Unit-2A

Environmental Pollution

Definition: Any undesirable change in any of the property (physical, chemical, or biological
characteristics) of any of the components of environment which leads to instability, disorder,
harm or discomfort to the ecosystem is called pollution. The contaminant which brings about
such changes is called pollutant.

Although there are some natural pollutants such as volcanoes, pollution generally occurs because
of human activity. Biodegradable pollutants, like sewage, cause no permanent damage if they are
adequately dispersed, but non-biodegradable pollutants, such as lead, may be concentrated as
they move up the food chain. Air pollution, associated with basic industries such as oil refining,
chemicals, and iron and steel, as well as with the internal combustion engine, is probably the
principal offender, followed by water and land pollution. Present-day problems of pollution
include acid rain and the burning of fossil fuels to produce excessive carbon dioxide.

Air Pollution
Point source of air pollution and their controlling measures
Point sources are large, stationary sources of air pollution, such as factories, power plants, etc.
The definitions of point sources for criteria and hazardous air pollutants are similar but not
identical. There are four main types of air pollution sources: mobile sources – such as cars,
buses, planes, trucks, and trains. stationary sources – such as power plants, oil refineries,
industrial facilities, and factories. area sources – such as agricultural areas, cities, and wood
fireplaces.

External Combustion Boilers: Electric utility power generation, industrial power generation.
Internal Combustion Engines: Electrical generators, industrial power generators, commercial and
institutional power generation, and engine testing operations.
Industrial Processes: Chemical manufacturing, food and agricultural processes and primary metal
production.
Petroleum and Solvent Evaporation: Petroleum refining processes, surface coating operations,
degreasing, industrial dry cleaning and organic chemical storage.
Waste Disposal: Municipal solid waste disposal, commercial and institutional solid waste
disposal, industrial solid waste incinerators including hazardous waste incinerators.

Control devices
The following items are commonly used as pollution control devices in industry and
transportation. They can either destroy contaminants or remove them from an exhaust stream
before it is emitted into the atmosphere.
● Particulate control

⮚ Mechanical collectors (dust cyclones, multicyclones)

 ⮚ Electrostatic precipitators An electrostatic precipitator (ESP), or electrostatic air
cleaner is a particulate collection device that removes particles from a flowing gas (such
as air), using the force of an induced electrostatic charge. Electrostatic precipitators are
highly efficient filtration devices that minimally impede the flow of gases through the
device, and can easily remove fine particulates such as dust and smoke from the air
stream.
⮚ Baghouses Designed to handle heavy dust loads, a dust collector consists of a blower,
dust filter, a filter-cleaning system, and a dust receptacle or dust removal system
(distinguished from air cleaners which utilize disposable filters to remove the dust).
⮚ Particulate scrubbers Wet scrubber is a form of pollution control technology. The term
describes a variety of devices that use pollutants from a furnace flue gas or from other gas
streams. In a wet scrubber, the polluted gas stream is brought into contact with the
scrubbing liquid, by spraying it with the liquid, by forcing it through a pool of liquid, or
by some other contact method, so as to remove the pollutants.
● Scrubbers

⮚ Baffle spray scrubber

⮚ Cyclonic spray scrubber

⮚ Ejector venturi scrubber

⮚ Mechanically aided scrubber

⮚ Spray tower

⮚ Wet scrubber
● NOx control
⮚ Low NOx burners

⮚ Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)

⮚ Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR)

⮚ NOx scrubbers

⮚ Exhaust gas recirculation

⮚ Catalytic converter (also for VOC control)

● VOC abatement
o Adsorption systems, using activated carbon, such as Fluidized Bed Concentrator
o Flares
o Thermal oxidizers
o Catalytic converters
o Biofilters
o Absorption (scrubbing)
 o Cryogenic condensers
o Vapor recovery systems
● Acid Gas/SO2 control
o Wet scrubbers
o Dry scrubbers
o Flue-gas desulphurization
● Mercury control
o Sorbent Injection Technology
o Electro-Catalytic Oxidation (ECO)
o K-Fuel
● Dioxin and furan control
● Miscellaneous associated equipment
o Source capturing systems
o Continuous emissions monitoring systems (CEMS)

