ME 543 - INDUSTRIAL FINISHING (2 UNITS)

More in depth coverage of industrial finishing of steels Vis manufacture of tin

plates, production of galvanized sheets and strip sting corrosion and protective
coatings, polishing.

1.0 Introduction to Metal Finishing

Metal finishing is a surface treatment that alters the properties of steel products and
there are many different types of finishing processes that fulfil a variety of
functions, both practical and aesthetic.
Steelwork can be brushed, patterned, electroplated, coloured, painted, buffed,
powder coated, dipped, polished and patterned (amongst other finishing processes)
– all of which are undertaken to make the steelwork look good and/or enhance its
functionality, performance and texture.
For example, finishing can enhance the durability and corrosion-resistance of a
steel product, improve its electrical conductivity, improve the decorative appeal by
making the surface look brighter or more colorful, improve torque tolerance, make
it easier to solder, increase its tarnish and chemical resistance, harden it and enable
it to bond to rubber (vulcanization).
These are just some of the reasons for metal finishing – and choosing the best
finish for a specific structure or product requires an-depth knowledge of the
various processes and their respective advantages and disadvantages, what specific
conditions they suit best and the costs involved – and it’s always best to seek an
expert opinion to determine which finish is best suited for your particular
application.
Here are a few considerations that will facilitate your decision-making in choosing
a metal finishing technique for your particular project. But while it is vital to
specify a finish for an application where the finish is important from an aesthetic or
functional perspective, it is equally vital to specify the finish even when you don’t
think it is important – and that is in order to avoid a situation where you receive a
finish or a finished product where the ‘unspecified’ finish is not actually suitable
for the application. Always seek advice from an experienced steel fabricator who
will guide you on choosing the most suitable finish for your particular product or
application.
Finishes fall into two categories; mill finishes and special finishes. A number of
finishes for flat steel products (sheet and plate) take place at the mill itself whilst
others are applied later during processing. Hot rolled, heat treated and pickled mill
finishes result in a non-reflective rough surface which isn’t generally used for

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decorative steelwork. Cold rolled finishes (of which there are several different
types) result in a dull grey, slightly reflective finish which is either used as is or as
a starting point for a range of polished finishes.
Overview of the Metal Finishing Industry
These days everyone doing pollution prevention assistance seems interested in
helping the metal finishing industry; ever wonder why? Metal finishing, when
taken as a whole, is one of the largest users of many toxics’ chemicals in the
country. Electroplating alone is the second largest end user of nickel and nickel
compounds, and the third largest end user of cadmium and cadmium compounds.
Electroplating also accounts for a substantial amount of chromium use in the
United States. In other words, this industry is responsible for managing large
amounts of hazardous materials.
Many industries use metal finishing in their manufacturing processes including
automotive, electronics, aerospace, hardware, jewelry, heavy equipment,
appliances, tires, and telecommunications.
Why is metal finishing so prevalent?
Without metal finishing, products made from metals would last only a fraction of
their present lifespan because of corrosion and wear. Finishing is also used to
enhance electrical properties, to form and shape components, and to enhance the
bonding of adhesives or organic coatings. Sometimes the finishes are used to meet
consumer demand for a decorative appearance.
Overall, metal finishing alters the surface of metal products to enhance:
 Corrosion resistance
 Wear resistance
 Electrical conductivity
 Electrical resistance
 Reflectivity and appearance (e.g., brightness or color)
 Torque tolerance
 Solderability
 Tarnish resistance
 Chemical resistance
 Ability to bond to rubber (e.g., vulcanizing)
 Hardness
Metal finishers use a variety of materials and processes to clean, etch, and plate
metallic and non-metallic surfaces to create a workpiece that has the desired
surface characteristics. Electrolytic plating, electroless plating, and chemical and
electrochemical conversion processes are typically used in the industry. Typical
supporting processes can include degreasing, cleaning, pickling, etching, and/or
polishing.
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Some of the materials used in metal finishing are solvents and surfactants for
cleaning, acids and bases for etching, and solutions of metal salts for plating the
finish onto the substrate.
Types of Shops
The electroplating, plating, polishing, anodizing, and coloring industry is classified
under the Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) code 3471 and includes
establishments primarily engaged in all types of metal finishing. Companies that
both manufacture and finish products are classified according to products they
make. Nonetheless, they are still considered part of the metal finishing industry.
Firms that rely on one customer or that conduct metal finishing as part of a larger
operation are referred to as captive shops. These companies tend to have larger
operations than job shops. Independent facilities, often referred to as job shops,
rely on a variety of customers and coat a variety of workpieces and substrates. In
general, job shops tend to be small and independently owned. Enough similarities
exist between the job and captive shops that they are essentially considered part of
one industry. The job and captive shops use the same types of processes and fall
within the same regulatory framework.
However, the barriers they face in deciding upon and implementing new
technologies reflect the differences in their environmental performance and in the
corporate capabilities of the two segments. Captive operations, which are more
specialized, can focus their operations because they often work on a limited
number of products and/or use a limited number of processes. Job shops, on the
other hand, tend to be less focused in their operations because they can have many
customers often with different requirements. In general, captive shops tend to have
greater access to financial and organizational resources and, as a result, tend to be
more proactive in their approach to environmental management. However, this is
not always the case. The vastly different cultures in these shops greatly affects
their perceived ability to implement pollution prevention.
Job shops and captive shops do not ordinarily compete against each other because
captive finishers seldom seek contract work. However, captive facilities might use
job shops as subcontractors to perform tasks that their operations are unable to or
that they choose not to do. As a nationwide trend, many manufacturers are
choosing to eliminate or reduce metal finishing operations from their facilities
because it is not of strategic importance for their long-term success. In some of
these cases, the larger firms have shifted their plating activities to job shops.
Metal Surface Finishing Process
Surface finishing is a broad range of industrial processes that alter the surface of a
manufactured item to achieve a certain property. Finishing processes may be
employed to: improve appearance, adhesion or wettability, solderability, corrosion
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resistance, tarnish resistance, chemical resistance, wear resistance, hardness,
modify electrical conductivity, remove burrs and other surface flaws, and control
the surface friction. In limited cases some of these techniques can be used to
restore original dimensions to salvage or repair an item. An unfinished surface is
often called mill finish.
Surface finishing processes can be categorized by how they affect the workpiece:
 Removing or reshaping finishing
 Adding or altering finishing
Mechanical processes may also be categorized together because of similarities the
final surface finish. The use of abrasives in metal polishing results in what is
considered a "mechanical finish".
Industrial Metal Finishing.
Metal finishing is an all-encompassing term used to describe the process of placing
some type of metal coating on the surface of a metallic part, typically referred to as
a substrate. It can also involve the implementation of a process for cleaning,
polishing or otherwise improving a surface. Metal finishing often consists of
electroplating, which is the process of depositing metal ions onto a substrate via an
electric current. In fact, metal finishing and plating are sometimes used
interchangeably. However, the metal finishing industry includes a wide range of
processes, each offering its own user benefits.
Industrial metal finishing can serve many valuable purposes including:
 Limiting the impact of corrosion
 Serving as a primer coat to promote paint adhesion
 Strengthening the substrate and increasing wear resistance
 Reducing the effects of friction
 Improving the appearance of a part
 Increasing solderability
 Making a surface electrically conductive
 Enhancing chemical resistance
 Cleaning, polishing and removing surface defects
Let’s take a closer look at how metal finishing works by examining some of the
most commonly used industrial metal finishing processes.

Why is Metal Finishing Important?

Metal finishing helps to minimize the wear and tear of metallic products. Aside
from aesthetics, there are many industrial applications for it. It helps to improve

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electrical conductivity, resistance to torque, and increase solderability of metals,
among other reasons.
Let me emphasize on the importance of the process of metal finishing on precision
tools.
i. Surface Quality and Precision
Anodizing is a process that can make metallic precision tools very resistant to
regular wear and tear. It eliminates abrasion and ensures that tools such as surface
plates and precision angle plates maintain their accuracy for the years they are in
use.
A nano-ceramic technology that can make the surface smoother than what is
possible with a standard anodizing process. The result of this metal finishing
process is improved accuracy and durability for your precision tools. This means
your precision tools will continue to be in their best shape for years to come.
ii. Cleaning
These processes remove abrasions on the surfaces of the metal. The removal of
abrasions is done at very high levels of precision. Therefore, the adhesion of
debris, which may not be visible to the naked eye, is significantly reduced.
Cleaning is easier thanks to the exceptionally smooth surface.
iii. Minimize Corrosion
The elimination of abrasions at the microscopic level helps to reduce the power
that forces of wear and tear have on the metallic surface. When friction is reduced,
the development of abrasion is also minimized therefore making precision tools
last longer than they normally would otherwise.
Providing metal finishing and metal coating services should be cost-effective to
encourage patronage
Types of Metal Finishing Processes
Metal finishing comprises a broad range of processes that are practiced by most
industries which manufacture metal parts. Typically, manufacturers perform the
finishing after a metal part has been formed. Finishing can be any operation that
alters the surface of a workpiece to achieve a certain property. Common metal
finishes include paint, lacquer, ceramic coatings, and other surface treatments. This
manual mainly addresses the plating and surface treatment processes.
The metal finishing industry generally categorizes plating operations as
electroplating and electroless plating. Surface treatments consist of chemical and
electrochemical conversion, case hardening, metallic coating, and chemical
coating. They are as follows:
i. Electroplating

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Electroplating, also known as electrodeposition, involves the deposit of a metal or
metal alloy onto the surface of a substrate. An electric current is passed through a
liquid (referred to as a “bath”) that contains dissolved ions of the metal and the
substrate. The object serves as a cathode and attracts the metal ions found in the
plating bath. A pretreatment process that typically includes cleaning, rinsing and
stripping is often employed prior to plating. Common bulk electroplating methods
include rack plating, where the parts are affixed to a jig, and barrel plating, where
numerous smaller parts are tumbled inside a barrel-shaped cage. In addition to
metallic surfaces, electroplating can also be used to coat plastics and other non-
metallic materials. However, this process is extremely difficult to master and
requires specialized plating expertise.
Electroplating is achieved by passing an electric current through a solution
containing dissolved metal ions and the metal object to be plated. The metal object
serves as the cathode in an electrochemical cell, attracting ions from the solution.
Ferrous and non-ferrous metal objects are plated with a variety of metals including
aluminum, brass, bronze, cadmium, copper, chromium, gold, iron, lead, nickel,
platinum, silver, tin, and zinc. The process is regulated by controlling a variety of
parameters including voltage and amperage, temperature, residence times, and
purity of bath solutions. Plating baths are almost always aqueous solutions,
therefore, only those metals that can be reduced in aqueous solutions of their salts
can be electrodeposited. The only major exception to this principle is aluminum,
which can be plated from organic electrolytes.
Metal plating can improve a product’s durability, corrosion resistance, surface
friction, and exterior appearance. In the case of galvanized metal, the zinc plating
serves as a sacrificial anode, itself corroding while protecting the integrity of the
underlying substrate. However, plating machines are generally not suited for
smoothing out surface defects.
Sherardizing is a process used to coat small steel parts such as bolts and washers
with a corrosion-resistant zinc-iron alloy. Parts are tumbled in a heated drum
containing zinc dust, producing a highly corrosion-resistant finish. In high-volume
production runs, a barrel-finishing machine is a fast and efficient coating solution.
Plating operations are typically batch operations in which metal objects are dipped
into a series of baths containing various reagents for achieving the required surface
characteristics. Operators can either carry the workpieces on racks or in barrels.
Operators mount workpieces on racks that carry the part from bath to bath. Barrels
rotate in the plating solution and hold smaller parts.
The sequence of unit operations in an electroplating process is similar in both rack
and barrel plating operations. A typical plating sequence involves various phases
of cleaning, rinsing, stripping, and plating. Electroless plating uses similar steps

