycle also.
mokdjas the religious thought
be in Jaina's
Ka, or
niraya (hell), or damned has
bouna a parallel of I[vara.
greatness attributes
nat are liberated and those eternally the knowledge
of
God with
the
achieved through
In liberation is is a personal
Dvaita-vedänta bhakti combined
ved nta, I[vara in Through
ilar philosophy, devotion
(bhakti).
Jiva, on his
VIsI_tädvaita through of Iavara. The
be reached and grace
Torm, who can
to the
experience
acquisition
of right knowledge
with m one can dispose
oneself
works (karma),
n, worthy by good
of it
Part, me
prove himself devotion (bhakti-yoga)
single-minded
O g a ) , and
 Applications
System-Concepis
and
Knowledge
to lndian
/0
Introduction
three
schools of Vednta
of Vedánta, summarising i
of the
picture thinking.
comparative philosophical
a of
Table 3.1 provides several
elements

on
of the
schools
of the Three Schools nt t .

salient aspects
Salient
Features edanta
Comparison
of the
3.1 A
TABLE
Visistádvaita Dvait
Advaita
No.
Criterion Bhagavadgita, | Upanis_ads, Bhaus
|Upani_ads,
1 Basic reference
Upanisads, Bhagavadgit, |Brahmasütra
Brahmasútra
Brahmasútra
for establishing

the tenets One, personal God One, personal God

Concept of I[vara |0ne,

attribute-less ( S a g u n a - b r a h m a n ) -

(Saguna-brahman) -
(Nirguna-brahman) Vi_nu or Hari,
Vi_nu or Näräyana,
Independent, Ultimate Independent, Ultimate

Real, made of Prakrti

and
| Real, made
of Prakrti an

3 Concept of Not real, mereillusory| Gunas

Universe Jagat) experience,
made
of Gunas
Prakrti and Gunas

are one and the |All are part and parce!| All are uniquely different,
4 Jiva-Jagat-I[varaAll of I[vara, Jiva and Jagat | Jiva and Jagat depend on
same- Brahman
relation depend on Isvara Isvara

Perception, inference,
Perception, inference, Perception, inference,|
5 Valid means
verbal testimony verbal testimony
comparison, verbal
of knowledge
(Pramanas) testimony, presumption,
non-apprehension
of the
oneness with | Attaining the feet of the Knowledge
6 Liberation Experience greatness of Iavara

Brahman Lord
Bhakti-yoga, Grace of
7 Path to liberation Jhana-yoga, Karma-yoga Bhakti and Prapatti,
as a pre-requisite Bhakti-yoga, Karma- | I[vara
yoga and Jñna-yoga as

pre-requisites

3.6 NON-VEDIC PHILOSOPHICAL SYSTEMS

There are other philosophical systems that lie outside of the realm of the Vedic corpus. These
philosophical systems did not consider the Vedas as an authoritative text and are called Non
Vedic philosophical systems. These schools do not also accept the entity I[vara. Jaina, 5audu
and Carvka schools are prominent among them.

3.6.1 Jaina School of Philosophy

The word 'Jaina' is derived from the Sanskrit root ji, to conquer, essentially indicating some
who has successtully subdued his passions and obtained mastery. The Jaina school consi
twenty-four TirthaFkaras, starting from Vrsabhadeva to Mahävira as prophets and master
to
the philosophy. Tirthankaras appear periodically in the world to educate and
their lead peuhe
cross over the of
ocean rebirth. This is similar to the notion
of avatära-puru_as, who uy
conduct and teaching help the human beings cross the ocean of samsära (endless -death
biru
 hilosophical Systems 71

h
Although in ccontemporary terms Manavira is well-known among the twenty-four, he is
in
cycle).