Nonpoint source of Air pollution

Atmospheric inputs
Atmospheric deposition is a source of inorganic and organic constituents because these
constituents are transported from sources of air pollution to receptors on the ground. Typically,
industrial facilities, like factories, emit air pollution via a smokestack. Although this is a point
source, due to the distributional nature, long-range transport, and multiple sources of the
pollution, it can be considered as nonpoint source in the depositional area. Atmospheric inputs
that affect runoff quality may come from dry deposition between storm events and wet
deposition during storm events. The effects of vehicular traffic on the wet and dry deposition that
occurs on or near highways, roadways, and parking areas creates uncertainties in the magnitudes
of various atmospheric sources in runoff. Existing networks that use protocols sufficient to
quantify these concentrations and loads do not measure many of the constituents of interest and
these networks are too sparse to provide good deposition estimates at a local scale

Highway runoff
Highway runoff accounts for a small but widespread percentage of all nonpoint source
pollution. Harned (1988) estimated that runoff loads were composed of atmospheric fallout (9%),
vehicle deposition (25%) and highway maintenance materials (67%) he also estimated that about
9 percent of these loads were reentrained in the atmosphere.
Forestry and mining operations: Forestry and mining operations can have significant inputs to
non-point source pollution. Forestry operations reduce the number of trees in a given area, thus
reducing the oxygen levels in that area as well. This action, coupled with the heavy machinery
(harvesters, etc.) rolling over the soil increases the risk of erosion.

Mining: Active mining operations are considered point sources, however runoff from abandoned
mining operations contribute to nonpoint source pollution. In strip mining operations, the top of
the mountain is removed to expose the desired ore. If this area is not properly reclaimed once the
mining has finished, soil erosion can occur. Additionally, there can be chemical reactions with
the air and newly exposed rock to create acidic runoff. Water that seeps out of
abandoned subsurface mines can also be highly acidic. This can seep into the nearest body of
water and change the pH in the aquatic environment.

How can nonpoint source pollution be controlled?

Reducing the effects of nonpoint source pollution requires reducing the amount of polluted
runoff and improving the quality of water that runs off the land. Nonpoint source pollution can
be managed most effectively at the source, by implementing Best Management Practices (BMPs)
to eliminate or minimize polluted runoff. Alternatively, NPS can be managed through controls
built into the path of runoff, such as sedimentation ponds or wetland detention systems that slow,
settle, or filter the runoff.

The most expensive way to manage the effects of NPS is to clean up after the fact. The expense
of “cleaning up” is not only financial, it also takes time and has ecological consequences. Using
alum or other treatments to seal lake bottoms and trap excessive nutrients, dredging ponds or
ditches to remove sediment, or intensively treating water to make it safe to drink are examples of
how systems are treated to cope with the impacts from nonpoint source pollution.

What can I do to reduce nonpoint source pollution?

You can do many things on your property to reduce the amount of nonpoint pollution that
reaches your lake or river. You can minimize erosion and sedimentation by keeping bare soil
covered, mulching gardens, establishing or maintaining a buffer of native vegetation between
your lawn and the lake or river, and maintaining healthy, dense turf. A dense turf lawn can be
effective in reducing runoff, but will probably need fertilizer. Have a soil test before applying
fertilizer, choose zero-phosphorus fertilizer, especially in shoreland areas, and apply carefully to
prevent excess fertilizer from reaching the water. Maintain your lawn with proper mowing,
sprinkling and aeration to increase infiltration and reduce runoff. Reduce the amount of
impervious area on your property and divert downspouts from your roof into a rain garden or
seepage pit to slow runoff. Eliminate bare, compacted paths by substituting a boardwalk, gravel
or mulch, or steps down to the water’s edge.
Encourage or restore the native vegetation along your shoreline to further slow runoff and filter
nutrients that might otherwise reach your lake or stream. The benefits of a shoreline buffer strip
also include improving habitat, increasing privacy, enhancing aesthetics, and deterring nuisance
geese.
Different types of pollution based on the part of environment which is polluted:
1. Air Pollution/atmospheric pollution
2. Noise or sound pollution
3. Water pollution/Hydrospheric pollution
4. Soil pollution/Lithospheric pollution
5. Radioactive pollution
6. Visual pollution
7. Thermal pollution

