History of Sport,

Physical Education & Kinesiology

 Emerged as a subdiscipline in the late
Sport 1960s and early 1970s

History How has the past shaped sport and its

experiences today?
How did urbanization influence the
development of sports in America?
How did the sports activities of Indigenous
Nations influence the recreational pursuits of
the early colonists?
How did segregation impact sports
opportunities for blacks in the USA?
What factors influenced the inclusion of
physical education in the school curriculum?
How did sport develop and what is its impact
on youth culture?
 Civilization of ancient Greece
• Profound influence on the development of
physical education and sport.
• Vital part of the education of every Greek
boy
Greek Ideal stressed the unity of the mind,
body, and spirit.
• “A sound mind in a sound body.”
Leemage/Universal Images Group/Getty Images • Arête: The pursuit of excellence.
National festivals
• Olympic Games
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 Being fit and having athletic prowess
were important for health and military
success
Greek gymnastics were introduced to
Rome after the conquest of Greece but
were not popular
Romans preferred blood sports such as
gladiatorial contests, men fighting wild
animals, and men fighting each other to
the death

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 Focused on development of strong
citizens through school and community
programs of physical education

Programs emphasized the

development of strength and were
based on naturalistic philosophy

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Designed physical education programs for
school students based on philosophy of
naturalism; first school in modern Europe
that included physical education (or, PE) as
part of the educational curriculum

Extensive program of outdoor gymnastics;

stressed the value of physical education in
the development and education of children
Referred to as one of the founders of
modern physical education in Germany
Developed the Turnverein movement in
an effort to strengthen the country’s youth
… mold into strong, hardy citizens
capable of overthrowing foreign control

Advocated for the inclusion of gymnastics

within the school curriculum; emphasis on
professions, use of trained teachers, and
contribution of gymnastics to total
development of child
 Per Henrik Ling played a major role in
the development of gymnastics
• Used science to study the effects of
physical education
•Used anatomy and physiology to study
the effects of physical education on the
body
• Less formal and strenuous than the
German and Danish approaches
Gymnastics … influenced by nationalism

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Per Henrik Ling, 1776 - 1839
Design of gymnastic programs to meet
specific individual needs
Different types of gymnastics:
educational, military, medical, and
aesthetic gymnastics
Teachers of physical education must have
foundational knowledge of the effects of
exercise on the human body

Hjalmar Ling, 1820 - 1886

Significant role in developing school
gymnastics and curriculum
Day’s Order: Daily exercises for school
children
Franz Nachtegall, 1777 - 1847
“Father” of Danish physical education
• Worked with Danish public schools to
incorporate physical education (or, P E) into
their curriculum
• Appointed as the director of a training school
for teachers of gymnastics in the army and for
the schools
• Gymnastics emphasized fitness and strength,
with formalized exercises being performed on
command
Emphasized programs of organized games and
sports.

Archibald Maclaren, 1920 - 1884

• Believed that physical training must be treated
as a science; system adopted by the British
Army.
• Physical training and intellectual development
were important.
• Exercise adapted to the individual level of fitness.
• Physical education essential in school curriculum.

Muscular Christianity
• Sport contributes to the development of moral
character.
• Reconciles sport and religion … Why? How?
• Promoted the inclusion of sport in schools as a
means to develop fair play, honor and self-
discipline
Influenced by
European ideals:
• Systems of
gymnastics or
exercises
• Philosophies of
physical education

Influence of Ancient
Asian cultures:
• Yoga
• Martial arts
• Relationships
between the mind,
body, and spirit
Colonists focused their efforts primarily
on physical activity through performing
tasks essential to living and survival
Colonists brought sports with them from
their native lands
Puritans denounced play as evil;
recreational pursuits frowned upon
Reading, writing, and arithmetic in
schools, not physical education
No sports or frivolous activities on
Sunday … known as?
Introduced Jahn’s (German) gymnastics
program to his students at the Round Hill
School

Organized exercise classes based on the

German system for his students at
Harvard University in 1826

Developed a program of calisthenics

performed to music, which included
Swedish exercises, to improve the health
and vitality of her students at the Hartford
Female Seminary in 1828
 1839: Invention of baseball
1851: First national Turnfest held in
Philadelphia
1852: First intercollegiate competition, A
crew race between Harvard and Yale.
Intercollegiate athletics becomes
increasingly common on college
campuses
Horseracing, foot races, rowing, and
gambling on sport events were popular

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Dioclesian Lewis, 1823 to 1886
Developed system of “light” gymnastics
Established Normal Institute for Physical
Education in Boston to train teachers in
1861

Edward Hitchcock, 1828 to 1911

Director of Hygiene and Physical
Education at Amherst College in 1861
Pioneering work in the scientific approach
to physical education (or, PE)
Anthropomorphic measurement
incorporated into program to assess
outcomes
In 1885, first president of the
Advancement of Physical Education
Dudley Sargent 1849 - 1924
In 1879, Director of Hemenway Gymnasium
at Harvard University
Scientific and comprehensive approach to
physical education; used anthropomorphic
measurement to develop individualized
conditioning programs for students
In 1881, Sanatory Gymnasium to prepare
teachers in his approach
William Anderson 1860 - 1947
Played an instrumental role in the founding of
the American Association for the Advancement
of Physical Education in 1885 … now Shape
America (after numerous name changes)
In 1885, Director of Physical Training at Adelphi
Academy in Brooklyn

