DISTRIBUTED GENERATION – NEW TECHNICAL SOLUTIONS

REQUIRED IN THE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Kimmo Kauhaniemi Risto Komulainen
University of Vaasa and VTT Processes, Finland
VTT Processes,Finland risto.komulainen@vtt.fi
kimmo.kauhaniemi@uwasa.fi

Lauri Kumpulainen Olof Samuelsson

VTT Processes, Finland Lund University, Sweden
lauri.kumpulainen@vtt.fi olof.samuelsson@iea.lth.se

ABSTRACT

The share of distributed generation (DG) is expected to grow rapidly in near future. In
addition to the environmental aspects also the shorter construction period can be considered as
a key driving force accelerating the development. However, there are also some severe
barriers before wider employment of DG is possible. One of them is the connection to
network or grid. Especially when we consider distribution networks the situation is totally
new since traditionally there are practically no production units connected in the distribution
network. For this purpose new rules and recommendations are needed. Furthermore, new
technical solutions are necessary to make DG economically more viable.

This paper is based on Nordic research project CODGUNet, where the issues relating to the
interconnection of DG units were studied. In this paper different DG technologies are briefly
introduced focusing on network interconnection. After that the impact of DG on the
distribution network is evaluated considering the issues relating to system operation, control,
and protection as well as power quality.

At the end of the paper some key development areas in the distribution system are pointed
out, considering the new requirements arising from the increased share of DG.

INTRODUCTION

Different kinds of distributed energy generation technologies are developed world wide with
large R&D budgets. Typical for these technologies are a great number of production units,
which are small in size (from 10 kW up to about 10-20 MW) and located near the
consumption of energy. These units produce often electricity for a certain end-user. In
CODGUNet project DG means generation connected to the distribution network or on the
customer side of the meter, size not more than 20 MW and 24 kV voltage levels [1]. One
main idea of these units is that while the consumption of the end-user increases, additional
electricity is taken from the distribution network and when the consumption decreases, the
generation unit may provide electricity to the network.

From distributed generation technologies especially wind power has already been largely
applied, but also other technologies, such as gas, diesel and biomass fired micro and mini
turbines and CHP devices, solar cell systems etc., are in the phase of commercialisation.
Flexibility for the user and environmental aspects are often mentioned as the benefits of
distributed energy generation.

1
Connection of lot of small-distributed power generation units to the distribution network will
have consequences related both to technological and legal matters. When DG becomes more
common and the unit sizes increase, the effects on distribution network planning and
operation will also increase.

From the technical point of view the connection of DG units to distribution network or grid
(i.e. the DG interconnection) is a challenging task. The basic reason for this is that the
distribution networks are typically not planned for having some generation. E.g., the
traditional relay protection system of a medium voltage (MV) network relies on the fact that
the fault current is fed from one direction only.

ABOUT CODGUNET PROJECT

The project CODGUNet (“Connection of Distributed Energy Generations Units in the

Distribution Network and Grid”) was a co-operation project between four Nordic countries.
The coordinator of the project was Oy Merinova Ab from Finland. The research work in each
participating country was financed from various national sources in each country. The
organizations participated in the research work were

• VTT Processes, Finland

• University of Vaasa, Finland
• Vaasa Polytechnic, Finland
• SINTEF, Norway
• Lund University, Sweden
• Vattenfall Utveckling Ab, Sweden
• Elforsk, Sweden
• Eltra, Denmark

The planning phase of this project took almost a year before the final kick-off 11th February
2002. The project was divided into the eight separate work packages (WP’s) where the
research work was done partly parallel (Table 1) [1]. The project was finished at the
CODGUNet seminar that was held in Helsinki, Finland, in 19th November 2003.

DISTRIBUTED GENERATION

Definition

There is no single one definition for the distributed generation. Generally mentioned criteria
are:

• Not centrally planned and dispatched

• Usually connected to the distribution network

The rating of DG units is usually said to be small but the given MW limits vary considerably
the highest values being even up to 100 MW. A good discussion about the terminology is
presented in [2].