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but involves the deposition of metal on metallic or non-metallic surfaces without
the use of external electrical energy.
ii. Electroless Plating and Immersion Plating
Electroless plating is similar to electroplating in that the substrate is placed in a
liquid solution containing the desired metal, most often nickel or copper. The key
difference is the way in which the deposition occurs. Instead of electricity, the
metal coating is applied via chemical reaction. In addition to the source metal, the
plating bath normally includes a complexing agent to maintain the metal solution
and various chemicals that maintain stability and lengthen bath life. Electroless
plating is the chemical deposition of a metal coating onto an object using chemical
reactions rather than electricity. The basic ingredients in an electroless plating
solution are a source metal (usually a salt), a reducer, a complexing agent to hold
the metal in solution, and various buffers and other chemicals designed to maintain
bath stability and increase bath life. Copper and nickel electroless plating
commonly are used for printed circuit boards.
Immersion plating is a similar process in that it uses a chemical reaction to apply
the coating. However, the difference is that the reaction is caused by the metal
substrate rather than by mixing two chemicals into the plating bath. This process
produces a thin metal deposit by chemical displacement, commonly zinc or silver.
Immersion plating baths are usually formulations of metal salts, alkalis, and
complexing agents (e.g., lactic, glycolic, or malic acids salts). Electroless plating
and immersion plating commonly generate more waste than other plating
techniques, but individual facilities vary significantly in efficiency.
iii. Chemical and Electrochemical Conversion
Chemical and electrical conversion treatments deposit a protective and/or
decorative coating on a metal surface. Chemical and electrochemical conversion
processes include phosphating, chromating, anodizing, passivation, and metal
coloring. Phosphating prepares the surface for further treatment. In some instances,
this process precedes painting. Chromating uses hexavalent chromium in a certain
pH range to deposit a protective film on metal surfaces. Anodizing is an immersion
process in which the workpiece is placed in a solution (usually containing metal
salts or acids) where a reaction occurs to form an insoluble metal oxide. The
reaction continues and forms a thin, non-porous layer that provides good corrosion
resistance. Sometimes this process is used as a pretreatment for painting.

iv. Passivation

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Passivating also involves the immersion of the workpiece into an acid solution,
usually nitric acid or nitric acid with sodium dichromate. The passivating process
is used to prevent corrosion and extend the life of the product. Metal coloring
involves chemically treating the workpiece to impart a decorative finish.
Passivation is sometimes employed as a post-treatment plating process, normally
as a means of providing additional corrosion protection. Passivation involves the
application of a metal oxide coating that can lengthen the time in which the onset
of rust occurs. Passivates are available in a variety of colors, which can also
enhance the appearance of the finished part.
iv. Other Surface Finishing Technologies
Other commonly used finishing technologies that do not fall into the plating or
chemical and electrochemical conversion processes include cladding, case
hardening, dip/galvanizing, electropolishing, and vapor deposition. The following
sections provide brief overviews of these different processes.
a. Cladding
Cladding is a mechanical process in which the metal coating is metallurgically
bonded to the workpiece surface by combining heat and pressure. An example of
cladding is a quarter. The copper inside is heated and pressed between two sheets
of molten nickel alloy, bonding the materials. Cladding is used to deposit a thicker
coating than electroplating, and requires less preparation and emits less waste.
However, equipment costs are higher than electroplating. Cladding is a mechanical
process where heat and pressure are used to create a bond between the substrate
and the metal coating. Cladding can provide a thicker metal coating than either
electroplating or electroless plating. It also requires a less stringent preparation
process. However, cladding also involves the use of specialized equipment that
generally makes it more costly than plating.
b. Case Hardening
Case hardening is a metallurgical process that modifies the surface of a metal. The
process produces a hard surface (case) over a metal core that remains relatively
soft. The case is wear-resistant and durable, while the core is left strong and
pliable. In case hardening, a metal is heated and molded and then the temperature
is quickly dropped to quench the workpiece. An example of a material made with
case hardening is the Samurai sword. The hardened surface can be easily shaped,
however, the sword remains pliable. This method has low waste generation and
requires a low degree of preparation. Operating difficulty and equipment cost are
approximately the same as for anodizing, although case hardening imparts
improved toughness and wear.
Case hardening methodologies include carburizing, nitriding, micro-casing, and
hardening using localized heating and quenching operations. Carburizing, the most
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widely used case hardening operation, involves diffusion of carbon into a steel
surface at temperatures of 845 - 955oC, producing a hard case coating. Nitriding
processes diffuse nascent nitrogen into a steel surface to produce case hardening.
Nitriding uses either a nitrogenous gas, usually ammonia, or a liquid salt bath
(typically consisting of 60 - 70 % sodium salts, mainly sodium cyanide, and 30 -
40% potassium salts, mainly potassium cyanide). Carbon nitriding and cyaniding
involves the diffusion of both carbon and nitrogen simultaneously into a steel
surface.
c. Dip/Galvanized
Dip/galvanized coatings are applied primarily to iron and steel to protect the base
metal from corroding. During the dipping process, the plater immerses the part in a
molten bath commonly composed of zinc compounds. The metal part must be free
of grease, oil, lubricants, and other surface contaminants prior to the coating
process. Operating difficulty and equipment costs are low, which makes dipping an
attractive coating process for most industrial applications. However, dipping does
not always provide a high-quality finish. Hot dip galvanizing is a cost-effective
process widely used in industrial applications whereby iron and steel products are
immersed in a bath of liquid zinc and coated in order to protect the base metal from
corroding.
d. Electropolishing
Electropolishing is an electrochemical metal finishing process that is considered to
be the opposite of electroplating. Electroplating involves the deposition of metal
ions onto the surface of the substrate. With electropolishing, the metal ions are
removed from the substrate, resulting in a smooth, streamlined surface texture.
This is accomplished by immersing the object into an electrolyte bath, which
enables it to serve as the anode.
The object is also connected to a terminal that provides a DC power supply and
serves as the cathode. Electropolishing is often applied to remove burrs or small
amounts of debris from the surface, eliminating peaks and valleys, and polishing
hard-to-reach areas. It can even be used to reduce the size of a part in some
instances.
e. Brushing/Cleaning
Unlike plating, metal finishing with brushes is an effective method for removing
surface imperfections. These finishing machines create a uniform, parallel grain
surface texture to smooth out a product’s exterior. An abrasive belt or wire brush is
usually employed to achieve this effect. In addition, the singular direction of the
belt or brush can create slightly rounded edges perpendicular to the grain.
In addition, wire brushing is used to remove the slag produced by some welding
operations and to remove scale and grit from metal surfaces prior to cleaning.
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Chemical baths and acid baths are used to clean oil residue left over from the
machining, forming, and other processes prior to plating or coating.
f. Buff Polishing
As with electropolishing, buff polishing can be used to clean and smooth the
surface of a substrate. However, buff polishing does not involve creating any type
of electrochemical reaction. Instead, a machine equipped with a cloth wheel is used
to buff the surface, producing an action that is similar to buffing an automobile
after waxing an automobile. Buff polishing is most often applied to provide a
glossy, decorative finishing to metallic objects.
These abrasive methods are used to reduce surface roughness in metals after
machining. Roughness is measured in micro-inches with about the most exacting
machining processes (reaming, broaching) producing surface finishes of 16-125 µ-
in. Precision or fine grinding (see below) can reduce surface roughness to 8-16 µ-
in. using abrasive wheels or mounted points. Beyond that, abrasive powders are
used in combination with leather or felt wheels to polish (1-32 µ-in.) and buff (0.5-
16 µ-in.) as required.
g. Honing/Lapping
These abrasive methods are used to reduce surface roughness in metals after
machining. Honing and lapping use abrasive compounds to improve the surface
roughness of mating parts by rubbing them against each other (such as lapped
engine valves) or running a mating shape through a hollow (such as a honed
cylinder).
h. Mass Finishing
Mass finishing, also known as mechanical surface finishing, offers a cost-effective
way to polish parts in bulk. Mass finishing actually encompasses a wide range of
processes that can provide uniform cleaning, edge-breaking, smoothing and
polishing smaller parts at once. This can significantly decrease production times.
Common mass finishing techniques also include tumble finishing and vibratory
finishing. Mass finishing processes typically involve the application of media that
can consist of materials such as aluminum, steel, plastic or aluminum. The medium
that is chosen will depend on the desired process result.
i. Abrasive Blasting
Abrasive blasting, also known as sand blasting or bead blasting, offers a means of
combining cleaning and finishing into one process, which can save time and
money. With abrasive blasting, high-pressure compressed air is used to project a
medium onto the surface of the part to perform the desired cleaning, polishing or
finishing action.