Delphina Hanna 1854 - 1941

In 1885, accepted teaching position at Oberlin
College where, in 1903, she became the first
woman full professor of physical education in
the United States
Developed training program for prospective
teachers which evolved into one of the first
professional preparation programs
George Fitz, 1860 to 1934
Research physiologist at Harvard
Emphasized the importance of basing physical
education programs on scientific principles,
NOT assumptions, so that the actual benefits of
exercise could be determined
1892: Established a formal exercise physiology
lab at Harvard where he and his students
conducted research on physiological effects of
physical activity

Hartvig Nissen, 1855 to 1924

Pioneered in the promotion of Swedish system
of gymnastics in the United States
1891 to 1990 Leadership role in physical
education for the Boston Public School System
where he influenced adoption of Swedish
gymnastics … who?

Baron Nils Posse 1862 - 1895

Leader in the promotion of Swedish system of
gymnastics in the United States
In 1889, helped establish the Boston Normal
School of Gymnastics to train teachers in the
Swedish system

Amy Morris Homans -1848 - 1933

In 1889, Director of the Boston Normal School
of Gymnastics
Mary Hemenway, Bostonian philanthropist,
underwrote the establishment of the school
Played an influential role in getting the Boston
Public School system to adopt the Swedish
system of gymnastics … refers to ?

Luther Gulick, 1865 to 1918

Instrumental role in Y M C A International
Training School at Springfield, M A
Designed the YMCA logo, with the equilateral
triangle representing the unity of the mind,
body and spirit and importance of developing
the whole person
In 1906, helps form the Playground
Association of America
Battle of the Systems
Late 1880s sparked debate among physical
educators regarding which system of
gymnastics should serve as the curriculum
for American schools.
In 1889, Boston Conference on Physical
Training
• No consensus on which system would best
serve needs of American people
• Posse: Need an American system designed
for the American people
Growth of American sport in popularity:
• Tennis
• Golf
• Bowling
• Basketball invented by Naismith (a Canadian)
Where?
The National Association of Amateur
Athletics of America was developed in 1879.
• American Athletic Union (AAU) was later
formed Founding of forerunner of Amateur
Athletics Association, AAU
Revival of Olympics in Athens in 1896 … by
whom?
Colleges & universities develop departments
and expand programs

In 1851, first YMCA opens up in the United

States; 1885 YMCA Training School
established in Springfield, M A

Expansion of intercollegiate athletics:

• Abuses raise concerns
• Establishment of governing bodies
Emphasis was on teacher preparation,
scientific basis of physical education (or,
PE), diagnosis and prescription of activity

Organized physical education (or, PE)

programs were conducted in elementary
and secondary schools
• In 1885, founding of the forerunner of
AAHPERD (American Association of
Health, Physical Education, Recreation
and Dance)
Physical education changed its focus from
gymnastics, exercise regies & calisthenics to
games, sports, aquatics, dance & outdoor
activities
Extensive programs were established in
schools & universities
• Higher standards for teacher training, four-
year preparation
Increased concern for the physically
underdeveloped in our society
Playground movement … what was this
movement?
• In 1906, Playground Association of America
was formed, which evolved into the
National Recreation Association by 1930
 His vision for “new” physical

Thomas Called for the education calls for a program

with an:
development of a
Dennison “new” program of
• “Aim as broad as education
itself… The great thought in
Wood physical education, physical education is not the
education of physical nature,
initially called but the relationship of physical
1864 - 1951 “Natural Gymnastics” training to complete education
, and then the effort to make
the physical contribute its full

Physician,
Robert Tait physical educator,
McKenzie and noted artist
sculptor & a
1867 - 1938 Canadian

Helped develop Authored many

physical education books, including
programs for Exercise in
individuals with Education and
disabilities. Medicine
Clark Hetherington 1870 - 1942
In 1910, articulates the four objectives of
physical education as organic or fitness,
psychomotor development, character
development, and intellectual development

Credited with inventing the phrase “new

physical education” to describe Wood’s
approach
Jesse F. Williams 1886 - 1966
Advocate of “education through the physical”
philosophy of physical education

Stressed the development of social

responsibility and moral values through
physical education and athletics
In 1927, Principles of Physical Education
Rosalind Cassidy 1895 - 1980
Advocate of “education through the physical”
• Carefully designed programs of physical
education that could contribute to the
development of the whole person
• Prolific writer