Air pollution: The air or atmosphere is said to be polluted if the concentration of any of the
constituents increases or decreases drastically to cause harmful effect on human health or his
environment.

Noise or sound pollution: Noise excessive enough to cause psychological or physical damage is
considered noise pollution.

Water pollution: Addition of undesirable substances to water that make it harmful to man,
animal and aquatic life causing significant changes in the normal activity is referred to as water
pollution.

Soil pollution: Natural and synthetic materials that can adversely affect the physical, chemical
and biological properties of soil thereby affecting the productivity is called as soil pollution.

Radioactive pollution: Pollution caused by the radioactive substances mainly in water is

radioactive pollution.

Visual pollution: Thus litter, billboards and auto junkyards are said to constitute visual
pollution.
Thermal pollution: Waste heat that alters local climate or affects fish populations in rivers is
designated thermal pollution.

Sources of air pollution

I) Sources may be classified in a number of ways. Firstly,

1. Natural sources. Eg. Volcanic eruptions, Forest fires.
2. Anthropogenic/ Manmade sources: Eg. Industrial, Automobile and Fireworks exhausts.

II) Another frequent classification is in terms of

1. Stationary sources (power plants, incinerators, industrial operations, and space heating)
2. Moving sources (motor vehicles, ships, aircraft, and rockets).
Types of air pollutants:
1. Primary pollutants - products of natural events (like fires and volcanic eruptions) and human
activities added directly to the air
2. Secondary pollutants - formed by interaction of primary pollutants with each other or with
normal components of the air
Major Classes of Air Pollutants:
● Carbon oxides (CO & CO2)
o sources = incomplete/complete combustion of fossil fuels

▪ transportation, industry, & home heating

o CO2 is an important greenhouse gas, CO2 causes nausea and headache.
o CO (carbon monoxide)

▪ the most abundant pollutant know to affect human health

▪ combines with hemoglobin to form carboxyhaemoglobin & may create

problems for infants, the elderly, & those with heart or respiratory diseases
● Sulfur oxides (Sulphur dioxide (SO2), Sulphur trioxide (SO3) & Hydrogen sulphide,
mainly SO2,)
o source = combustion of coal & oil (esp. coal), metallurgical process and hydrogen
sulphide gas from natural sources.
o can react with gases in atmosphere to form sulfuric acid ('acid rain'). SO2 and SO3 react
with water to form sulphurous acid (H2SO3) and sulphuric acid (H2SO4) respectively.
These acids cause irritation of eyes, nose and throat; they also adversely affect aquatic
life. SO2 also damages leather because of the formation of H2SO4 on the leather surface
which causes hydrolysis of leather proteins.
o High concentrations of SO2 cause chlorosis, plasmolysis, membrane damage, reduced
growth, yield and death.
o Exposure to SO2 can cause impairment of respiratory function, aggravation of existing
respiratory disease (especially bronchitis), and a decrease in the ability of the lungs to
clear foreign particles. It can also lead to increased mortality, especially if elevated levels
of particulate matter (PM) are also present. Groups that appear most sensitive to the
effects of SO2 include asthmatics and other individuals with hyperactive airways, and
individuals with chronic obstructive lung or cardiovascular disease. Elderly people and
children are also likely to be more sensitive to SO2.
o They play an important role in the formation of secondary pollutants called
photochemical smog (originally called as London smog). When they combine
with another air pollutant Hydrocarbons, they react with one another in the
presence of sunlight and form a mixture of compounds including which appears
as a blackish haze called photochemical smog.
▪ (smoke+fog=smog)