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A wide variety of media can be used, such as sand, silicon carbide, glass beads,
aluminum steel grit or shot, or organic materials such as walnut shells or corn cobs.
Generally, harder media is used when more aggressive cleaning action is required,
while the softer materials are used on surfaces that are more susceptible to damage.
The amount of pressure can also be adjusted to accommodate the specific cleaning
or finishing requirements.
2. Blasting
Blast machinery, such as sand-blasting machines, is typically employed in projects
requiring a uniform matte texture. The sandblasting process (also known as bead
blasting) forces sand, steel shots, metal pellets, or other abrasives onto a substrate
at high speed. This results in a smooth, clean product texture, particularly in soft
metals.
3. Shot peening is a blasting method used to impart compressive stress in the
surface of metals as a way of improving fatigue resistance, stress corrosion
cracking resistance, fretting resistance, etc. The cold working process imparts
compressive stress to surfaces as a way of countering tensile stress induced during
manufacturing. Burnishing is another cold-work surface modification method used
to impart compressive stress for fatigue resistance.
4. Soda Blasting
Soda blasting works in a similar fashion to abrasive blasting. The key difference is
that baking soda is propelled onto the surface of the object instead of abrasive
media. Soda blasting serves as a powerful method for removing grease, oil, rust,
paint and other surface contaminants. However, it also provides a gentler cleaning
action than abrasive blasting. The soda blasting process is usually employed on
surfaces that are vulnerable to scratching.
5. Tumble Slurry Blasting
Tumble slurry blasting is often called wet blasting because of its use of hot water
to provide the desired cleaning or surface preparation outcome. Wet blasting
includes a three-part process that involves the application of an alkali hot water
wash to prep the surface, the blasting of an abrasive slurry onto the surface, and
another alkali hot water application to rinse the part. Tumble slurry blasting differs
from other blasting processes, as a high-speed blast wheel is used to propel the
slurry instead of compressed air. Common wet blasting applications include
degreasing and the removal of oils and oxides.
6.. Shot Peening
Shot peening can be extremely effective for reducing metal fatigue and stress,
preventing failure caused by corrosion and increasing the durability and lifespan of
the part. To understand how shot peening works, it can be helpful to consider the

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principle applied when using a ball-peen hammer. Striking a metal object with the
hammer will dimple the surface. The resulting compression stress will actually
strengthen the surface of the object.
With shot peening, especially designed equipment is used to blast small projectiles
known as shot. The projectiles can be made of ceramic, metal, glass or other
material. The compression causes plasticity, or a permanent deformation of the
surface, to occur.
i. Electrocoating
Electrocoating, or e-coating, utilizes the same electrodeposition principle as
electroplating. The parts are immersed in a solution containing the coating,
followed by the introduction of an electric current. However, instead of metal ions,
the solution consists of electrically charged paint or epoxy particles that are
deposited onto the substrate surface. E-coating is often used to apply a primer coat
to a metal surface prior to painting to promote paint adhesion. E-coating is also
sometimes used to enhance the appearance of metal objects. E-coating works with
well with just about any type of metal.
j. Metallic Coatings (Vapor Deposition)
Metallic coatings change the surface properties of the workpiece from those of the
substrate to that of the metal being applied. This process allows the workpiece to
become a composite material with properties that generally cannot be achieved by
either material alone. The coating's function is usually as a durable, corrosion-
resistant protective layer, while the core material provides a load-bearing function.
Common coating materials include aluminum, coated lead, tin, zinc, and
combinations of these metals.
Metallic coatings often are referred to as diffusion coatings because the base metal
is brought into contact with the coating metal at elevated temperatures, allowing
the two materials to interlace. These systems include various metallic spraying
applications, cladding (application using mechanical techniques), hot dipping,
vapor deposition, and vacuum coating. The main application for spray diffusion
coatings is workpieces that are difficult to coat by other means because of their
size, shape, or susceptibility to damage at high temperatures. Cladding uses a layer
of metal that can be bonded to the workpiece using high-pressure welding or
casting techniques. In some applications, cladding can be used as an alternative to
plating. Hot dipping is another diffusion process that involves partial or complete
immersion of the workpiece in a molten metal bath. The facility applies the coating
metal in a powdered form at high temperatures (800 - 1,100 oC) in a mixture with
inert particles such as alumina or sand, and a halide activator. Vapor deposition
and vacuum coating produce high-quality pure metallic layers, and can sometimes
be used in place of plating processes.

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k. Grinding
Grinding machines use abrasive wheels to smooth out surfaces. There are several
types of grinding machines designed to deliver different levels of finite
smoothness. As noted above, grinding is used to reduce surface roughness left over
from machining and as a final step in the machining process to close in on a
tolerance. A surface grinder is the most common form of grinding machine but
there are numerous specialty grinders such as centerless grinders and Blanchard
grinders in everyday use as well.
Numerous varieties of hand grinders are used for metal removal, slag cleaning, etc.
Die grinders are employed for detailed work in passages of intake manifolds, dies,
etc. These are commonly fitted with special shaped abrasive wheels known as
mounted points.
l. Vibratory Finishing
Vibratory finishing machines are used to deburr products and remove sharp edges,
sprue, etc. They position parts inside a drum filled with abrasive pellets and apply
tumbling vibration to create a uniform random texture. The machine’s cycle speed
and magnitude of vibration are usually variable, allowing effective treatment for a
range of small- to large-sized parts.
m. Heat Treating
An important step in many metal manufacturing operations is heat treatment,
which is used to procure desirable characteristics in the material after its finished
shape is attained. For example, after gears are cut they are usually hardened
through an inductive or flame heating process to increase wear resistance at the
teeth surfaces while improving the strength of the underlying teeth. Hardening
usually applies a quenching operation which is a critical step in transforming the
grain structure of the metal. Case hardening is used on the shackles of padlocks,
for example, to produce a shell that resists mechanical attack. Heat treating is
applied too to remove any residual stresses left by manufacturing. Nitriding is
another surface hardening process which can be done below the transformation
temperature of steel, eliminating the need for quenching and any part distortion
that could result.
o. Hot Blackening
Hot blackening is most often used to provide a black matte finish on automotive
parts and firearms, as well as for military applications where a protective dark
coating is required. Hot blackening can also increase the abrasion resistance of a
metal part. With hot blackening, a thin black oxide coating is applied to the surface
of the substrate. The specific process involves allowing the parts to travel through
a series of tanks containing various cleaning agents, caustic materials and coolants.

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Hot blackening is typically performed in large batches, making it ideally suited for
smaller parts.
Vibratory Finishing
Vibratory finishing can be an extremely effective process for removing rough
edges and other surface imperfections. Parts are placed inside of a bowl or tub that
also contains pellet-shaped media. Activation of the bowl results in a vibrating
action that causes the media and parts to rub against each other, which creates the
desired outcome. Typical vibratory finishing applications include edge-breaking,
cleaning, descaling, burnishing or polishing of smaller parts.
Parts Cleaning
Proper cleaning of parts is often necessary for removing contaminants prior to the
implementation of other industrial metal finishing processes. One commonly
applied parts cleaning method is ultrasonic washing, where high frequency sound
waves are used to produce an intensive scrubbing action for the removal of
stubborn contaminants and debris.
Another effective parts cleaning method is continuous flow washing, a three-step
process where the parts are placed on a conveyor belt and travel between washing,
rinsing and drying stations. Both processes are ideally suited for fast and efficient
cleaning of a high volume of smaller parts.
Abrasive blasting, more commonly known as sandblasting, is the operation of
forcibly propelling a stream of abrasive material against a surface under high
pressure to smooth a rough surface, roughen a smooth surface, shape a surface or
remove surface contaminants. A pressurized fluid, typically compressed air, or a
centrifugal wheel is used to propel the blasting material (often called the media).
The first abrasive blasting process was patented by Benjamin Chew Tilghman on
18 October 1870.
There are several variants of the process, using various media; some are highly
abrasive, whereas others are milder. The most abrasive are shot blasting (with
metal shot) and sandblasting (with sand). Moderately abrasive variants include
glass bead blasting (with glass beads) and plastic media blasting (PMB) with
ground-up plastic stock or walnut shells and corncobs. Some of these substances
can cause anaphylactic shock to individuals allergic to the media. A mild version is
soda blasting (with baking soda). In addition, there are alternatives that are barely
abrasive or nonabrasive, such as ice blasting and dry-ice blasting.
Types of Parts Cleaning Processes
a. Sandblasting
Sand blasting is also known as abrasive blasting, which is a generic term for the
process of smoothing, shaping and cleaning a hard surface by forcing solid

14
particles across that surface at high speeds; the effect is similar to that of using
sandpaper, but provides a more even finish with no problems at corners or
crannies. Sandblasting can occur naturally, usually as a result of particles blown by
wind causing aeolian erosion, or artificially, using compressed air. An artificial
sandblasting process was patented by Benjamin Chew Tilghman on 18 October
1870.
Sandblasting equipment typically consists of a chamber in which sand and air are
mixed. The mixture travels through a hand-held nozzle to direct the particles
toward the surface or work piece. Nozzles come in a variety of shapes, sizes, and
materials. Boron carbide is a popular material for nozzles because it resists
abrasive wear well.
b. Wet abrasive blasting
Wet abrasive blasting uses water as the fluid moving the abrasives. The advantages
are that the water traps the dust produced, and lubricates the surface. The water
cushions the impact on the surface, reducing the removal of sound material.
One of the original pioneers of the wet abrasive process was Norman Ashworth
who found the advantages of using a wet process as a strong alternative to dry
blasting. The process is available in all conventional formats including hand
cabinets, walk-in booths, automated production machinery and total loss portable
blasting units. Advantages include the ability to use extremely fine or coarse media
with densities ranging from plastic to steel and the ability to use hot water and soap
to allow simultaneous degreasing and blasting. The reduction in dust also makes it
safer to use siliceous materials for blasting, or to remove hazardous material such
as asbestos, radioactive or poisonous products.
Process speeds are generally not as fast as conventional dry abrasive blasting when
using the equivalent size and type of media, in part because the presence of water
between the media and the substrate being processed creates a lubricating cushion
that can protect both the surface and the media, reducing breakdown rates.
Reduced impregnation of blasting material into the surface, dust reduction and the
elimination of static cling can result in a very clean surface.
Wet blasting of mild steel will result in immediate or 'flash' corrosion of the blasted
steel substrate due to the presence of water. The lack of surface recontamination
also allows the use of single equipment for multiple blasting operations—
e.g., stainless steel and mild steel items can be processed in the same equipment
with the same media without problems.
c. Vapor blasting
A variant of wet blasting is vapor blasting (or vapour blasting; U.K.). In this
process pressurized air is added to the water in the nozzle producing a high-speed