2
Table 1. Work packages in CODGUNet project [1]

Work Work package title Work package Participants

package coordinator

WP 1 General overview on the issues related to VTT Processes VTT Processes

the connection of DG in Risto Komulainen
the network
WP 2 Present status of DG in Nordic countries VTT Processes VTT Processes
(possibly also Germany, Risto Komulainen SINTEF
Netherlands and UK)
WP 3 Aspects of different distributed generation VUAB VUAB
technologies Saga Häggmark Technobothnia
Elforsk
WP 4 Network connection of different types of Technobothnia Technobothnia
distributed energy generations, technological Kimmo Kauhaniemi SINTEF
analyses LTH
WP 5 Effects on power system SINTEF SINTEF
Anngjerd Pleym VUAB
LTH
WP 6 Analysis of large scale DG for network Eltra VUAB
business John Eli Nielsen Eltra
WP 7 Summary and proposal for further studies Merinova Merinova
Project management Sauli Jäntti Actors of WP’s
WP 8 Dissemination of results Merinova Merinova
Sauli Jäntti Elforsk
EBL-Kompetanse

Wind power

In a wind turbine the kinetic energy of streaming air is converted to electric power. The size
of wind turbines has increased rapidly during the past two decades, the largest units being
now about 4 MW. For the smaller units the typical construction is fixed speed stall regulated
turbine. Units larger than 1 MW are equipped with variable speed system in order to
withstand the increased mechanical stresses. Single units are typically connected to a medium
voltage (MV) network (in Nordic countries typically 10 or 20 kV). For larger wind parks
connection to the high voltage (HV) grid is necessary. [3]

The most common generator type is the asynchronous generator. If an asynchronous generator
is directly connected to the generator a soft-starter is needed in order to minimize the large
currents at the generator startup. During normal operation directly connected generator may
still cause some increase in the flicker levels and in the variation of the active power flow.

Recently various arrangements applying modern inverter technology have come into market
allowing variable speed systems, where the power output can be held relatively constant
independently from the wind speed variations. For these kinds of systems both synchronous
and asynchronous generators can be applied. [4]

Reciprocating engines

Reciprocating engines, developed more than 100 years ago, were the first among DG
technologies. Both Otto (spark ignition, SI) and Diesel cycle (compression ignition, CI)
engines have gained widespread acceptance in almost every sector of the economy. They are

3
used on many scales, ranging from small units of 1 kVA to large several tens of MW power
plants.

Smaller engines are primarily designed for transportation and can usually be converted to
power generation with little modification. Larger engines are most frequently designed for
power generation, mechanical drive, or marine propulsion. Reciprocating engines are usually
fuelled by diesel or natural gas, with varying emission outputs. Co-generation configurations
are also available with heat recovery from the gaseous exhaust. Heat can also be recovered
from the cooling water and the lubrication oil [5]. Typically, synchronous generators are
applied with internal combustion engines although some examples can be found where
induction generator is applied.

Photovoltaic

Photovoltaic (PV) systems convert the sunlight directly to electricity. PV technology is well
established and widely used for power supplies to sites remote from the distribution network
[5]. Photovoltaic systems are commonly known as solar panels. PV solar panels are made up
of discrete cells that convert light radiation into electricity connected together in series or
parallel. Current units have efficiencies of 24% in laboratory conditions and 10% in actual use
[3]. The maximum theoretical efficiency that can be attained by a PV cell is 30% [6].

PV units are connected to the network applying inverter. This kind of arrangement will
potentially cause harmonics unless they have been filtered properly. On the other hand, the
inverters of PV system could operate, in the future, as active filters to reduce low order
harmonics in the distribution system.

Micro-turbines

Distributed generation with micro-turbines is a new and fast growing business. The market is
worldwide. In the Nordic countries micro-turbines are expected to be operated in combined
heat and power mode. The reason for this is that the cost of power is close to the cost of heat.
For each produced kilowatt-hour of electricity the micro-turbines will produce two kilowatt-
hours of heat. The micro-turbines could also be used for peak shaving, stand-by power,
capacity addition, stand-alone generation and others. In the case of capacity addition the short
time from decision and order to operation will be a heavy argument for DG with micro-
turbines in the future. [3]

Most micro-turbines use a turbine mounted on the same shaft as the compressor and a high-
speed generator rotor. The rotating components can be mounted on a single shaft that spins up
to 96 000 rpm. The high frequency AC current from the generator is first rectified and then
converted to AC at grid frequency. [3]

Other DG technologies

Above only four different DG technologies were briefly introduced. In addition to these there
are number of technologies that are still in early development phase, such as the fuel cell
technology, or technologies relying on the traditional steam cycle process, but applying some
renewable energy source (e.g., biofuels). Overview of different technologies is presented in
the following table.