▪ (smog formed under the influence of sunlight is photochemical smog)

 ▪ To form, it requires SOx, Hydrocarbons, water vapours, sunlight &
atmospheric inversion
▪ It is oxidative
● Nitrogen oxides - NO (nitric oxide) & NO2 (nitrogen dioxide) are major pollutants.
o source = motor vehicles, industry (burning fossil fuels) and volcanic eruption.
Nitrogen dioxide is also formed from the atmospheric nitrogen by electrical
energy of lighting and by natural ionizing radiation. The oxides of Nitrogen (NO2)
form about 10% of air pollutants.
o can react with other gases in atmosphere to from nitric acid (HNO3) ('acid rain')
These acids cause irritation of eyes, nose and throat; they also adversely affect
aquatic life.
o Nitrogen monoxide like Carbon monoxide lowers the oxygen carrying capacity of
the blood.
o Being a strong reducing agent, NO2 react with metals, textiles and other
materials.
o Nitrogen oxides damage plants causing defoliation and necrosis.
o Nitrogen oxides play an important role in the formation of secondary pollutants
called photochemical smog (originally called as Los Angeles smog). When
Nitrogen oxides combine with another air pollutant Hydrocarbons, they react with
one another in the presence of sunlight and forms a compound called PAN
(Peroxy Acetyl Nitrate) and ozone which appears as a yellowish brown haze
called photochemical smog. PAN cause eye irritation, soar throat, respiratory
irritation and so on. After about 12 hours of exposure cardiopulmonary (heart)
activities are impaired.
▪ (smoke+fog=smog)

▪ (smog formed under the influence of sunlight is photochemical smog)

▪ To form, it requires Nox, Hydrocarbons, water vapours, sunlight &

atmospheric inversion
▪ It is reductive
● Volatile organic compounds (hydrocarbons) - methane, benzene, propane, &
chlorofluorocarbons (CFC's)
o source = motor vehicles (evaporation from gas tanks), industry, &various
household products
o Concentrations of many VOCs are consistently higher indoors than outdoors.
o Eye and respiratory tract irritation, headaches, dizziness, visual disorders, and
memory impairment are among the immediate symptoms that some people have
experienced soon after exposure to some organics. At present, not much is known
about what health effects occur from the levels of organics usually found in
 homes. Many organic compounds are known to cause cancer in animals; some are
suspected of causing, or are known to cause, cancer in humans.
o They are also part of photochemical smog.
o They cause blood disorder like Methemoglobinemia
● Suspended particulate matter
o solid particles (e.g., dust, soot, & asbestos) & liquid droplets (e.g., pesticides)
o sources = power plants, iron/steel mills, land clearing, highway construction,
mining, & other activities that disturb or disrupt the earth's surface
o act as respiratory irritants; some are known carcinogens (e.g., asbestos)
o can aggravate heart/respiratory diseases
● Toxic compounds
o trace amounts of at least 600 toxic substances (such as lead and mercury)
produced by human activities
▪ sources of mercury = burning coal and waste (such as medical wastes)
● Mercury is an element that occurs naturally in the earth’s crust. Most people and wildlife
can generally tolerate the extremely low levels of this naturally occuring substance.
When mercury enters the body it becomes concentrated in tissue, an effect known as
bioaccumulation. Because this element is toxic at very low concentrations, even slight
increases in the minute concentrations naturally present in the environment can have
serious effects on humans and wildlife. Once mercury enters the water it can be converted
to its most toxic form, methyl mercury, by bacteria or chemical reactions. Methyl
mercury is absorbed by tiny aquatic organisms, which are then eaten by small fish. The
chemical is stored in the fish tissue and is passed on at increasing concentrations to larger
predator fish. People and wildlife at the top of the food chain are consequently exposed to
elevated amounts of methyl mercury through the contaminated fish they consume.

