Literature Review

Vaibhavi pandey
2222BHST001

The provided literature excerpt explores the extensive field of international

politics and the role of international relations theory in comprehending it.
Cynthia Weber presents international relations theory as a collection of
narratives or stories that help us understand the world of international politics.
These stories not only describe what is happening but also impose a particular
understanding of how the world functions.

To grasp international relations theory, the author emphasizes the significance

of understanding the myths within it. These myths are apparent truths
expressed in simple phrases that IR theories rely on to appear valid. They serve
as the foundational elements of IR theory and are often taken for granted as
commonly accepted knowledge. Weber questions the validity of IR traditions
such as Realism and Idealism because they themselves seem to be perpetuated
through these myths.

Weber clarifies that referring to these foundational elements as myths does

not imply that they are necessarily false. The truth or falsehood of an IR myth is
not the main focus; instead, it is the function of mythologizing that is of
interest. IR myths serve as the mechanism through which cultural narratives
about the world are transformed into common sense and accepted as truth.

Weber is explicit about her motivation for writing the book, which is to analyze
how IR theory relates to culture, ideology, and the mythological function within
IR theory.
Culture is closely intertwined with the study of IR theory. Although culture is a
term frequently used in everyday language, Weber refers to Raymond Williams,
who argues that while everyone seems to understand culture, no one can
adequately define it. Culture is not limited to traditional arrangements within
states or societies but is instead a process of creating meaning. It involves the
production, reproduction, and dissemination of significance, meaning, and
awareness.
According to the author, ideology plays a significant role in the interplay
between culture and IR theory. Ideology encompasses a set of ideas that
elucidate and assess social conditions, providing a framework for
comprehending our position in society and guiding social and political actions.
Some ideologies are consciously embraced and openly debated, while others
are unconsciously ingrained in our thinking. These unconscious ideologies, also
referred to as anonymous ideologies, often go unnoticed as they are perceived
as the natural order of things or "just the way things are." In the context of
connecting ideology and culture, Weber argues that if culture is a realm where
meanings are generated, ideology serves as a domain where those meanings
are transformed into the accepted reality or the perceived ideal state.

Weber emphasizes that the process of converting cultural meanings into

naturalized facts occurs through the mythological function within IR theory. IR
myths, whether held consciously or unconsciously, contribute to the
construction of narratives within IR traditions. Despite debates about the
truthfulness of these narratives, we often overlook the underlying influence of
unconscious ideologies or IR myths in shaping our understanding of
international politics.

By examining the mythological function within IR theory, Weber believes that

we can challenge the assumed veracity of IR myths and draw attention to the
inherently political nature of these narratives. She views mythologized facts,
presented as natural and detached from politics, as highly political since they
evade critical scrutiny. Recognizing this allows for a re-politicization of IR
theory, enabling a deeper analysis of the ideologies and power dynamics at
play.
The author's objective in scrutinizing the mythological function within IR theory
is not to discard or expose myths as false, but rather to gain a comprehensive
understanding of their role and influence.

Later in the reading, Weber introduces a significant global event that had an
immediate impact on a particular nation but triggered concerns worldwide: the
terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001. The hijacking of four passenger jets,
with three targeting buildings in New York City and Washington, DC, and the
fourth crashing in Pennsylvania, astounded scholars and practitioners of
international politics in the US. This event challenged preexisting
understandings, including those put forth by Hardt and Negri, who
acknowledged a conflicted new world order but did not employ terminology
that remained relevant post-September 11. Individuals who had previously
praised the waning of ideology, the end of history, and the diffusion of Western
culture suddenly found themselves compelled to revisit these concepts in
different ways. It became apparent that not everyone worldwide had
embraced liberalism. Francis Fukuyama and other proponents of liberal
triumphalism failed to anticipate the destabilizing impact of illiberal individuals
who were willing to sacrifice themselves for their beliefs, despite
acknowledging liberalism as the ideal form of political and social organization
that had not yet fully permeated the globe.