d as
twenty-four Tirthañkaras. According to the Jain tradition, Mahâvira
the last of
the
regardeu the 6th century BCE. There 1S a vast literature in which the doctrines of the school
lived durinTheThe «details of the Jaina school of philosophy can be found in the
r e c o r d e d .
canonical texts
are ed on the teachings of the T+rthaDkaras.
a r e largely based
ism,
which Jain philosophy refuses
of Jainisdae the authority of the Vedas and the notion of a supreme God,
to ackno the laina school is in line with the Vedic schools of philosophy. however, several
ring the early part of the common era (during 4-5th century CE). two sects of Jains,
. haras (white-clad ascetics) and Digambaras (sky-clad ascetics) emerged. There are
veti
came differences between the wo sectS in certain aspects such as rituals, ascetic practices.
monastic organisation. Despite this, on matters of philosophical principles and concepts.
and
they remain similar Both the sects acceptthe authority of the Tattvärthasütra, composed by
Umasväti during 2nd-3rd century CE. The Tattvärthasktra has been commented upon by both
[vetämbara and Digambara scholars over the centuries and is, therefore, an important jain text.
According to Jain ontology, the fundamental categories of being are a soul (iva). a matter
of which the substances in the world are formed (Pudgala), space ( time (Käla), the
principle of motion (Dharma), and the principle of rest (Adharma). Jivas are infinite and so are
the material particles. These particles also possess innumerable qualities and jivas with their
limited ability cannot describe them completely. Hence our knowledge of any substance is not
absolute but relative. Jaina school proposes a methodology to address this issue and argues
that capturing reality perfectly with the language is not possible.
This is analogous to six blind men trying to describe how an elephant looks like. Each one
of them wil describe an elephant in a manner that is both right and not right. It is right in a
limited sense and not right if we take it as the ultimate description of the elephant. However
the description of the reality can be sufficiently enhanced through appropriate qualification of
the claim made. This approach is known
meaning conditional predication. 'Syât' in Sanskrit
as
'syd-väda, T h e concept of rebirth and other
world is completely dismissed in
essentially means, 'maybe. In this context, it would mean,
in a certain sense of the term' or 'from a certain point of Carväka philosophy.
T h e details of the Jain School of
View. Using this concept, the Jaina school lists seven
Philosophy can be found in the
possibilities for the truth values. With sydväda, Jain canonical texts of Jainism, which
philosophers are able to analyse claims made by various are largely based on the teachings
systems of thought and show them to be relative assertions of the Tirthankaras.
OF
The truth as understood by the Jain
tradition. is attributed to tiny particles of matter
n the Jaina school, the cycle of birth-death
that have embedded themselves into the Jiva.
This is called karma and in the Jain
Dh An analogy of a wet cloth explains
spiritual is to overcome this karma.
growth
hhow pny, cloth becomes sticky when
worn, the kärmic matter
affects the wet
rma J+va. Just as a
are compared to the water
in
the The passions that we get attracted to
tached to J+va.
the Jiva attracts karma. According
A wet cloth attracts dust, in the s a m e manner,
to tt
to tn. experiences, which a r i s e
due to the kärmic
the passions are evoked by
e ai and
Particles Ophy, a s the seeds ripen eventually
the Jiva. Just
ave previously bonded with in terms of experiences.
bear fruit Karma is supposed to have an inpact
on the jiva
some

e passions
These neutral, and evoke corresponding
could be pleasant, painful,
or
of atraTences turn, attract m o r e
kärmic particles or

o r indifference.
The passions, in
aversion,
Seeds, and, the entire
Seede itself.
process reped
 Knowledge System-Concepts and Applications
72 Introduction to Indian

with the matter because of his karma and Dace:.

ions
The Jiva is stuck in bondage matterence
liberation. The association of thee
matter is the way to
freeing the self from the the world. The real knowledge which can
ith Jiva
about himself and
is due to the ignorance obtained by the Jiva, for that
he has to listen to the teachinoroy
the ignorance is not easily liberated from the bondage. From a practical none
masters, Tirthankaras, who are
the
great of karmic matter, in a way by Cleaning the karma so that
is to purify the Jiva that the
view, the goal nature. To achieve this goal, Jain philosophy consida
Jiva can radiate in its inherent blissful siders
essential. Since karma is considered as a physical substance that has bonded
ascetic practices as
on ascetic practices in terms of what one
with the Jiva, Jain philosophy puts special emphasis
must and must not do, as a means to 'clean up' the karma. Three gems are prescribed: rieht
faith, right knowledge, and right conduct". Right faith is given utmost importance as any activity
undertaken with false convictions loses much of its value. Right knowledge pertains to a good
understanding of the Jain philosophy. Right conduct is also placed huge importance in the Jain
philosophy. The individual must control the passion with the right conducts, of which ahimsã
is the most important one.
Once a person begins to diligently practice the ethical restraints and prescribed ascetic
disciplines, the karmas slowily drop away and the pure knowledge, which is the inherent nature
of the Jiva begins to radiate. By these practices, the passions can be calmed and through a
two-way process of cleaning existing kärmic matter and preventing further accumulation of
karma, the Jiva can attain the final goal.