Air pollution control measures:

There are 5 methods of controlling air pollution. They are
1. Proper planning of industrial areas like zoning.
2. Dilution of source discharge by use of tall stalks.
3. Using source correction methods
4. Vegetation and
5. Use of controlling equipments

1. Proper planning of industrial area like zoning

Air pollution can be effectively controlled by adopting the zoning system at the planning stage
itself.
Cumulative zoning in the past has resulted in less availability of land for industries.
Permissible system: Modified system of Cumulative zoning, though this system has also
resulted in crowding of industrial zones with other uses besides industry.
Exclusive zoning system: which provides for compatible uses for each zone, excluding other
uses. In this system a separate zone or area is set aside for industries (known as industrial area or
industrial zone), thereby reducing the ill effects of air pollution on urban dwellers. By proper
zoning, the planning of the city should be done such that residential areas and heavy industries
are not located too close to each other. This is achieved by providing a green belt between the
industries and the township.
In India, zoning system varies from city to city. For example, in the industrial estate of
Bangalore, only three zones are provided for light, medium and large industries. Bombay plan
has listed four zones, 1. Small repairing and light manufacturing units, permissible in residential
areas, 2. Service industrial zone, 3. Special industrial zone and 4. General industrial zone.

2. Dilution of source discharge by use of tall stacks

The atmosphere, like natural stream, possesses self-cleansing properties, which continuously
clean and remove the pollutants from the atmosphere under natural conditions, provided the
pollutants are discharged in the atmosphere judiciously so that effective dispersion takes place. If
the pollutants are carried away to some distance or taken to high altitudes, they are reduced in
concentration by diffusion and dilution. The pollutants are taken to high altitudes by means of
tall stacks. The height of the stack should be such that the maximum ground level concentration,
which varies inversely with the square of the stack height, is within the permissible limits. Tall
stacks penetrate the inversion layer and disperse the contaminants easily so that ground level
concentration is less harmful. Dilution of pollutants in air depends on atmospheric temperature
and speed and direction of the wind.

Disadvantage: It is a short term contact measure, which in reality brings about highly
undesirable long range effects. This is so because dilution only dilutes the contaminants to levels
at which their harmful effects are less noticeable near their original source whereas at a
considerable distance from the source, there contaminants eventually come down in some from
or another.

3. Using source correction methods: This method is known as air pollution prevention at
source. This can be achieved through:
a. Change in raw materials
b. Process changes and
c. Equipment or replacement.
d. Maintenance of equipment