15
mist, called "vapor". This process is even milder than wet blasting, allowing
mating surfaces to be cleaned while retaining their ability to mate.
d. Bead blasting
Bead blasting is the process of removing surface deposits by applying fine glass
beads at a high pressure without damaging the surface. It is used to clean calcium
deposits from pool tiles or any other surfaces, remove embedded fungus, and
brighten grout color. It is also used in auto body work to remove paint. In
removing paint for auto body work, bead blasting is preferred over sand blasting,
as sand blasting tends to create a greater surface profile than bead blasting. Bead
blasting is often used in creating a uniform surface finish on machined parts. [4] It is
additionally used in cleaning mineral specimens, most of which have a Mohs
hardness of 7 or less and would thus be damaged by sand.
e. Wheel blasting
In wheel blasting, a spinning wheel propels the abrasive against an object. It is
typically categorized as an airless blasting operation because there is no propellant
(gas or liquid) used. A wheel machine is a high-power, high-efficiency blasting
operation with recyclable abrasive (typically steel or stainless steel shot, cut wire,
grit, or similarly sized pellets). Specialized wheel blast machines propel plastic
abrasive in a cryogenic chamber, and is usually used for deflashing plastic and
rubber components. The size of the wheel blast machine, and the number and
power of the wheels vary considerably depending on the parts to be blasted as well
as on the expected result and efficiency. The first blast wheel was patented by
Wheelabrator in 1932. In China, the first blast wheel was built around the 1950s,
Qinggong Machinery is one of the earliest manufacturers of blast wheel.
f. Hydro-blasting
Hydro blasting is not a form of abrasive blasting as no abrasive media is used.
Hydro-blasting, commonly known as water blasting, is commonly used because it
usually requires only one operator. In hydro-blasting, a highly pressured stream of
water is used to remove old paint, chemicals, or buildup without damaging the
original surface. This method is ideal for cleaning internal and external surfaces
because the operator is generally able to send the stream of water into places that
are difficult to reach using other methods. Another benefit of hydro-blasting is the
ability to recapture and reuse the water, reducing waste and mitigating
environmental impact.
g. Micro-abrasive blasting
Micro-abrasive blasting is dry abrasive blasting process that uses small nozzles
(typically 0.25 mm to 1.5 mm diameter) to deliver a fine stream of abrasive
accurately to a small part or a small area on a larger part. Generally, the area to be
blasted is from about 1 mm2 to only a few cm2 at most. Also known as pencil
16
blasting, the fine jet of abrasive is accurate enough to write directly on glass and
delicate enough to cut a pattern in an eggshell. The abrasive media particle sizes
range from 10 micrometres up to about 150 micrometres. Higher pressures are
often required.
The most common micro-abrasive blasting systems are commercial bench-
mounted units consisting of a power supply and mixer, exhaust hood, nozzle, and
gas supply. The nozzle can be hand-held or fixture mounted for automatic
operation. Either the nozzle or part can be moved in automatic operation.
h. Automated blasting
Automated blasting is simply the automation of the abrasive blasting process.
Automated blasting is frequently just a step in a larger automated procedure,
usually involving other surface treatments such as preparation and coating
applications. Care is often needed to isolate the blasting chamber from mechanical
components that may be subject to dust fouling.
i. Dry-ice blasting
In this type of blasting, air and dry ice are used. Surface contaminants are
dislodged by the force of frozen carbon dioxide particles hitting at high velocity,
and by slight shrinkage due to freezing which disrupts adhesion bonds. The dry ice
sublimates, leaving no residue to clean up other than the removed material. Dry ice
is a relatively soft material, so is less destructive to the underlying material than
sandblasting.
j. Bristle blasting
Bristle blasting, unlike other blasting methods, does not require a separate blast
medium. The surface is treated by a brush-like rotary tool made of dynamically
tuned high-carbon steel wire bristles. Repeated contact with the sharp, rotating
bristle tips results in localized impact, rebound, and crater formation, which
simultaneously cleans and coarsens the surface.
k. Vacuum blasting
Vacuum blasting is a method that generates very little dust and spill, as the blast
tool does dry abrasive blasting and collects used blast media and loosened particles
from the surface to be treated, simultaneously. Blast media consumption is
relatively low with this method, as the used blast media is automatically separated
from dust and loosened particles, and reused several times.
Part Cleaning Equipment
Device used for adding sand to the compressed air (top of which is a sieve for
adding the sand)
a. Portable blast equipment

17
Mobile dry abrasive blast systems are typically powered by a diesel air
compressor. The air compressor provides a large volume of high-pressure air to a
single or multiple "blast pots". Blast pots are pressurized, tank-like containers,
filled with abrasive material, used to allow an adjustable amount of blasting grit
into the main blasting line. The number of blast pots is dictated by the volume of
air the compressor can provide. Fully equipped blast systems are often found
mounted on semi-tractor trailers, offering high mobility and easy transport from
site to site. Others are hopper-fed types making them lightweight and more mobile.
In wet blasting, the abrasive is introduced into a pressurized stream of water or
other liquid, creating a slurry. Wet blasting is often used in applications where the
minimal dust generation is desired. Portable applications may or may not recycle
the abrasive.
b. Blast cabinet
A blast cabinet is essentially a closed loop system that allows the operator to blast
the part and recycle the abrasive. It usually consists of four components; the
containment (cabinet), the abrasive blasting system, the abrasive recycling system
and the dust collection. The operator blasts the parts from the outside of the cabinet
by placing his arms in gloves attached to glove holes on the cabinet, viewing the
part through a view window, turning the blast on and off using a foot pedal or
treadle. Automated blast cabinets are also used to process large quantities of the
same component and may incorporate multiple blast nozzles and a part conveyance
system.
There are three systems typically used in a blast cabinet. Two, siphon and pressure,
are dry and one is wet:
 A siphon blast system (suction blast system) uses the compressed air to
create vacuum in a chamber (known as the blast gun). The negative pressure
pulls abrasive into the blast gun where the compressed air directs the
abrasive through a blast nozzle. The abrasive mixture travels through a
nozzle that directs the particles toward the surface or workpiece.
Nozzles come in a variety of shapes, sizes, and materials. Tungsten carbide is the
liner material most often used for mineral abrasives. Silicon carbide and boron
carbide nozzles are more wear resistant and are often used with harder abrasives
such as aluminium oxide. Inexpensive abrasive blasting systems and smaller
cabinets use ceramic nozzles.
 In a pressure blast system, the abrasive is stored in the pressure vessel then
sealed. The vessel is pressurized to the same pressure as the blast hose
attached to the bottom of the pressure vessel. The abrasive is metered into
the blast hose and conveyed by the compressed gas through the blast nozzle.

18
  Wet blast cabinets use a system that injects the abrasive/liquid slurry into a
compressed gas stream. Wet blasting is typically used when the heat
produced by friction in dry blasting would damage the part.
c. Blast room
A blast room is a much larger version of a blast cabinet. Blast operators work
inside the room to roughen, smooth, or clean surfaces of an item depending on the
needs of the finished product. Blast rooms and blast facilities come in many sizes,
some of which are big enough to accommodate very large or uniquely shaped
objects like rail cars, commercial and military vehicles, construction equipment,
and aircraft.
Each application may require the use of many different pieces of equipment,
however, there are several key components that can be found in a typical blast
room:
 An enclosure or containment system, usually the room itself, designed to
remain sealed to prevent blast media from escaping
 A blasting system; wheel blasting and air blasting systems are commonly
used
 A blast pot – a pressurized container filled with abrasive blasting media
 A dust collection system which filters the air in the room and prevents
particulate matter from escaping
 A material recycling or media reclamation system to collect abrasive
blasting media so it can be used again; these can be automated mechanical or
pneumatic systems installed in the floor of the blast room, or the blast media
can be collected manually by sweeping or shovelling the material back into
the blast pot
Additional equipment can be added for convenience and improved usability, such
as overhead cranes for maneuvering the workpiece, wall-mounted units with
multiple axes that allow the operator to reach all sides of the workpiece, and
sound-dampening materials used to reduce noise levels.
d. Media
In the early 1900s, it was assumed that sharp-edged grains provided the best
performance, but this was later shown to be incorrect.
Mineral: Silica sand can be used as a type of mineral abrasive. It tends to break up
quickly, creating large quantities of dust, exposing the operator to the potential
development of silicosis, a debilitating lung disease. To counter this hazard, silica
sand for blasting is often coated with resins to control the dust. Using silica as an
abrasive is not allowed in Germany, Belgium, Russia, Sweden and United
Kingdom for this reason. Silica is a common abrasive in countries where it is not
banned.
19
Another common mineral abrasive is garnet. Garnet is more expensive than silica
sand, but if used correctly, will offer equivalent production rates while producing
less dust and no safety hazards from ingesting the dust. Magnesium sulphate, or
kieserite, is often used as an alternative to baking soda.
Agricultural: Typically, crushed nut shells or fruit kernels. These soft abrasives are
used to avoid damaging the underlying material such when cleaning brick or stone,
removing graffiti, or the removal of coatings from printed circuit boards being
repaired.
Synthetic: This category includes corn starch, wheat starch, sodium bicarbonate,
and dry ice. These "soft" abrasives are also used to avoid damaging the underlying
material such when cleaning brick or stone, removing graffiti, or the removal of
coatings from printed circuit boards being repaired. Soda blasting uses baking soda
(sodium bicarbonate) which is extremely friable, the micro fragmentation on
impact exploding away surface materials without damage to the substrate.
Additional synthetic abrasives include process byproducts (e.g., copper slag, nickel
slag, and coal slag), engineered abrasives (e.g., aluminium oxide, silicon carbide or
carborundum, glass beads, ceramic shot/grit), and recycled products (e.g., plastic
abrasive, glass grit).
Metallic: Steel shot, steel grit, stainless steel shot, cut wire, copper shot, aluminium
shot, zinc shot.
Many coarser media used in sandblasting often result in energy being given off as
sparks or light on impact. The colours and size of the spark or glow varies
significantly, with heavy bright orange sparks from steel shot blasting, to a faint
blue glow (often invisible in sunlight or brightly lit work areas) from garnet
abrasive.
Safety
Worker sandblasting without the use of proper personal protective equipment. The
worker's face is covered with a bandana instead of a replaceable particulate filter
respirator.
Cleaning operations using abrasive blasting can present risks for workers' health
and safety, specifically in portable air blasting or blast room (booth) applications.
There is a large amount of dust created through abrasive blasting from the substrate
and abrasive. Although many abrasives used in blasting rooms are not hazardous in
themselves, (steel shot and grit, cast iron, aluminum oxide, garnet, plastic abrasive
and glass bead), other abrasives (silica sand, copper slag, nickel slag, and
staurolite) have varying degrees of hazard (typically free silica or heavy metals).
However, in all cases their use can present serious danger to operators, such as
burns due to projections (with skin or eye lesions), falls due to walking on round
shot scattered on the ground, exposure to hazardous dusts, heat exhaustion,
20
creation of an explosive atmosphere, and exposure to excessive noise. Blasting
rooms and portable blaster's equipment have been adapted to these dangers.
Blasting lead-based paint can fill the air with lead particles which can be harmful
to the nervous system.
In the US the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) mandates
engineered solutions to potential hazards, however silica sand continues to be
allowed even though most commonly used blast helmets are not sufficiently
effective at protecting the blast operator if ambient levels of dust exceed allowable
limits. Adequate levels of respiratory protection for blast operations in the United
States is approved by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH).
Typical safety equipment for operators includes:
 Positive pressure blast hood or helmet – The hood or helmet includes a head
suspension system to allow the device to move with the operator's head, a
view window with replaceable lens or lens protection and an air-feed hose.
 Grade-D air supply (or self-contained oil-less air pump) – The air feed hose
is typically attached to a grade-D pressurized air supply. Grade-D air is
mandated by OSHA to protect the worker from hazardous gases. It includes
a pressure regulator, air filtration and a carbon monoxide monitor/alarm. An
alternative method is a self-contained, oil-less air pump to feed pressurized
air to the blast hood/helmet. An oil-less air pump does not require an air
filter or carbon monoxide monitor/alarm, because the pressurized air is
coming from a source that cannot generate carbon monoxide.
 Hearing protection – ear muffs or ear plugs
 Body protection – Body protection varies by application but usually consists
of gloves and overalls or a leather coat and chaps. Professionals would wear
a cordura/canvas blast suit (unless blasting with steel abrasives, then they
would use a leather suit).
In the past, when sandblasting was performed as an open-air job, the worker was
exposed to risk of injury from the flying material and lung damage from inhaling
the dust. The silica dust produced in the sandblasting process would cause silicosis
after sustained inhalation of the dust. In 1918, the first sandblasting enclosure was
built, which protected the worker with a viewing screen, revolved around the
workpiece, and used an exhaust fan to draw dust away from the worker's face.
Silicosis is still a risk when the operator is not completely isolated from the
sandblasting apparatus.
Sandblasting also may present secondary risks, such as falls from scaffolding or
confinement in a small space. Carbon monoxide poisoning is another potential risk,
from the use of small gasoline-powered engines in abrasive blasting.