3.6.2 Bauddha School of Philosophy

The Bauddha (or Buddhist) school of philosophy is largely based on the teachings of
Buddha. Buddha was born as Siddhrtha during the 4th-5th Century BCE. Although
Gautama
Buddhism
originated in ancient India, it later spread to several parts of Asia. There are two forms or
Buddhism: the northern form and the southern form. The form of Buddhism prevailing in
Nepal, Tibet, China, Korea, Vietnam, Taiwan, Singapore, and Japan is called northern Buddhism
lalso synonymous with Mahäyna) while the form prevailing in Sri Lanka and other partso
Southeast Asia including Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand is called Southern Buddhism
(also known Theravda). The earliest form is the northern version, and it includes seve
as
Sub-traditions such as Zen, Nichiren, and
Shingon. Kani[ka is supposed to have conveneu
great council of the Northern Buddhists in the 1st
century CE. Lalitavistarä is an
inmpord
Work composed by the Northern Buddhists sometime during the 2nd-4th century CE. T1DE
Buddhism drifted away from the
primitive Buddhism in India and is supposed to have adop
forms and ceremonies, which were
unknown to Gautama and his followers.
According to early texts, Gautama was moved by the suffering of life and deatn. is
er,
on account of rebirth, this
suffering is experienced in an endless
cycle of birth-aed a
enlightenment showed him the path for liberation from this
state of NirvFa. Gautama's suffering forever, T by ned
were teachings
initially oral and in the later
period, they
into a complete philosophical
system with several treatises written aevth
of tu
school. by the followe
Buddha's philosophy focuses on the means of ending the suffering of the inaivuThese
s.
It is
based on four noble truths
are elaborated as follows: (catvari-rya-satyni). Figure 3.6 graphically illustrates u
Thest

1. There is
sujfering: According to Gautama, "Birth is suffering, decay is illness
is suffering, death S
Sutfering. The
presence of objects hate is
sufteringable abl
we
suffering
 AppliCaUI
ana
S y s t e m - C o n c e p i s

KnOwledge
to Indian
of his karma and
Introduction
72
matter
because passio Ie
with the
bondage The association of the mat
is stuck in h Jva
liberation.

real knowledge which r

The Jiva m a t t e r is
the way to

freeing
the self
from the
himself and
the worid. The to listen to the teae. destroy
about he has
is due to
the ignorance
obtained by the Jiva, tor that
From a practie al
ol
Ih
is not easily liberated
from the bondage. point
the ignorance
by cleaning the karma.
who a r e

masters, the
Tirthankaras,
matter, in a way that the
great
is to purify
the Jiva of
kärmic
1o a c h i e v e
this goal, Jain philosophy o
view, the goal blissful nature.
substance that hae
its inherent
radiate in a physical
considered as nderd
karma is
practices in terms of wlh
can
Jiva essential. Since
as on ascetic une
ascetic practices special emphasis prescribed right
with the Jiva, Jain philosophy puts 'clean the up
karma. Three gems are
to
must not do, as a means
importance a s any activiy
and is given utmost
must
right conduct". Right faith aogood
faith, right knowledge, and Right knowledge pertains to

undertaken with false convictions loses much ofits value. huge importance in the Jain
conduct is also placed
philosophy. Right
understanding of the Jain the passion with the right
conducts, of which ahimsa
individual must control
philosophy. The
one.
is the most important the ethical restraints
and prescribed ascetic
Once a person begins
to diligently practice inherent nature
knowledge, which is the
disciplines, the karmas slowly drop away and the pure and through a
the passions can be calmed
to radiate. By these practices,
of the Jiva begins further accumulation of
k rmic matter and preventing
two-way process of cleaning existing
karma, the Jiva can attain the final goal.