4
Table 2. Overview of different DG technologies [3]
Wind Wind PV Micro- Fuel cells Stirling Recipro- Steam
generators generators turbines engines cating cycle
Landbased Offshore engines
Size, kW 10-3000 3000-6000 <1-100 25-500 5-3000 2-500 50-25000+ 10000
Installed 
 950-1500 1100-1650 6000-10000 1000-1800 1000-2000 ~1800 250-1500 1000-2000
costs, e
Operation 0.008 0.01 Little 0.008-0.015 0.005-0.01 0.018 0.005-0.015 0.005
and mainte-

nance

costs,
Emissions No No No Low Almost no Low Fairly low Fairly low
* * *
Availability Low Low Low High High High High High
on demand
Location Energy- Energy- Energy / Customer- Customer- Customer- Customer- Customer-
based based customer- based based based based based
based
Commercial Available Available Available
Available 2005 Available Available Available
status well estab- well estab- coming into newly well estab- well estab-
lished lished commercial introduced lished lished
application
Application Green Green Green Co-gene- Power Co-gene- Back-up Co-gene-
power power power ration quality ration Co-gene- ration
Remote Remote Base load Back-up Base load Back-up ration
locations locations Peak Peak Peak
reduction reduction reduction
Fuel - - - Natural gas Natural gas Any heat Natural gas, Natural gas,
source diesel, diesel,
biofuel biofuel
*
Low availability of these technologies can be explained by uncertainty in energy source

IMPACT OF DG ON THE DISTRIBUTION NETWORK

The interconnection

DG units can be grid independent or grid parallel as well as a combination of the both. In the
latter case a grid failure means that the DG unit is disconnected from the grid and continues to
operate independently from the grid and thus creates an “island” (islanding, island mode
operation).

A typical arrangement for the DG interconnection to the medium voltage network is depicted
in Figure 1. Connection and disconnection of the generator is made by the circuit breaker at
the generator side of the main power transformer (main breaker). Depending on the size of the
plant the disconnector on the grid side of the transformer may be replaced by circuit breaker.

The general scheme presented in Figure 1 illustrates interconnection of DG technologies

based on synchronous (or asynchronous) generator. Other DG technologies apply slightly
different interconnection arrangements. In all cases the voltage level at the interconnection
point determines the need for a transformer. Smaller units can be directly connected to the
low voltage network.

5
Figure 1. One-line diagram of the typical interconnection arrangement [7]

Considering only the electrical characteristic there are three different DG types:

• Synchronous generator
• Asynchronous generator
• Inverter

The first two types represent traditional technology based on rotating electrical machines. The
last type refers here various arrangements applying modern power electronic converters. From
the interconnection point of view these three types have different impacts on the distribution
network.

Power quality

Rapid voltage changes

Voltage control and quality problems may arise when generators embedded within the
distribution network start/stop generating. This might cause other network users to suffer
voltage fluctuation, dips and steps outside of the statutory limits.

Rapid voltage changes are defined as a single, rapid change of the voltage RMS value where
the voltage change is of certain duration. They may occur, e.g., at switchings in a wind farm.

Voltage level

Voltage quality problems may also arise during normal operation of DG when considering the
voltage level. When a distribution feeder is designed to carry a certain power flow from the
primary substations to the loads a generation unit along the feeder may cause a reversed
power flow and a voltage rise. This is schematically illustrated in the following figure. Some
practical examples may be found, e.g., in [8].

6
 Voltage
(p.u.)
1.1
with DG
1.0

without DG
0.9

MV feeder LV feeder

Figure 2. Voltage rise due to distributed generation

Harmonics

When using inverter based applications the increased level of harmonics may become a
problem. The amount of harmonics as well as their spectrum depends on the type of inverter
applied. A PWM inverter generates harmonics at multiples of its switching frequency. There
have traditionally been no limits or recommendation to the harmonics at switching
frequencies. Older thyristor converters generate 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th (and so on) harmonics of
the 50 Hz base frequency. The total harmonic distortion (THD) of the current is usually high
and above the standard limits without proper filtering.