21
Several countries and territories now regulate sandblasting such that it may only be
performed in a controlled environment using ventilation, protective clothing and
breathing air supply.
Worn-look jeans
Many consumers are willing to pay extra for jeans that have the appearance of
being used. To give the fabrics the right worn look sandblasting is used.
Sandblasting has the risk of causing silicosis to the workers, and in Turkey, more
than 5,000 workers in the textile industry suffer from silicosis, and 46 people are
known to have died from it. Silicosis was shown to be very common among former
denim sandblasters in Turkey in 2007. A 2015 study confirmed that silicosis is
almost inevitable among former sandblasters. Sweden's Fair Trade Center
conducted a survey among 17 textile companies that showed very few were aware
of the dangers caused by manually sandblasting jeans. Several companies said they
would abolish this technique from their own production.
In 2013, research claimed that in China some factories producing worn-look jeans
are involved in varied non-compliance with health and safety regulations.
Applications
The lettering and engraving on most modern cemetery monuments and markers is
created by abrasive blasting.
Sandblasting can also be used to produce three-dimensional signage. This type of
signage is considered to be a higher-end product as compared to flat signs. These
signs often incorporate gold leaf overlay and sometimes crushed glass backgrounds
which is called smalts. When sandblasting wood signage it allows the wood grains
to show and the growth rings to be raised, and is a popular way to give a sign a
traditional carved look. Sandblasting can also be done on clear acrylic glass and
glazing as part of a store front or interior design.
Sandblasting can be used to refurbish buildings or create works of art (carved or
frosted glass). Modern masks and resists facilitate this process, producing accurate
results.
Sandblasting techniques are used for cleaning boat hulls, as well as brick, stone,
and concrete work. Sandblasting is used for cleaning industrial as well as
commercial structures, but is rarely used for non-metallic workpieces.
Other Special finishing Processes.
The Following are some common special finishes that a steel fabrication company
would perform:
i. Powder coating.
This is a decorative finish that is similar to paint, but with enhanced durability.
Dry plastic powder or paint granules are melted onto the metal to give a textured,

22
matte or glossy finish. This process can also be very effective removing surface
defects. Instead of using a liquid to coat a metal object, powder coating involves
the application of a dry powder. In general, a powder coating can provide greater
thickness than a liquid coating. The powder coating process works by combining
an array of ingredients that includes pigments, curatives, flow modifiers, leveling
agents and other additives to create the powder. The powder is then
electrostatically deposited onto the surface of the substrate. The final step is to cure
the parts in a specially designed oven, which produces a chemical reaction that
results in high-link density. A powder coating can also be applied to some plastics
and other non-metallic substrates.
Water- and oil-based paints are used to provide inexpensive protection to metals
against corrosion. Special paints are available for harsh environments, such as anti-
fouling paints for marine applications.
Powder coating applies a decorative finish that is similar to paint but with greater
durability. The process involves UV or heat curing of dry thermoplastic or
thermosetting polymer powder onto the metal to produce a textured, matte, or
glossy coating. It is an electrostatic process wherein a charge placed on the
substrate attracts the powder particles to it. A textured powder-coat finish is highly
effective in hiding surface defects.
Aluminum is often anodized, a chemical surface treatment, to provide corrosion
resistance, aesthetic effects, or, in the case of hard-coat anodizing, greater
resistance to wear.
ii. Spray painting.
Protection against corrosion can be gained by spray painting steelwork with one or
multiple layers of liquid paint. Spray painting is also a popular design finish.
iii. Blast cleaning.
Surface preparation is the essential first stage treatment of the steel or metal before
any coating can be applied, and blast cleaning is a vital first step to remove
contaminants and create a suitable base for the application of high-performance
protective coatings.

How to Choose the Right Industrial Metal Finishing Process

There are a few considerations in narrowing down choices when it comes to
selecting a metal finishing technique. Some helpful things to keep in mind are:
 Production speed: How quickly does the technique apply finish to the
product?
 Cost-effectiveness: Certain finishing machines (such as vibratory by
delivering faster cycle rates

23
  Metal hardness: harder metals usually require more intense finishing
techniques, like grinding, or may need tougher abrasives than those used on
softer materials
Metal finishing is the final step in the manufacturing process used to provide
aesthetics and environmental protection. It is also used to reduce surface roughness
beyond the capabilities of machining operations for parts that must mate or seal. It
also includes methods of metal cleaning, descaling, deburring, etc. In short,
numerous types of metal finishing processes are used for a variety of purposes.
This guide reviews some major finishing methods, as well as applications and
considerations for choosing a metal finishing process. Some of the general
advantages of metal finishing treatments include:
 Increased durability
 Improved decorative appeal
 Enhanced electrical conductivity
 Higher electrical resistance
 Higher chemical resistance
 Higher tarnish resistance
The Finishing Process
In general, objects to be finished undergo three stages of processing, each of which
involves moving the workpiece through a series of baths containing chemicals
designed to complete certain steps in the process. The following list illustrates each
of the three basic finishing stages and the steps typically associated with them:
 Surface preparation: Platers clean the surface of the workpiece to remove
greases, soils, oxides, and other materials in preparation for application of
the surface treatment. The operator typically uses detergents, solvents,
caustics, and other media first in this stage and then rinses the workpiece.
Next, an acid dip is used to remove oxides from the workpiece, which is
then rinsed. The part is now ready to have the treatment applied. Figure 3
shows the steps in the process of preparing a metal part/product for
electroplating.
 Surface treatment: This stage involves the actual modification of the
workpiece surface including plating. The actual finishing process includes a
series of baths and rinses to achieve the desired finish. For example, a
common three-step plating system is copper-nickel-chrome. The copper is
plated first to improve the adhesion of the nickel to the steel substrate and
the final layer, chrome, provides additional corrosion and tarnish protection.
Following the application of each of the plate layers, workpieces are rinsed
to remove the process solution. The final step in the process is drying. This

24
 step can consist of simple air drying or a more complex system such as
forced air evaporation or spin dry.
 Post treatment: The workpiece, having been plated, is rinsed and further
finishing operations can follow. These processes are used to enhance the
appearance or add to the properties of the workpiece. A common example of
a post-treatment process is heat treating to relieve hydrogen embrittlement or
stress. Chromate conversion is another post-treatment process that often
follows zinc or cadmium plating to increase corrosion resistance.
Table 1. Waste Minimization Options for Metal Plating Operations (EPA
1995b)
Category of Examples Applications Limitations
Waste
Minimization
Option
General Waste  Improved operating  Applicable to all  Existing facilities might
Reduction procedures conventional plating not be able to
Practices  Dragout reduction operations accommodate changes
 Rinsewater use  Should be considered because of process
reduction standard operating configuration and/or
 Air emissions reduction practice space constraints
 Cost benefit typically
outweighs any
necessary expenditures
Alternative Thermal spray coatings:  Primarily repair  Technologies in varying
Processes  Combustion’s torch operations although stages of development;
 Electric arc they are now being commercial availability
 Plasma sprays incorporated into might be limited in
original manufacturing certain cases
Vapor deposition:
 Primarily high-  Expense often limits
 Ion plating technology applications applications to
 Ion implantation that can bear extra costs expensive parts (e.g.,
 Sputtering and  Expected to improve aerospace, military, and
sputterion deposition product quality and electronics)
 Laser surface alloying durability  Might require improved
Chemical vapor deposition process controls,
employee training, and
automation
Process Product changes  Applicable to most  Job shops have little
Substitution Input changes that eliminate conventional plating control over input
toxic materials including: operations decisions
 Cyanide  Captive  Product changes might
 Cadmium shops/manufacturers need to be evaluated in
might be able to terms of customer
 Chromium
explore product preference
changes  Product specifications
might eliminate
consideration of some
process substitutes
Process Conventional maintenance  Conventional methods  Advanced methods

25
Solution methods applicable to all plating might require
Maintenance Advanced maintenance operations significant changes in
methods: process design,
operation, and
 Microfiltration
chemistry
 Ion exchange
 Application limited for
 Acid sorption
some plating
 Ion transfer process/technology
 Membrane electrolysis combinations (e.g.,
 Process monitoring and microfiltration should
control not be used for copper
or aluminum)
Chemical  Evaporation  Requires significant  Costs are highly
Recovery  Ion exchange engineering, planning, variable for advances
Technologies  Electrowinning and characterization of methods
 Electrodialysis process chemistry
 Reverse osmosis
Off-Site  Filtration  Metal-bearing  Waste materials must
Metals  Ion exhcnage wastewater treatment be acceptable to
Recovery  Electrowinning sludge recyclers
 Electrodialysis  Spent solvents
 Reverse osmosis

References
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this]. TV 2 Norway (in Norwegian). Retrieved 11 December 2010.
"Archived copy". Archived from the original on 14 July 2013. Retrieved 9 July
2013.
Bibliography
Manufacturing Processes Reference Guide by Robert H. Todd, Dell K. Allen, and
Leo Alting—1st ed.
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook, Vol 1 : Machining, 4th Edition,
1983. Society of Manufacturing Engineers
Davis, Gary A. et al. 1994. The Product Side of Pollution Prevention: Evaluating
Potential Safe Substitutes. Cincinnati, Ohio: Risk Reduction Laboratory, Office of
Research and Development.
EPA. 1995a. Profile of the Fabricated Metal Products Industry. Washington, DC:
Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance.
EPA. 1995b. Metal Plating Waste Minimization. Arlington, VA: Waste
Management Office, Office of Solid Waste.
EPA. 1994. Sustainable Industry: Promoting Strategic Environmental Protection
in the Industrial Sector: Phase I Report Metal Finishing Industry. Washington,
DC: Office of Policy, Planning and Evaluation.
Ford, Christopher J., and Sean Delaney. 1994. Metal Finishing Industry Module.
Lowell, MA: Toxics Use Reduction Institute.
Freeman, Harry M. 1995. Industrial Pollution Prevention Handbook. New York,
NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc.
Haveman, Mark. 1995. Profile of the Metal Finishing Industry. Minneapolis, MN:
Waste Reduction Institute for Training and Applications Research.

2.0 The Manufacture of Tin Plates

Tinning is the procedure of daintily covering sheets of fashioned iron or steel with
tin, and the subsequent item is known as tinplate. The term is likewise broadly
utilized for the diverse procedure of covering a metal with weld before binding.

28
Tinplate is a slight steel sheet covered by tin. It has an amazingly lovely metallic
brilliance just as fantastic properties in consumption obstruction, solderability, and
weldability. Tinplate is utilized for making a wide range of holders, for example,
nourishment jars, drink jars, 18-liter jars, and masterful jars. Its applications are not
restricted to holders; as of late, tinplate has likewise been utilized for making
electrical apparatus parts and numerous different items. Tin Free Steel (TFS) is
created by applying electrolytic chromic corrosive treatment over steel sheets. This
steel item was created to meet financial prerequisites, and exceeds expectations
tinplate in paintability, paint bond, and economy. It is broadly utilized for making
drink jars and 18-liter jars. It is likewise utilized for making photographic film
cases and as a defensive material for optical fiber links.