Jay B. Nash 1886 - 1965

Physical education should give students the
ability to use their leisure time in a worthy
manner
Recreational skills for enjoyment throughout
the lifespan
Charles McCloy 1886 - 1959
Active in research and measurement,
including anthropometry
Advocated for the “education of the physical”
approach to physical education
School physical education’s unique
contribution to the education of the individual
is organic and psychomotor development
Wrote Philosophical Bases for Physical
Education
Extensive interscholastic programs
Controversy over programs for girls …
brought under more rigid academic control
• National Collegiate Athletic Association,
NCAA, established to monitor collegiate
athletics
…Why?
Growth of intramural programs and emphasis
on games and sports in our programs
Recreation programs flourished
Physical educators developed
conditioning programs and provided
service to the armed forces
When the war ended, the public had
an opportunity to study the medical
examiner’s report for the men who had
been called to military duty
One third of the men were physically
unfit for armed service
What occurred in Canada?
Moved away from formal systems toward
development of physical education
programs that could contribute to the
development of the whole person
“New physical education” emphasized
contribution to the total development of
the individual; “education through the
physical” versus “education of the
physical”
Called for reform of collegiate athletics
due to increasing professionalism, public
entertainment, and commercialization
Women’s programs increased staff,
activities, required participation, and
facilities
Economic forces lead to cutbacks in
physical education (or, PE) programs and
growth of recreational programs
Physical educators more involved in
recreational programs for the unemployed
Growth of interscholastic, intercollegiate,
and women’s programs
Charles McCloy, 1886 - 1959, Advocated
“education of the physical” and stressed
the importance documenting results and
measuring progress of using scientific
data
Impact of World War Two physical training
programs

Physical fitness movement

• President’s Council on Physical Fitness and
Sports
• Canada?

Athletics
• Increased opportunities for girls and women
• Increased interest in lifetime sports
•Sport programs below high school level
increased
• Increased number of intramural programs
Professional preparation …
• Colleges and universities increased programs for
teachers
• American College of Sports Medicine in 1954
• National Athletic Trainers’Association in 1950

Programs for individuals with disabilities

• Special Olympics in 1968

Research grew in importance and became

increasingly specialized
Growth of the discipline
Franklin Henry in 1964 called for the
study of the ‘academic discipline’ of
physical education
During the 1970s knowledge base
expanded and sub disciplines emerged
Debate about the primary focus of the
field; in the late 1990s there was a
growing consensus that the focus should
be physical activity
In 1989, American Academy of Physical
Education changed its name to the
American Academy of Kinesiology and
Physical Education
Ongoing debate about what is the best
name for the discipline
Disease prevention and health promotion:

• Healthy People in 1979, 1980, 1990,

2000, 2010
• Objectives for the Nation
• Physical Activity and Health: A Report of
the Surgeon General in 1996
• Surgeon General’s Vision for a Healthy
and Fit Nation in 2010

Canada?
Legislation promoting opportunities for girls
and women, and people with disabilities …
Where? What?
Increased technology … what?
Canada?
• Recognition of the critical role school
physical education plays in in helping
children acquire the skills, knowledge, and
habits to be active throughout their lives.
• Call for increasing daily quality physical
education for all students.
• Physical education must be promoted as an
integral part of the school curriculum for
children and youth.
◦ Canada?
Emergence of new curricular models
Expansion of the fitness movement and
involvement in physical activity

Shift from performance to health-related

fitness to an emphasis on moderate
intensity physical activity

Physical inactivity recognized as a major

health problem
Canada?
Participaction?

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 Phenomenal growth of participation in
sports at all levels

Youth sports involve millions of children and

adult volunteer coaches
Interscholastic sports involve more than 8
million boys and girls (US stat)
• Trend is toward early specialization

Canada?

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Intercollegiate sports involves over 560,000
male and female athletes (USA)
• Growth of sport as a big business in
NCAA Division I schools

Growth of recreational sport leagues and

amateur sports for adults of all ages

Professional sports continue to expand

including professional leagues for women
 Rapid growth since the
passage of Title IX in 1972
Changes in governance of
intercollegiate sports
Challenges to Title X
Changes in physical
education classes following
passage of Title IX

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Federal Legislation
• 1973: P L 93-122 Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act
• 1975: P L 94-142 Education of All Handicapped
Children Act of 1975
• 1978: P L 95-696 Amateur Sports Act of 1978
• 1986: P L 99-457 Education for All Handicapped
Children Amendments
• 1990: P L 101-336 Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act
• 1990: 101-336 Americans with Disabilities Act
• 1998: P L 105-277 Olympic and Amateur Sports Act

• Does Canada have legislation?

Paralympics … for whom?

 Rebirth of the Olympics in 1896 … by
whom?
Issues or Not?
• Politicization of the Olympic Games
• “Fairness” issues in the Olympics. Evolving
definitions of amateurism
• Commercialization of the Olympics

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Professionals will need to be inclusive of
individuals with diverse abilities as they
participate in physical education classes
as well as sport and physical activity
events
Women athletes should receive equal pay
to men athletes in all sports
Women’s participation in sport will continue
to rise at the interscholastic, intercollegiate,
professional, and Olympic levels
Individuals with diverse abilities will be
provided increased opportunities to
participate in physical education, sporting,
and physical activity events
Disciplines such as exercise science, sport
management, and sports medicine slash
athletic training will continue to grow and
evolve, providing increased career
opportunities for many individuals