System operation and control

Normal operation

Considering the whole power system there must always be a balance between the energy
produced and the energy consumed. An important characteristic of a traditional power plant is
therefore the controllability of the output power [9]. This characteristic is often missing from
a DG plant where the power output is dictated either by the availability of an external primary
energy source or by the needs of the private owner of the DG. E.g., the production of wind
power is strongly dependent on the wind speed. Also the CHP is strongly dependent on
external factors due to the necessary heat demand (e.g., space heating).

In Denmark wind power and CHP are defined as environmentally friendly and therefore
prioritised. This means that the owners of the power plants concerned assume no power
balance responsibility. It has been assumed that maximum production from these plants also
means maximum environmental benefit. In practice this leads into a situation where the
compulsory or bound production is sometimes much more than the electricity consumption.
This is illustrated in the following figure.

7
 MW Compulsory production on February 11, 2002
5000 © Eltra amba

Consumption Compulsory Central CHP

4000

3000

2000 Small scale CHP

1000
Wind
power
0
00:00 04:00 08:00 12:00 16:00 20:00 00:00

Figure 3. Bound production on a winter day [10]

The problems with power balance are realised only if the amount of not centrally dispatched
DG is high enough. In this respect is the role of DG as a part of the interconnected power
system must be reviewed. The rules and practices applied in the electricity markets will have
also a great effect in this respect.

Behaviour during disturbances of the system

As the share of DG has been increased in some areas remarkably the demand for their
supporting role in the case of major system faults has become an issue. Usually small DG
units are disconnected in such cases immediately. If the share of DG is large enough this
might lead into severe stability problems after the fault causing the voltage disturbance is
cleared. Therefore several utilities have presented so called fault ride-trough requirements.

The requirements of a German company E.ON Netz GmbH are illustrated in the Figure 4. If
the voltage at main connection node during disturbances is above the line shown, no
automatic separation from the grid is allowed. This requirement is for the wind parks that are
connected to the network with nominal voltage more than 60 kV. [11]

Figure 4. Behaviour during disturbance in the network [11]

8
It should be noted that the ride-trough requirement presented in the figure above is not yet
satisfied by the existing wind parks and thus it is a great challenge for the generator
manufacturers to developed systems capable of this.

Protection

The protection is one of the key issues when considering the interconnection of DG. This was
also shown in the survey made in the CODGUNet project (Figure 5).

Problematic or more complex protection

Uncertainty of power production

Voltage level control

Potential negative impact on reliability

Power quality

Need for active operation

Increase of fault levels

Lack if technical interconnection standards

Lack of pre-certified equipment

Safety to workers

0% 20 % 40 % 60 % 80 % 100 %

Figure 5. Problems of DG – percentage of maximum points [12]

Traditionally the uni-directional power flow has enabled relatively simple protection
arrangements. When adding some DG to the existing network detailed studies are needed in
order to verify the proper coordination between the network protection and the protection at
DG unit.

In the CODGUNet project a large set of simulations was made for studying the potential
problems related to the system protection. The simulation tool applied was PSCAD/EMTDC.
In the following the studies presented in [13] are briefly summarised.

The primary goal of the simulations made was to analyse the performance of usual protection
arrangement applied in various types of DG. The focus was on the distribution network side
and thus the generator protection was not considered. The main interest was to find out how
the DG units protection behaves in various network faults. In theory it should be able to
operate so that perfect protection coordination is achieved between the DG protection and the
network protection. With this respect, the following important questions were considered:

• The DG unit must not disturb the normal operation of the network protection.
• The DG unit must not stay feeding the network when the main supply is switched of
(so called loss-of-mains protection)
• The protection of DG unit must not operate on faults on other protection zones, e.g., in
other feeders.

9
In each case the model of a DG unit was connected to a network model representing a typical
20 kV medium voltage network with overhead line construction (Figure 6). There was one
primary transformer (110/20 kV) feeding a network consisting of several feeders. In the
model only two feeders were modelled with more details and an equivalent circuit was
applied for the others. The equivalent circuit included one single load (represented by
resistances and inductances) and shunt capacitors connected to the 20 kV bus so that they
gave the correct total load and total earth fault current.