The Benefits of Tin in the Electroplating Process

For what reason is tin such a well-known decision for electroplating? Maybe the
main motivation is that tin plating — or "tinning" — is a very practical procedure.
Since tin is so promptly accessible, it is considerably less costly than pricier
metals, for example, gold, platinum or palladium. Tin plating can create a whitish-
dim shading that is best when a dull or matte appearance is wanted. It can likewise
deliver a gleaming, metallic look when more brilliance is favored. Tin offers an
OK dimension of conductivity, making tin plating helpful in the assembling of
different electronic components. Tin is likewise FDA endorsed for use in the
nourishment administration industry.

Industries That Make Use of Tin Plating

The benefits listed above make tin the metal of choice for plating applications in a
wide range of industries including:
i. Aerospace
ii. Food Service
iii. Electronics
iv. Telecommunications
v. Jewelry Manufacturing

Basic Tin Plating Processes

There are three basic types of tin plating, each of which relies on the deposition of
an electrolytic tin solution onto the surface of a metal object:
 Barrel plating: Barrel plating is normally used for plating smaller parts and
entails placing the objects in a specially constructed vessel, commonly
referred to as a barrel. The barrel slowly rotates while immersed in the

29
 electrolytic plating solution. Barrel plating of tin is extremely cost-effective,
although it takes a relatively long time to complete the plating process.
 Rack plating: Rack plating is the preferred option for plating tin on larger or
more delicate parts that may not be suitable for the barrel plating process.
With rack plating, the objects are hung on a rack and immersed in the plating
solution. Although rack plating is more labor-intensive and therefore more
expensive than barrel plating, it offers greater control over plating thickness
and can be more effective in reaching cavities deep within the object.
 Vibratory plating: Also used for delicate parts, vibratory plating involves
placing the parts in a basket equipped with metal buttons that also contains
the electrolytic plating solution. A generator is used to produce a vibrating
action that causes the parts to move and make contact with the metal
buttons. Vibratory plating is typically the most expensive form of tin plating
and requires a special drying process that may cause the parts to bend.
Tin Plating Process Elements

Tin can be electrodeposited onto just about any type of metal. Let’s take a closer
look at the specific components of an effective tin plating process:
1. Cleaning: It is vital to purify the substrate — the part that receives the tin
coating — prior to immersion into the plating bath. Cleaning removes oil, grease
and other surface contaminants that can reduce the effectiveness of the plating
process.
Cleaning is a multi-step process that can vary somewhat depending on the
composition of the substrate and the amount of grime and debris that it contains, as
well as the types of cleaning equipment available for use. In general, the cleaning
process includes:
 Grit blasting: This is the process of using pressurized air to project media
such as crushed glass, aluminum oxide, silicon carbide, steel, corn cob or
walnut shells to remove foreign matter from a surface.
 Boiling: Boiling the substrate in water can be an effective method of
removing grease and oil, without having to resort to using chemical
additives.

30
  Electrolytic degreasing: Immersing the substrate in an electrolytic solution
will remove grease and oil that accumulates in cracks, crevices and other
hard-to-reach surface areas.
 Rinsing: Rinsing the substrate in water after electrolytic degreasing removes
any remaining cleaning solution and surface debris.
2. Preparing the Plating Bath
The next step is to prepare an electrolytic solution, also known as a plating bath.
Electrolytic tin plating baths can be comprised of acid tin, alkaline tin or methyl
sulphonic acid solutions. A plating bath includes tin that is dissolved to form
positively charged ions that are suspended in the solution, as well as other
chemical additives. The bath serves as the conductive medium during
electrodeposition.
Acid baths tend to be used with greater frequency, because they result in a higher
deposition rate. However, while acid baths generally provide a uniform coating,
they do not always reach holes or other surface irregularities with a high level of
consistency.
3. The Electrodeposition Procedure
Once the substrate has been clean and immersed in the electrolyte bath, it is ready
for electrodeposition of the tin coating. The object is typically placed in the center
of the specially designed tank that contains the electrolytic solution. The object
serves as the cathode, which is the negatively charged electrode in the electrical
circuit. The anodes, which are the positively charged electrodes in the circuit, are
placed near the edge of the plating tank.
The next step is to introduce a low-voltage DC current into the plating bath. A
device known as a rectifier is used to convert AC power to the DC current. The
introduction of the electrical current ultimately causes positively charged ions at
the anode to flow through the electrolyte in the plating bath toward the negatively
charged cathode (substrate), where they are electrodeposited onto the surface. The
current then flows back toward the anode to complete the circuit.
4. Post Electroplating Process
Post-treatment is usually not required at the conclusion of the tin plating process.
Passivation — which is the application of a light coating of protective material —
may be used in special plating applications to provide additional corrosion
protection or enhance the reactive properties of the tin. Heat treatment may also be
used to prevent hydrogen embrittlement, which is a weakening of metal caused by
exposure to hydrogen.

31
Common Tin Plating Issues
A number of issues can occur during the tin plating process that can negatively
impact the final outcome. These include:
 Tin “Whiskers”: Small, sharp protrusions known as whiskers can form on
the surface of the pure-tin-plated objects long after the conclusion of the
plating process. These microscopic metal fibers are not visible to the naked
eye, but they can cause significant damage to the finished product. Because
they are electrically conductive, whiskers can cause short circuits in
electronic components. Tin whiskers have even been known to lead to the
failure of computer systems and satellites, as well as disruptions in the
operations of nuclear power plants. It is not known what causes tin whiskers
to form, and there is no proven method for totally preventing their
occurrence. There has been some success in limiting the formation of tin
whiskers through the modification of the crystalline structure of the tin
deposit, although this method is far from fool-proof.
 Lack of uniform thickness: In some cases, the tin may not be deposited
uniformly on the plated object. Sometimes, the shape and contour of the
object makes it difficult to achieve the desired thickness, which is typically
in the range of ten to 20 microns. When plating on metal objects with sharp
corners, the tin may be deposited with greater thickness on the outer corners
and reduced thickness in recessed areas. This can often be remedied by
repositioning the anodes and modifying the density of the DC current.
 Perishable solderability: While tin-plated metals are known for their
excellent solderability, this characteristic will diminish over time. The
soldering lifespan can be extended through proper deposit specification,
appropriate substrate preparation and proper packaging of the plated
components. Sealing plated products in nitrogen-filled bags has been known
to result in a ten-fold increase of solderability shelf-life.
Tin Alloy Plating
One way to enhance the tin plating process is by co-depositing (alloying) tin with
another metal or several metals. Commonly applied tin alloys include:
 Tin-lead: Provides corrosion resistance and excellent solderability and can
produce a soft, ductile finish while helping prevent tin whiskers.

32
  Tin-copper: Improves the overall strength of the coating, but it may also
make it more brittle. It can also lead to insufficient wetting for soldering
applications and promote the development of tin whiskers.
 Lead-tin-copper: This combination is often used for friction reduction on
sliding engine bearings.
 Tin-silver: Improves overall mechanical strength and increases maximum
service temperatures, but the silver component can make this alloy cost-
prohibitive for many companies.
 Tin-zinc: Offers a high melting point and superior fatigue strength, but
results in poor wettability and limited protection against corrosion.
 Tin-bismuth: Ideally suited for low-temperature plating applications, this
alloy also offers good wettability and can limit whisker formation. However,
it may not be compatible with objects containing lead, and the low melting
point makes it unsuitable for most high-temperature plating processes.

References:
1. P. J. Brown, 'Andrew Yarranton and the British tinplate industry' Historical
Metallurgy 22(1) (1988), 42-8; P. W. King, 'Wolverley Lower Mill and the
beginnings of the tinplate industry' Historical Metallurgy 22(2) (1988), 104-13.
2. King, 109
3. H. R. Schubert, History of the British iron and steel industry ... to 1775, 429.
4. Minchinton, 10.
5. Data extracted from D. P. Hussey et al., Gloucester Port Books Database (CD-
ROM, University of Wolverhampton 1995).
6. A report on “TINPLATE and TIN FREE STEEL” from JFE steel corporation.
7. “The Tin Plating Process: A Step-By-Step Guide”, URL:
https://www.sharrettsplating.com/blog/the-tin-plating-process-a-st

3.0 Protective Coatings.

Protective Coatings are used for a variety of purposes, but they are all designed to
protect and decorate different surfaces. Some coatings are like varnish and appear
to have no pigments, others have special anti-corrosion or antifouling properties.
All Protective Coatings are made up of the five components listed as follows:
Binders, Extenders, Pigments, Solvents, Additives.
The Binder is the main component of the coating. A good binder is essential in
order to produce high quality products. The role of the binder is to hold the
different components together, ensure the coating sticks to the surface after

33
application and build up a protective shield on the surface. The choice of binder
depends on the surface or product to be covered, whether it is wood, steel or
concrete. It also depends on whether the coating is for indoor or outdoor use. The
most common binders are alkyds, acrylics, polyurethanes, PVAs, polyesters and
epoxies.
Extenders are naturally occurring minerals such as talc, clay, barium sulphate and
calcium carbonate. Extenders reinforce and give body or texture to the coating.
They also affect how light is reflected from the coated surface.
Pigments are solid, insoluble, materials which add colour to the coating. They also
ensure a fully hiding surface to protect the substrate underneath. Pigments can also
protect from corrosion, fouling and UV radiation. They can also adjust gloss or
reduce permeability to moisture.
For accurate in-shop colour matching of paints, automatic dispensers are used to
add liquid colorants made from pigments. Jotun Multicolor Tinting Systems are
among the most advanced automatic dispensing systems for coatings in the
world. Paint and coating technology represents several fields of competence due to
the broad specter of chemical and physical solutions applied in the products to
make colorants and paint “work together”. Our colour and colorant technology
laboratories are responsible for approving pigments and colours for use in Jotun’s
paints and coatings, as well as colorant and colour formulation developments and
all In-shop display material as colour cards, etc. Different kinds of chemistry are
involved to fulfill these groups’ maintenance and development tasks such as
process and surface chemistry, pigment and extender chemistry and physics.
Solvents are the volatile component of a coating. They give the paint the correct
consistency and make it easy to apply. They also dissolve other raw materials and
are the carriers of the binder. The most common solvents are white spirit, xylene
and water. Solvents are only used in wet paints and not in powder coatings.
Additives are substances that are added to the paint or powder coating in small
quantities to improve or modify its properties. Additives are used to prevent
corrosion or growth, as a thickener, as a preservative to prevent the coating from
degrading in the tin, to prevent foaming paint, and to make the paint flow out and
give a smooth surface.
3.1 Different Types of Industrial Coatings
Industrial coatings appear everywhere. They protect a diverse array of products
from corrosion, wear and tear and decay, as well as bringing an aesthetic and
colorful appearance to the coated surface or product. With OEM applications
ranging from:
 Building products
 Outdoor structures and equipment