Subsequently, Weber endeavors to address another pivotal inquiry: Why do we

yearn for identity and culture to be congruent? To tackle this matter, she
solicits the assistance of the cinematic piece "East is East," which poses a
parallel query. Yet, arriving at a definitive solution proves elusive. We are
reminded that the "being" of an identity—whether it pertains to an individual,
a state, or a civilization—is far from being as simplistic as Huntington suggests.
This holds true whether we observe the emergence of the New Right within
Western multicultural states like Britain and the USA or the ascent of
fundamentalist movements that disrupt Huntington's categories of Islam and
Western Christianity. Identity, in essence, is equally contested, capricious, and
divisive as difference. In other words, both the attainment (or impossibility) of
identity and the presence (or impossibility) of difference engender stability and
instability, order and disorder.
Upon an exhaustive examination of Cynthia Weber's oeuvre, certain inferences
may be gleaned. Mainstream IR theory, exemplified by realism, idealism, and
Wendtian constructivism, renders reality intelligible by concentrating on
specific actors, circumstances, and interactions. For adherents of mainstream
IR, international anarchy—an intricately defined domain—rather than the more
broadly encompassing realm of "international politics," provides the backdrop
within which nations engage. International anarchy assumes paramount
importance in comprehending international politics according to the tenets
upheld by mainstream IR theorists. Disputations and divergences regarding the
essence of anarchy (what it truly embodies) and its ramifications (how it
influences state behavior) merely serve to underscore the paramount
significance ascribed to it by conventional IR theorists.

Given their preoccupation with a specific array of international interactions,

mainstream IR theorists evince a profound interest in sovereign nation-states
operating amidst the landscape of international anarchy. These inter-state
interactions transpire within what is often denominated "high politics," a
domain accentuating diplomatic stratagems, inter-sovereign conflicts, and
increasingly salient global economic challenges such as globalization. Matters
of grave import, such as war and peace, alongside the consequential actions
undertaken by statesmen to address and potentially resolve these quandaries,
assume precedence over other international interactions.

Fukuyama's narrative of the "end of history" encompasses far more than the
purported triumph of liberal capitalism during the epoch dubbed
"globalization." It likewise sheds light on the dichotomy between warfare and
peace. Fukuyama bifurcates the anarchic realm of international politics into
two realms: post-historical liberal sovereign nation-states and those still
entrenched in historical processes, yet to fully embrace liberalism. He posits
that conflicts will persist until the ideal of liberalism permeates all states,
entailing hostilities both between liberal and non-liberal states, as well as
among non-liberal states. Fukuyama, despite arriving at this conclusion in a
distinctive fashion, shares the overarching concerns of mainstream IR. A similar
alignment of interests can be ascribed to Huntington. Analogous to Fukuyama,
Huntington examines contemporary conflicts without relying on the
frameworks of realism, idealism, or their purported interconnections. Rather,
he harkens back to the principles of modernization and development theory.
However, it is vital to note that the roots of modernization and development
theory trace back to the Cold War era, with security always being an underlying
objective. Huntington's work revolves exclusively around the security agenda
intrinsic to modernization and development theory. Therefore, sovereign
nation-states, anarchy, and states embroiled in anarchy-induced warfare are
matters of equal pertinence to Huntington as they are to Waltz, Kegley, and
Wendt
The evidence demonstrates that cultural arenas serve as formidable
battlegrounds where political contests unfold, with IR theory being perceived
as a realm of cultural praxis encompassing both formal scholarly behaviors,
such as the dissemination of IR theories and myths through academic
publications, and informal cultural practices, including the influence of popular
cinema. Notably, this reframing of IR theory offers a fresh perspective on the
intricate interplay between politics and culture. Rather than being diametrically
opposed, politics and culture are intricately intertwined, as politics itself is
inherently cultural, while culture possesses inherent political dimensions.

In conclusion, Weber's scholarly writings pertaining to modernization and

development theory, as well as her insightful analyses of culture, ideology, and
myth, enrich our understanding of potential clashes between civilizations. Her
work serves as a cautionary admonition against simplistic interpretations of
cultural dynamics and underscores the paramount significance of historical,
socioeconomic, and power considerations. By embracing diverse perspectives,
we can undertake a more nuanced examination of the root causes of conflicts
and strive toward a heightened comprehension of the intricate fabric of
multicultural relationships.

CITATIONS
1. Burchill, Scott ... [and others]. 2009. Theories of International Relations. Houndmills, Basingstoke,

Hampshire; New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009.

2. Weber, Cynthia. 2005. International relations theory: a critical introduction. Routledge, London,
2005