110 kV grid
Sk = 1152 MVA
RRL

RRL

RRL
C

A
C

A
#1
110.0

16.0 [MVA]

20 kV bus voltage
VstRMS
21.0

+22.5
+18.75
#2

+15
C

+11.25
+7.5
+3.75
RMS
+0 0 0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4 3
VstRMS 3 Phase
Time (sec)
20 kV bus
Sk =244 MVA A

Earth fault current: B

- isolated: 23 A
- compensated: 1.1 A C
- resistance-earthed: 74 A

225.0

225.0

225.0
0.01

0.01

0.01
BRK_1

BRK_2

1.81938535489

1.81938535489

1.81938535489
C

C
A

A B C

0.346870156651

0.346870156651

0.346870156651
1
IC_1

IC_2
IA_1

IB_1

IA_2

IB_2

BRK_1 Earthing
transformer

Arrangements
1
BRK_2 for making Capacitors representing Total load of the
alternative the earth fault contribution other feeders.
A B C A B C earthings of the other feeders.
CPanel (around 19.8 A) 1600 kVA
BRK_1 BRK_2 Feeder 1 Feeder 2 cosfi=0.9
Open Clos. Open Clos.

0 0
Network model for DG simulations
in project CODGUNet

Version 1.0: 17.6.2002

Created by
Kimmo Kauhaniemi (VTT Processes) and
Tero Virtala (Vaasa Polytechnic)

Figure 6. The network model

The feeding 110 kV network was modelled as a voltage source that gives the fault level of
1152 MVA at the HV side of the primary transformer.

Since the aim was to consider different earthing arrangements an additional circuit for this
purpose was also provided so that this same model could be applied for studying both
isolated, compensated and resistance earthed networks.

In the simulations there was one DG unit connected into this network model at a time. Four
different types of DG unit models were applied in the simulations: wind power plant, diesel
power plant, photovoltaic system and micro-turbine.

With all the different DG models a set of simulations was made. The following fault types
were studied:

• 3-phase short circuit

• 2-phase short circuit
• Earth-fault (single phase-to-earth fault)

10
The possible location of the fault and the location of the power plant in the network were also
varied. For the power plant location there were two alternatives: either at the end of the feeder
or at the beginning of the feeder.

According to the simulations, the major problem with all types of DG units seems to be that
the short circuit faults on adjacent feeders may cause unnecessary tripping of the power plant.
The reason for this is that in a relatively weak network the voltage drops dramatically in all
feeders when there is a fault in one feeder. By default the undervoltage limits are relatively
high and the time delays are short. In order to avoid unnecessary trippings there are two
alternative actions that can be done:

• The time delay applied in feeder overcurrent protection is made shorter than the delay
in DG units undervoltage protection
• The delay of the DG units undervoltage protection is increased above the delay of
feeder overcurrent protection

In principle this means that the selectivity is achieved by proper timing of the relay
operations. In addition to this it is also possible to lower the undervoltage limit. For the feeder
overcurrent protection the lower limit for the possible values of the time delay is determined
by the features of the relay and associated devices (e.g. current transformers) so that the
minimum achieved with the latest technology is around 0.1 s. On the other hand, the allowed
increase of the delay of DG unit's undervoltage protection is mainly dictated by the generator
or inverter tolerance against voltage dips.

The diesel power plant, which was rather large in proportion to the total load of the feeder it
was connected to, caused unnecessary tripping of both feeder relays and power plant in a
short circuit fault simulation. The situation where the feeder 1 relay is unnecessarily tripped in
a fault at feeder 2 is illustrated in the following figure. This situation can only be avoided
applying directional overcurrent relay in feeder 1.

Feeder 1 Feeder 2

Figure 7. Unnecessary tripping of feeder 1 relay in case where the fault is in feeder 2

11
Another problematic situation is illustrated in the following figure. In this case the share of
the fault current from the generator is so large that the relay at the beginning of the feeder
does not see the fault and does not operate at all or operates only after the generator relay is
operated. There is no simple way to handle this situation. A solution may be found by
properly adjusting the current and time delays of both the feeder and generator relay. If the
generator is large and the feeder is long, like in this case, the only realistic solution could be
major network rearrangements so that the generator is connected by a separate feeder directly
to the substation bus.

Feeder 1 Feeder 2

Figure 8. Generator prevents the correct operation of the feeder relay

An interesting finding in the simulations with the wind power plant (directly connected
induction generator) was the formation of the healthy island that continued operation. In
practice the island operation would not be possible more than few seconds since there is not
any frequency control in the island created and loads in the real network are usually
constantly changing.