34
  Sports and play equipment
 Cars, boats and planes and related accessories
 All other types of transportation equipment
 Appliances and machinery
 Construction and agricultural equipment
 Safety and security equipment
Well-chosen industrial coatings make manufactured products last longer and look
better. The variety of possible coated surfaces is huge: All types of metals, wood,
plastics and composites, rubber, glass, leather, and more. Almost any material used
to manufacture an OEM product is a candidate for a protective industrial coating.
Manufacturers usually apply industrial coatings during the later stages of
production. The finishing process, using the formulated coating material, protects
and strengthens their valuable OEM product.
The range of characteristics of an industrial coating is quite wide. Your formulator
will work with you to create the desired result and performance. In addition, it is
important to develop a product that is useful to the technicians in the application
process of your operation.
We’ve compiled a short list of some commonly used types of higher performance
polymers in OEM industrial coatings. These polymers are available to be
formulated in modern, low solvent or waterborne systems, as needed. Here, we
describe some benefits each brings to their applications:
Polyurethane Coatings
Manufacturers use polyurethane coatings in a wide array of environments, often as
a protective final coat over other custom formulated industrial primers.
Polyurethanes resist abrasion, and can enhance durability to withstand wear and
tear and abuse.
These coatings maintain color and can have an attractive, high-gloss finish, if
desired. Aliphatic polyurethane coatings have good UV and environmental
durability. Such coatings are a good choice for outdoor applications.
Aromatic polyurethane products resist degradation in wet conditions or
underwater, but they tend toward fading when exposed to UV light. These coatings
can work well in interior environments.
Two component polyurethanes do require protection for workers when applied, as
with many other types of chemical processes. They are available in low VOC
formulations.
Epoxy Coatings
These coatings normally consist of an amine curing agent blended with an epoxy
polymer. Think of the double-tubes of epoxy glue you might use to secure a strong

35
adhesive bond of one material to another. Formulators can alter the mix ratios (and
ingredients) of epoxies to create a wide variety of characteristics. This gives users
a unique coating to meet the demands of numerous environments.
Epoxy coatings bond well to many different surfaces. Epoxies resist weathering
and abrasion extremely effectively. Epoxy coatings also withstand higher
temperatures than most other coating materials. If properly formulated, epoxy
materials can resist heat levels to many hundreds of degrees Fahrenheit!
Epoxies are often applied in two- or three-part systems. As a base layer, a user
might specify a zinc primer for maximum corrosion protection. The epoxy would
be applied over this primer. In a three-part system, consisting of a zinc base, an
epoxy binder and a final topcoat, a manufacturer may specify a polyurethane
topcoat, for superior aesthetics and performance.
Alkyd Coatings
Alkyd coatings are proven, workhorse industrial and OEM coating materials.
When applied to prepared substrates, alkyd coatings resist the effects of many
different environments. They may be custom formulated to function effectively in
interior, exterior, underwater, and underground settings.
Formulators adjust the components used to create custom alkyd coatings to adapt
to a variety of conditions. Alkyd coatings may take longer to dry than other
coatings, since they must be permeable to oxygen. As such, heat is often applied to
speed the chemical curing reaction.
Zinc-Rich Coatings
These high-performance coatings use zinc dust as a rust and corrosion preventative
pigment. Organic zinc coatings are often made with epoxy or polyurethane resin
binders, since high performance pigments justify high performance polymers.
Zinc coatings are particularly effective when used on steel, and provide dual
function corrosion protection; both a galvanic and a polymeric barrier. Zinc-rich
coatings are durable and resist abrasion.
Acrylic Coatings
Acrylic coatings have many advantages, including quick-drying and high gloss
capability. They make great adhesion-promoting primers. Acrylics often require
fewer ingredients and can increase the coated product’s corrosion resistance.
4.0 Polishing.
Polishing is the process of creating a smooth and shiny surface by rubbing it or by
applying a chemical treatment, leaving a clean surface with a significant specular
reflection (still limited by the index of refraction of the material according to the
Fresnel equations). In some materials (such as metals, glasses, black or transparent
stones), polishing is also able to reduce diffuse reflection to minimal values.

36
When an unpolished surface is magnified thousands of times, it usually looks like a
succession of mountains and valleys. By repeated abrasion, those "mountains" are
worn down until they are flat or just small "hills." The process of polishing with
abrasives starts with a coarse grain size and gradually proceeds to the finer ones to
efficiently flatten the surface imperfections and to obtain optimal results.
Normally, the polish is generated by using a fine-micron or sub-micron abrasive
particle in combination with a liquid. Polishing is a “wet” process. Often the
polishing process utilizes a pad to contain the abrasive, so polishing may not be a
“loose abrasive process.” The pad is softer than the part. Very little material is
removed during the polishing process, normally measured in microns
The surface finish of the work-piece to be polished must be of a high quality prior
to the polishing process taking place, so the pre-polishing process is often a
“lapped” surface.
Polished Surface Functions
 Enables sealing of high-pressure gases and liquids
 Cosmetic purposes
 Enables the use of optical flatness measurement instruments
 Reduces the amount of surface and sub-surface damage
 Provides better uniformity of surfaces requiring epitaxial processes or
deposited materials
 Generates sharper edges on cutting tools
Types of Polishing
 Soft or hard pads using a conventional or special purpose abrasive slurry
 Soft or hard pads using a diamond abrasive slurry which may be water-base
or oil-base
 Hard pads using a diamond compound and lubricant
 Diamond slurry polishing using a composite plate
 Diamond slurry polishing using a metal plate
 Fixed-abrasive films (captured abrasive) and lube
Lapping vs. Polishing
Lapping
 Dull, non-reflective surface (matte)
 Multi-directional lay pattern
 Component function (coating)
Polishing
 Reflective finish
 Typically 2nd step
 Component function (sealing)

37
  Cosmetic appeal
 Light-band inspection
How Does Polishing Work?
 Polishing often uses a polishing pad and water-base slurry to generate the
reflective or clear surface
 An unblemished, scratch-free surface finish is critical on polished surfaces.
To generate the required finishes, the polishing slurries are often caustic. As
such, the polishing systems may feature stainless steel exposed components
such as the hardware, rings and plates.
 Further to the above, some polishing applications also require thorough
water rinsing during the end of the processing cycle, in order to remove the
polishing media so it does not “stain” the surface. This is another reason
why stainless steel is required. The polishing pads are usually grouped into
either “soft” pad or “hard” pad categories.
Lapping vs. Polishing Systems
 The lapping and polishing systems are quite similar in most aspects
 However, since polishing normally takes place using a pad and slurry, the
surface tension is quite high compared to lapping
 In addition, a polished part features a much higher level of surface tension
compared to a lapped part
 Based on the above items, polishing systems may feature a higher level of
horsepower for the drives
5.0 Production of Galvanized Steel Sheets
Introduction Prevention of Galvanized steel roofing sheet against degradation have
become a ceaseless and intractable challenge of global interest. Deterioration of the
sheet occurs naturally in an attempt to return their initial, stable, oxidized state.
The magnitude and severity of the degradation of Galvanized steel roofing sheet is
not only a function the material used but also its operating environment. Global
cost of replacement of roofing sheet in the developed and emerging economies is
astronomical. Galvanized steel sheet resist degradation by a sacrificing the topmost
layer made of zinc so as to combat environmental degradations which could result
in pitting of the surface. Galvanized steel structures have been widely used for
exterior constructions such as crash barriers, lamp poles, fences, buildings, facades,
and roofs in the contemporary metropolitan society. The application of zinc on
metallic surfaces had been carried out either by hot dipping or electroplating
process. Hot- dip galvanized steel sheet is produced on continuous zinc coating
lines either by hot or cold rolling in coil form. The thickness of sheet produced
from hot rolling ranges from 2.01 to 3.0mm while that of cold rolling ranges from
0.27 to 2.0mm. By galvanizing, protection of the steel structures against corrosion

38
resistance is improved by numerous degrees of magnitude; the corrosion protection
achieved by zinc-based coatings is as a result of the galvanic effect, because zinc is
anodic to iron which make it acts a sacrificial metal in an aqueous or humid
environment, however, resistance to surface degeneration can be further enhanced
by the incorporation of top coat on the galvanized surface. Galvanized steel sheets
are also known for excellent shiny surface and formability attributes besides
satisfactory peel-off resistance and fusing of the coating completely to the steel
surface.
Galvanized steel roofing is designed to serve for several years. Closed 50 % of the
annual world zinc production which is about 3 million tons is utilized for the
galvanizing steel so to minimize the corrosion rate of steel in a corrosive
environment. The Galvanization is the largest single use of zinc due the ability of
zinc to form protective oxide and hydroxide layer that act as a barrier to
environmental degradation. The presence of water usually increases the rate of
corrosion, with the initiate corrosion product being zinc hydroxide which is further
converted via the action of some air pollutants. However, it is very important to
note that environments moisture penetrates unprotected zinc and expose the steel to
white zinc corrosion, also known as “wet storage stain” or “white rust.” White rust
is the result of electrolytic reaction which occurs within the steel sheets when water
exists without oxygen. The red rust occurs when the zinc coating completely
breaks off the back of the steel substrate. These challenges have continuously
shortened the lifespan and also impact on the cost of replacement of the sheets.
Moreover, corrosion of galvanized steel sheet can occur via chemical or
electrochemical reaction.

Destruction by electrochemical corrosion takes place via electrolyte action over the
sheet metal. The conductive electrolyte solution such as saline or acidic solution
can result in different forms of corrosion such as uniform, pitting or erosion of the
zinc coated layer of the galvanized steel due to the passage of current from the
anodic to the cathodic area. The fall of acidic rain on galvanized roofing sheet can
be highly destructive. Acid rain is a product of the atmospheric reaction of Sulphur
dioxide and nitrogen oxides with oxygen in the air to form sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
and nitric acid (HNO) with pH of 5 or less, which falls on the roof as rain, snow or
dust. Sulphur dioxide comes majorly from smelters and power plants use for coal
burning. Flaring of gas, automobile exhaust and bush burning are the chief sources
of atmospheric pollution that result in acid rain. Because an electrolyte is a
requirement for corrosion, roofing sheets tend to corrode, wherever acid rainwater
and/or condensation cannot flow off or becomes trapped.

39
However, Galvanized steel sheets can be corrosion free for a very long time if used
in suitable environments. Galvanized roofing sheets can last for 15-18 years in
rural regions and 3-8 years in areas of industrial locations especially in the Niger
delta region of Nigeria. This is an indication that the galvanized sheets have greater
service life compared to bare uncoated steel sheets. Weather resistance test has
shown clearly that galvanized steel sheets are 5-30 times slower than that of steel
sheets. There are numerous applications that have necessitated the use of
galvanized steel due to their formability. Although the major attraction for the
choice of galvanized steel have been on the ground of corrosion resistance ability.
However, zinc-coated steel sheets with better corrosion resistance with high degree
of formability can be achieved if the processing parameters such as the zinc bath
composition are controlled used the results of tensile test and simulated experiment
to evaluate steel sheet formability.