3.6.2 Bauddha School of Philosophy

The Bauddha (or Buddhist) school of philosophy is largely based on the teachings of Gautama
BCE. Although Buddhism
Buddha. Buddha was born as Siddhârtha during the 4th-5th Century or
of Asia. There are two forms
originated in ancient India, it later spread to several parts in
Buddhism: the northern form and the southern form. The form of Buddhism prevailing
Nepal, Tibet, China, Korea, Vietnam, Taiwan, Singapore, and Japan is called northern Buddhism
(also synonymous with Mahyäna) while the form prevailing in Sri Lanka and other parts o
Southeast Asia including Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand is called Southern Buddhis
(also known as Theraväda). The earliest form is the northern version, and it includes sever
sub-traditions such as Zen, Nichiren, and Shingon. Kani[ka is supposed to have conveneu
great council of the Northern Buddhists in the 1st century CE. Lalitavistar is an import
work composed by the Northern Buddhists sometime during the 2nd-4th century CE. T1DEa
Euddhism drifted away from the primitive Buddhism in India and is supposed to have adop
forms and ceremonies, which were unknown to Gautama and his followers.
According to early texts, Gautama was moved by the suffering of life and dea i
Further
s
on account of rebirth, this
suffering is experienced in an endless cycle of birth--dedit
enlightenment showed him the path for liberation from this suffering forever, by reac
state of NirváFa. Gautama's teachings were initially oral and in the later
into a complete philosophical system with several treatises period, they devehe
school. written by the followel
Buddha's philosophy tocuses on the It is
means of
based on four noble truths (catvàri-årya- ending the suffering of the indiviuhese
are elaborated as follows:
satyáni). Figure 3.6 graphically illustrates this. These
1. There is sujfering: According to Gautama, "Birth illness
is suffering, decay is
is suffering death is sutering The presence of sufterin able
objects we hate is suffering "
 Philosophical Systems 73
tain what we desire is sutterin8 The Buddhist
is a compound of five philosophy argues that the human
five aggregates include the aggregates
following:
and
clinging to them leads
to
suffering. The
The made of four elements (earth,
form
water, fire, and air), five sense
five attributes of matter (smell, form, sound, taste, and touch), two organs,
of sex (male, female), three essential conditions distinctions
two means of communication (gesture and
(thought, vitality, and space) and
speech)
b) Consciousness

(c)Feeling: Sensations of pleasure and pain

(d) Formation

(e) Perception and Potentialities which lead to good or bad results

These five aggregates include all physical and mental elements and powers of man and
are impermanent in nature. Consciousness arises from other aggregates and mental
factors from the contact of consciousness and other aggregates.

Suffering by
clinging toS
aggregatess

Four Thirst
8-fold path causes
to end the Noble rebirth and
Suftering suffering
Truths

cessation
of suffering8

destruction
of desire

Truths of Buddhism
FIGURE 3.6 The Four Noble

rebirth accompanied
"Thirst leads to
In Gautama's words,
nere is the cause of suffering: thirst
thirst for existence,
prosperity"
for
pleasure and lust, thirst for pleasure, be possible with
the complete
cessation of suffering will destruction
Cessation suffering: The
of absence of passion
and complete
e a m o u n t s to the
of thirst, which
aton
of desire.
 Applications

system-concepis
and
Knowledge
Introduction to Indian
74
philosophy prescribe.

path to end the

sujjering:
Buddhist

life and that will lead

holy eight-fold
4. There is a moral
one
to the final
one to lead a holy
path that enables right views, right resolve, right goal
of liberation. The eightfold path
includes

and
mindfulness, and right concentrati speech right
livelihood, right effort, right
conduct, right
philosophy is to reach NirvFa. Nirvna is not a chas
Buddhist
The ultimate goal in very sinless
this lire. lt is the calmChed
that is attainable in
after death, but something and passions, a state of perfect peace
freedom from desires goodn es,
mind attained due to birth and death ends. wh
reaches NirvaFa, the cycle of
and wisdom. Once a person
to liberation.
final goal leading is to strive
As we have seen above, the central issue in Buddhist philosophy
the
for
cessation of suffering. The Buddhist philosophy systematically argues how sufferiings
happen using a cause-effect cycle. Figure 3.7 ilustrates this cycle leading to suffering. As Seor
seen
in the figure, the root cause of the suffering is ignorance. Due to ignorance, the impressions of
the previous birth lead to initial consciousness. The body and the mind and the sense organs
evolve out of this consciousness. Once the sense organs are in contact with the senses and
gather the experiences of life, the thirst for enjoyment drives the process leading to rebirth
and suffering Therefore, the only way to break this cycle of sufering is to remove ignorance
by acquiring the right knowledge. The fourth noble truth provides the path for
removing
gnorance.