Considering the two inverter applications (photovoltaic and microturbine) in these simulations
it was verified that they can be operate in island if the power of the island is closely matched
with the power output from the inverters before the grid disconnection.

Considering the simulations made it should be noticed that most of them were made only at
one operating point and only very basic protection arrangements were considered. Thus
necessary topics for further studies are, e.g., loss-of-mains protection, automatic re-closing
schemes, studies on thermal protection especially with large units, various load and
production levels and simulations with various network configurations.

NEW REQUIREMENTS FOR DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Connecting DG in a distribution network is always a relatively complex task. In many

countries detailed engineering studies are always needed due to the lack of specific

12
interconnection rules and guidelines. Generic rules for interconnection are difficult to create
due to the large variety of DG technologies. However, the EU RES directive [14]
prerequisites that EU countries should create interconnection rules that are equal to all the
players in the electricity market. In Finland this work is still going on.

From the technical point of view there are two major concern in the interconnection; control
and protection. The control refers here primarily to the voltage control, but also power and
frequency control are important in some situations. The protection is still the most important
issues due to not only the large monetary value related to the possible damages in malfunction
situations but also due to the safety hazard.

The network voltage control cannot anymore be done locally in substations by applying
automatic control of on-load tap-changers. All the DG units capable of voltage control should
participate the network voltage controlling. There should also be some coordination between
the different units controlling the voltage. Voltage control should primarily be based on the
reactive power flows but in the distribution level also the active power has great effect. Thus
there may be necessary even to limit the active power output to maintain the voltage rise
within limits. The voltage control and identification of stability limits in distribution networks
requires still some further research.

The proper protection of distribution networks containing DG requires several new concepts
and methods to be developed. These are related to the following topics:

• Loss-of-mains protection
• Auto-reclosing functions
• Changes in fault levels
• Protection coordination
• Earth-fault indication
• Fault location

There is a need for totally new solutions, but obviously some solutions may be adopted from
the high voltage (HV) systems. An interesting topic will also be the protection of low voltage
LV networks which is traditionally based on fuses. In case of low power inverter based
generation there might not be enough fault current to blow the fuses.

CURRENT RESEARCH AND FUTURE WORK

Research activities related to DG are going on in many countries and there are also several
international activities in this area. In Finland TEKES (National Technology Agency of
Finland) has started at the beginning of year 2003 a national technology programme DENSY
for distributed energy systems. It covers local small-sized units for producing power, heat or
cold. A wide selection of fuels and production technology is also covered. DENSY will run
until year 2007 and the total budget is estimated to exceed 
   
 

Within the DENSY program there are several projects related to the DG interconnection. VTT
Processes is developing in co-operation with the University of Vaasa a simulation platform
for studying various DG interconnection related problems. This platform is based on
PSCAD/EMTDC software and the experiences from the previous work in CODGUNet
project will be utilised also in this project. This platform has already been actively applied in a
project "Protection" that is run by VTT Processes. It is a three year project where the

13
guidelines and new methods for protection of a distribution network with DG will be
developed.

Lund University and VTT are also involved in the project EU-DEEP. This is an abbreviation
for ”the birth of a EUropean Distributed EnErgy Partnership that will help the large-scale
implementation of distributed energy resources in Europe”. The 29 Meuro project is executed
by a consortium formed by 39 partners led by eight utilities under the overall management of
Gaz de France. The aim of EU-DEEP is to remove, before 2010, most of the technical and
non-technical barriers that prevent a massive deployment of distributed energy resources in
Europe during the next ten year period. Key activities are:

• Develop methods to create a European model for the market demand of DG and calibrate
it against a database of 80 million utility customers in 7 countries;
• Compare different DG technologies and how appropriate they are on different markets.
• Develop methodologies called Local Trading Strategies for flexible electricity demand
that enable DG introduction;
• Use pilot installations to validate key technologies for components and control structures
to support smooth integration of DG in existing power system.

In the project VTT is heavily involved in the design of the Local Trading Strategies, while
Lund University mainly works on control issues related to controlled island operation as
described in [15]. Both these activities aim at enabling DG by changing current drawbacks
into benefits.