Two important parameters of the sheet; work hardening anisotropy and exponent
coefficient can be determined using tensile test. These two parameters are criteria
against these parameters thinning and necking during plastic deformation,
respectively. More so, the study carried out by provided an insight into the crack
propagation and fracture behaviour of galvanized steel sheet. The initiation of
Cracks in galvanized coatings were discovered to take place near the interface of
the steel coating layer as a result of thermal stresses which eventually propagates
towards the exterior layer of the coating. However, the susceptibility of the
galvanized coatings layer to crack propagation due to thermal stress can be
minimized by increasing the coating thickness.

Generally, coating of steel substrate is commonly utilized to prevent degradation in

contaminated atmosphere. However, coatings of steel with only zinc have been
discovered not to be as effective as the inorganic and organic coated galvanized
steel sheet. They were found to possess unique metallurgical features and better
corrosion resistance in under a destructive weather condition. In the same vein,
Galvalume coated steel sheets (steel coated with some percentage of Al-Zn) have
also been to exhibit better mechanical and electrochemical properties such as yield,
tensile strengths, lower total elongation and corrosion resistance compared to
galvanized steel sheets.

Galvalume coated steel sheet was also discovered to retain it appearance at a

higher temperature range compare to galvanized steel sheets. More so, comparative
study of corrosion behaviour of galvanized steel carried out by revealed that
galvanized steel roofing sheet failed in a simulated carbonate and chloride
environments. This assertion and the work of other researchers instigate a search
40
for better, alternative or improved roofing materials especially in industrial area
where chloride or carbonate contamination is possible.

Recently, the use of organically and inorganically coated galvanized steel products
in a wide variety of industries has grown dramatically due to growing requirements
on performance. From the assertion made by materials used for roofing required
essential properties such as formability, good corrosion and high-quality
appearance. However, environmental friendliness of material is becoming
essential. Development of 55% Al–Zn alloy coated steel sheet with organic
composite coating suppresses the progress of corrosion and surface cracks
prominent with the roof made of zinc or Al-Zn coated steel sheet. The organic
composite coatings instinctively form a protective film which was able to inhibit
the triggered corrosion mechanism in the steel under severe condition such as
acidic rain or presences of dissolved salt. More so, the mixture of a pigment of the
phosphate type with a calcium-containing pigment produced considerable
corrosion inhibition of galvanized steel in a somewhat acid medium.

5.1 Production Process of Galvanized Steel Roofing Sheet Galvanized steel

roofing sheet is produced by the continuous hot-dip coating process.

During the production roofing sheet production, the molten zinc is applied to the
surface of the steel substrate in a continuous process as shown in Fig.1. The
coating of the steel is achieved by passing it through a bath of molten zinc at
speeds of about 600 feet per minute in the form of a continuous ribbon. The
thickness of the steel sheet ranges from 0.12mm to 0.55mm and width up to
1830mm. Generally, the continuous hot dip coating process starts with cleaning the
steel with the use of alkaline liquid followed by rinsing and drying. The cleaned
steel is the conveyed into the annealing or heating furnace to make it softer and
also impart formability and desired strength. The heating furnace steel is operated
under a low gas atmosphere, consisting of nitrogen and hydrogen so as to enable
the removal of traces of oxide that may be on the surface of the steel. Vacuum
chamber known as ‘Snout’ is connected to the exit end of the furnace and to the
molten zinc coating bath to avoid the re-oxidation of the heated steel product by
air. In the zinc coating bath, the steel product is conveyed round about a submerge
roll and reacts with the molten zinc metal so as to form the adhesive coating, and
then withdrawn in a vertical direction. After the removal of the coated steel from
the bath, any excess molten zinc is removed using high-pressure air to obtain a
coating thickness that can be closely controlled. Finally, the steel is allowing to
cooled to enable the zinc coating solidify onto its surface. Solidification of the

41
molten metal before it makes contact with another roll is paramount to avoid
damaging or deformation of the zinc coating.

Figure. 1: Microstructure of a typical hot dip galvanized coating (Amazon, 2010)

5.2 Stages of the production process of galvanized steel roofing sheet Production
of galvanized steel roofing sheets can be classified into about six distinct stages.
They are;

Welding process: One continuous sheet is formed by welding the steel sheet ends
that has been sheared to the preceding sheets.

Straightening process: A high-performance tension leveler is employed to

straighten the steel sheet. This will result to excellent flatness.

Cleaning process: The steel sheet is cleaned in an alkali bath and brushed for initial
degreasing so as to reduce surface oxides so as to achieve complete adhesion of
coating. The sheet is then dipped in an acidic bath to activate.

Continuous annealing process: This involves the reduction of the oxidized film on
the surface of the steel sheet by passing it continuously through a reduction
furnace.

Galvanizing process: The sheet is left in a reduction atmosphere and immersed

directly into a bath of molten zinc. The steel sheet is the rolled around a roller that
is dipped into the coating bath and it is removed from the bath vertically by
pulling. Removal of excess molten zinc using high-pressure air is carried out to
obtain a coating thickness that can be closely controlled.
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Chemical treatment process: The coated zinc sheet is exposed to different chemical
treatments in accordance to the desired use. The treatment includes phosphate
treatment for excellent paintability, and chromate free special treatment for good
corrosion resistance.

Forms of galvanized steel roofing sheet Galvanized steel roofing sheet is one of the
most used roofs in homes, industries and commercial premises. Galvanized steel
roofing sheet usually comes in different form of long run roofing such as
trapezoidal, trough section/ concealed fix, corrugated. It also sometimes comes in
the form of flat sheets, tile and shakes. The roofs are made up of mild steel coated
with zinc. The long run roofing is normally fixed in place using lead-headed nails.

5.3. Effect of Coating Thickness and Mass on Galvanized Steel Roofing Sheet
Coating in continuous hot-dip coating process is carried out at a high speed and the
thickness and mass of the coating is controlled by the process. Coating thickness is
measured in g/m2 or microns. The degradation resisting ability of galvanized steel
roofing sheet is a function of the coating thickness. For example, for any
environmental conditions, a G90 coating will last longer than a G60 coating,
maintenance, painting and all other factors being equal.

Where G means galvanized. Although, Higher coating thickness of galvanized

steel results in better corrosion resistance, however, it can lead to low formability
of the steel sheet. Hence, the coating thickness must be optimized to achieve a
favourable combination of corrosion resistance and formability of sheet for the
critical roofing applications. The thickness of the coating can be accurately
measured by measuring stripped off from the steel substrate using measuring
gauge. Other methods of determining the zinc coating thickness are via magnetic
thickness Gauges, weighing before & after galvanizing and optical Microscopy
(ASTM B 487).

Coating weight or mass control consists in coating uniformly either transversely or

longitudinally and transversely, both sides of the sheet with a specified zinc
weight. The knife gap, knife gas pressure and line speed are the variable that
affects the coating mass and thickness. This is because the weight or mass control
is being applied at the knife strip which must be between the upper and the lower
limit at any point on the strip in order to meet the standard requirement. Therefore,
the coating mass should be optimized by the effective monitoring of the coating
thickness.

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 5.4. Relationship the thickness, width, length, tensile strength and the mass of
coating of the corrugated zinc. The thickness of the coating is proportional to the
coating mass. However, the length and width can be chosen base on the required
specification and purpose. The thickness of hot dip galvanized coatings is
determined by the thickness of the zinc-iron alloy layers that form when the steel
reacts with the zinc. The alloy layer is usually 95% and 5% iron. Thicker
galvanized coatings provide enhanced durability. The tensile strength of the zinc
coated layer increases with increase in thickness.

5.5. Parameters that affect the appearance of Galvanized steel coatings Galvanized
steel sheet is used for different application. However, different application requires
specific appearance. Spangles (snowflake-like pattern is the common attribute of a
galvanized surface. Zinc coatings with spangles are decorative coatings. The
appearance of coating is a function of the substrate steel parameters such as;
chemical composition of the steel, Surface conditions e.g., Surface defect or
roughness (associated with rolling, and manufacturing) processing properties,
Temperature of the coating bath, Coating time and coating speed and Mechanical
Behaviour of Galvanized Steel Roofing Sheet Mechanical properties of galvanized
steel roofing sheet describe their behavior under the application of external. The
vital mechanical properties are: Strength: This is the resistance offered by the
roofing sheet when an external load is applied. The strength of the roofing sheet is
a function of its ability withstands external forces. The stress on the steel roofing
sheet can be compressive, tensile, compressive, and tensional or shear.

Elasticity: The galvanized steel roofing sheet should have the ability to return back
to its initial position after undergoing deformation when the load is withdrawn. The
elastic limit of the roofing sheet is the maximum stress it can withstand without
permanent deformation.

Plasticity: This is the ability of the steel sheet to deform permanently to some
degree without rupture. Plastic deformation occurs when the elastic limit is
exceeded. Generally, plasticity level rises with increasing temperature. Plasticity is
one of the material properties to consider during the secondary forming processes.
Plasticity enables the transformation of the galvanized steel sheet into different
product of desired shape and sizes via the application of heat, pressure or
combination of heat and pressure.

Ductility: This is the property that enables drawing of the steel on the application
of load or force. The base metal of galvanized steel roofing sheet is mild steel
which is known to be ductile which enables drawing by extrusion or pulling
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through hole in a prepared die. The ductility of the steel sheet decreases with
increase in temperature. Elongation and reduction are the key measuring parameter
for ductility.

Malleability: Malleability is the flattening ability of the steel into sheet without
crack propagation during the cold and hot working process. Malleability is a
compressive property while ductility is a tensile property. Malleability of a
material increases with a rise in temperature.

Brittleness: The brittleness of the steel sheet is its ability to break without
permanent distortion. The mild steel base of the galvanized sheet is less brittle this
enables it not to break after much deformation unlike glasses and cast iron.

Toughness: This is the steel sheet’s ability to resist elastic and plastic
deformations. It galvanized steel sheet exhibits sizable degree of toughness due to
the presence of some trace alloy elements. The amount of energy the galvanized
roofing steel sheet can absorb before fracture is its toughness.

The galvanized steel sheets may be referred to as a composite made of a metallic

coating link to the steel substrate by an intermetallic phase that is brittle in nature.
Micro cracks are generated during the forming operation which is found between
the Zn-coating and the intermetallic phase. Generally, the cracks within the grains
of pure zinc coatings are found to be parallel to one another.

Galvanized steel has been found to be effective for wide range applications in
various manufacturing company. Galvanized steel roofing sheet which has in
several years been produced by the continuous hot-dip coating process as a result
of the flexibility of the techniques is still very much in vogue. The choice of
Galvanized roofing sheet is borne out of its ruggedness and longevity.
Ungalvanized steel will corrode within a short period of time which will directly or
indirectly affect the economy of a nation.

References
R. E. Elewa, S.A. Afolalu, O.S.I Fayomi (2019). Overview Production Process and
Properties of Galvanized Roofing Sheets. International Conference on Engineering
for Sustainable World Journal of Physics: Conference Series1378 (2019)
022069IOP https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1742-6596/1378/2/022069/
pdf

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