Impressions
gnorance of Previous
Birth
Suffering Initial
Consciousness

Old Age
and Death Mind and
Body

Rebirth
Sense Organs

TendencyY
to be Born
Contact
with Senses
Clinging for
Enjoyment Thirst for Sense

Enjoyment Experience
FIGURE 3.7 The Cycle of
Suffering
 Philosophical Systems 75
3.6.3 Crvka School
aika school of thought closely maps to tne trant ot

iavment based on certain principlesand

materialism,
assumptions about
which emphasises a
life. The word
rally means 'sweet-tonguedt (caru-vaka), n way a Cârväka
Signiying that the ideas
he outset. This is because the system ony advocates two of the
appear attractive
four
puru_ärthas, pleasur
also
and wealth objectives of iving This sehool is
as called Lokáyata. The Carvaka
onsiders matter as the ultimate reality and rejects the idea that there is school
a divine or a
transcendental powver behina the mater, caled Fraktti conceptualised by the Sämkhya-Yoga
school.
Philosophical
systems in lnda had systematic methods for the presentation of the
key
concepts in the system. This began with a book (of aphorisms). followed by a growing literature
af few commentaries and sub-commentaries. In the case of the Carvka
a
system, we do not
seem to have such extensive literature on the school. No
text of the Crvka school is available to us today which No text of the Crváka school
discusses its tenets in totality. The absence of canonical is available to us
today which
texts and a lineage of followers who were able to establish discusses its tenets in totality.
the tenets of the system by constantly engaging in According to Crväka school
whatever is directly perceivable
intellectual debates to establish their tenets were perhaps
can only be accepted as valid
responsible for its decay. Current discussions on this school means of knowledge.
of thought are based on the scanty fragments available for
some analysis". The available material is from texts such as Sarva-dar[ana-sangraha where.
during the discussion of these schools, some verses are quoted. Mostly we get to know about
this system through refutations from its opponents.
One of the major differences of the Cârvka school with that of the Vedic schools of
philosophy pertains to what is the accepted means of valid knowledge. Unlike ali otherschools
Cärväka school considers only direct perception through senses as pramâna. Essentialy
this implies that whatever is directly perceivable can only be accepted as valid means ot

account of this, Carväka

knowledge. This has significant implications for nmetaphysics. On
is made of. Furthermore.
School considers matter as the only reality using which the world
water, fire, and air, which
the world only four basic categories, namely, earth,
is constituted of
is not accepted as the fifth element
are all physical and directly perceivable. Ether or space
because it is not perceivable. Other entities such as the sky, tman, mind, iavara, dharma
rejected in the
that the other schools have accepted are

reincarnation, svarga, and mok_a

transcendental entities are dismissed using the argument that
arvka system. In esence,
only direct perception provides valid knowledge. C rv ka considers the four basic
other than the body.
n e r e is
nothing called âtman constituents of the body
too. When the
individual

the basic However

Cments of the world as state, they are bereft of
life and consciousness.
u e n t s exist in a disjointed formed, and by
a peculiar
combination
of these
the body is of rebirth
c o m e together The concept
nese in the body.
appear
primarily stem
consciousness
life-breath and
tuents, the
arguments
dismissed in this system. The knowledge.
ner
world is completely as the means
of valid
direct perception 'other world.
Moreover,
limitation of using only the existence of the
ne for determining
Th
d r e no means
available
 and Applications
System-Concepts
Indian Knowledge
76 Introduction to
or any otherworldlv
'other world' because
or
the
a05ence
be substantiallu being. nce the
established
cannot
there is no
in the other worid

of consciousness
for valid knowled.
existence

direct perception,
which is the only means available
ge, through
these 1deas
are
dismissed. Pleasure and pain are felt in
i other place than
there is no afterlife.
Once a person dies, called the tman which is r
hence there is no
need to accept something
the body, and there is no rebirth the highec: confi me
by the pramâFa.
Since there is no
t1man
confined to the of hurman fame goal
in one's lifetime. Once the body is he
and flames b
life is to have pleasure burnt t,
the goal
ever return, therefore
enjoyment here and now is is the goal of
of
ashes, how can it in living
school of thought".
The salient features of the Cärväka
school of philosophy are summ
rised in
Figure 3

Matter is the
ultimate
reality

Goal of lifeis
to experience
World is made
pleasure 'here of four basic
and now' elements

Direct perception
only valid means
for knowledge

Consciousness
and knowledge No room for
are embodied, any of the
not eternal transcendental
entities

No afterlife,
rebirth etc.

FIGURE 3.8 Salient

Features of the Crvka
School