In the current phase of development the rules and guidelines for DG interconnection are
needed in order to lower the barriers against DG. In the CODGUNet project there was also a
survey of existing recommendations [16], but these need to be revised in the near future since
lot of updated information is achieved trough active research of this topic all over the world.

CONCLUSIONS

One of the main trends in power industry is the growing interest towards small-scale power
production. The distributed generation is a form of generation that is connected to the
distribution networks. The increased number of generation in the distribution network
requires new approaches in the system operation and in the technology applied. When
generation is added to existing networks larger revisions are necessary at some point. The
system protection is perhaps the most critical area in this sense and some new technical
solutions are urgently needed. Another area where there are still unsolved problems is the
control of distribution networks containing relatively large amount of DG.

REFERENCES

[1] Jäntti, S., CODGUNet project group, Connection of Distributed Energy Generation Units
in the Distribution Network and Grid - CODGUNet - Final report, Oy Merinova Ab, 30th
September 2003 (available at http://www.merinova.fi/_FileRoot/273870.pdf)

[2] Ackermann, T., Andersson, G., Söder, L., Distributed Generation: a Definition, Electric
Power Systems Research, 57, 2001, pp. 195–204

14
[3] Häggmark, S., Neimane, V., Axelsson, U., Holmberg, P., Karlsson, G. Kauhaniemi, K.,
Olsson, M., Liljegren, C., Aspects of Different Distributed Generation Technologies –
CODGUNet WP 3, Vattenfall Utveckling Ab, 2003-03-14

[4] Slootweg, J.G., de Haan, S.W.H., Polinder, H., Kling, W.L., Aggregated Modelling of
Wind Parks with Variable Speed Wind Turbines in Power System Dynamics Simulations, 14th
PSCC, Sevilla, 24-28 June 2002

[5] Jenkins, N., Allan, R., Crossley, P., Kirschen, D., Strbac, G., Embedded Generation, The
Institution of Electrical Engineers, 2000

[6] DG Technologies Summary, WWW-site:

http://www.distributed-generation.com/technologies.htm

[7] Distributed Generation: System Interfaces, An Arthur D. Little White Paper, Arthur D.
Little Inc., 1999 (available at http://www.encorp.com/dwnld/pdf/whitepaper/wp_ADL_2.pdf)

[8] Repo, S., Laaksonen, H., Järventausta, P., Huhtala, O., Mickelsson, M., A case study of a
voltage rise problem due to a large amount of distributed generation on a weak distribution
network, PowerTech, Bologna, Italy, 2003

[9] Nielsen, J.E., CODGUNet - Analysis of How Large Scale DG Affects Network Business -
Recommendation for Network Operators to Utilize DG, Eltra, July, 2003

[10] Nielsen, J.E., CODGUNet - Analysis of How Large Scale DG Affects Network Business -
Information on Technical and Economic Aspects When the Share of DG Increases - "The
ELTRA Case", Eltra, July, 2003

[11] Ergänzende Netzanschlussregeln für Windenergieanlagen. Zusätzliche technische und

organisatorische Regeln für den Netzanschluss von Windenergieanlagen innerhalb der
Regelzone der E.ON Netz GmbH, E.ON Netz GmbH, 01 Dezember 2001 (available at
http://www.eon-netz.de/Ressources/downloads/nar_ergaenzung_fuer_wea_01_12_2001.pdf)

[12] Kumpulainen, L., Komulainen, R., CODGUNet WP1 - General Overview on Issues
Related to the Connection of DG in the Network, Project Report, VTT Processes, 2002

[13] Kauhaniemi, K. (ed.), CODGUNet WP4 - Technical analysis of network connection of

different types of generation units, Technobothnia, Vaasa, 22.04.2003

[14] Directive 2001/77/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council - of 27 September
2001 - on the promotion of electricity produced from renewable energy sources in the internal
electricity market, Official Journal of European Communities, 27.10.2001 (available at
http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/pri/en/oj/dat/2001/l_283/l_28320011027en00330040.pdf)

[15] Lund, P., Mogstad, O., Neimane, V., Pleym, A., Samuelsson, O., Connection of
distributed generation – effect on the power system, Technical Report, TR A5785, SINTEF,
2003

[16] Komulainen, R., Kumpulainen, L., CODGUNet WP2 - Present status of DG in the
Nordic countries, Existing National and company recommendations, Project Report, VTT
Processes, 2002

15