a. Change in raw material: If one type of the raw material, currently in use results in air
pollution problem while a substitute material, which may be of purer grade, does not, the
substitution will be more desirable. The raw material in current use may contain certain
ingredient which is not essential for the process by which contributes to pollution, the
non-essential ingredient should be removed through prior processing so that pollution can be
minimized. (Low sulphur fuel which has less pollution potential can be used as an alternative to
high sulphur fuels.).Comparatively more refined liquid petroleum gas (LPG) or liquefied natural
gas (LNG) can be used instead of traditional high contaminant fuels such as coal.
b. Process modification: Atmospheric pollutants emissions can sometimes be reduced by
adopting modified or new processes.
1. If coal is washed before pulverized, then fly ash emissions are considerably reduced.
2. If air intake of boiler furnace is adjusted, then excess fly ash emissions at power
plants can be reduced.
3. Use of exhaust hoods and ducts over several types of industrial ovens have not only
reduced pollutants but also have resulted in the recovery of valuable solvents that
could have become air pollutants.
4. Similarly volatile substances can be recovered by condensation and the non
condensable gases can be recycled for additional reactions.
c. Equipment modification or replacement: Old equipment, which contributes to greater
degree of air pollution, can be modified or completely replaced.
1. Smoke, carbon monoxide and fumes can be reduced if open hearth furnaces are
replaced with controlled basic oxygen furnaces or electric furnaces.
2. In petroleum refineries, loss of hydrocarbon vapours from storage tanks due to
evaporation, temperature changes or displacement during filling, etc., can be reduced
by designing the storage tanks with floating roof covers.
3. Pressuring the storage tanks in the above case can also give similar results.
d. Maintenance of equipment
An appreciable amount of pollution is caused due to poor maintenance of the equipment,
which includes the leakage around ducts, pipes, valves and pumps etc. emissions of pollutants
due to negligence can be minimized by a routine check-up of the seals and gaskets.
4. Vegetation
Plants contribute towards controlling air pollution by utilizing carbon dioxide and
releasing oxygen in the process of photosynthesis. This purifies the air removal of gaseous
pollutants (CO2) for the respiration of men and animals. Gaseous pollutants like carbon
monoxide are fixed by some plants, namely Coleus blumeri, Ficus variegate and Phascolus
vulgaris. Species of Pinus, Quercus, Pyrus, Juniperus and Vitis depollute the air by metabolizing
nitrogen oxides. Plenty of trees should be planted, especially around those areas which are
declared as high risk areas of pollution.

5. Control at source by equipment

The most effective means of dealing with the problem of air pollution is to prevent emission at
the source itself. In the case of industrial pollutants, it is often achieved by investigating various
approaches at an early stage of the process. Design, development and selecting of those methods
should be emphasized which do not contribute to air pollution. Pollution control equipments are
generally classified into two types.
The particulate matter from gas stream can be removed at source using various types of control
equipment. Various methods are available, but to select the required equipment certain basic data
must be available. The required data are:
1. Quality of gas to be treated and its variation with time.
2. Nature and concentration of matter to be removed.
3. Temperature and pressure of gas stream.
4. Nature of the gas phase.

Particulates Control:
Gravity settling chambers
A typical horizontal flow gravity settling chamber is constructed in the form of a long
horizontal box with inlet, outlet, and dust collection hoppers. The dust-laden air stream enters the
unit at the inlet, then enters the expansion section, which causes the air velocity to be reduced
and particles to settle by gravity. Gravitation force may be employed to remove particulates in
settling chambers when the settling velocity is greater than about 0.12 m/s. The chambers are
provided with enlarged areas to minimize horizontal velocities and allow time for the vertical
velocity to carry the particle to the floor. The chamber usually operates with velocity between 0.5
and 2.8 m/s, although for best operating results the gas flow should be uniformly maintained at
less than 0.3 m/s.

Settling chamber design based on laminar flow requires either a very large size or large
number of trays with an awkward shape of chamber. The laminar chamber has the advantage of
giving theoretically perfect collection efficiency for particles of the designated size but is of little
practical value since the efficiency drops off rapidly with smaller particles. The most practical
flow in the settling chamber will probably be turbulent rather than laminar. Thus, turbulent
chamber offers a more practical design concept. The chamber should be reasonably designed for
the removal of 99% of the particles.Here an improved type of settling chamber is the baffle
chamber beeing used; the baffles cause sudden changes of the direction of the air stream thus
enhancing particle separation and collection. The motion thus induced is superimposed on the
motion due to gravity. Thus, particle collection is accomplished by a combination of gravity and
an inertial effect. Particles as small as 10 to 20 m can be collected. The settling chamber with
baffles is more compact and requires less space then the simple gravity settling chamber.

The advantages of settling chambers include: low cost of construction and maintenance;
few maintenance problems; relatively low pressure drops; temperature and pressure limitations
imposed only by the materials of construction used; dry disposal of solid particulates. The
disadvantages include large space requirements and relatively low overall collection efficiency.

Cyclone separators
The most widely used mechanical collector is the cyclone. Instead of gravitational force,
centrifugal force is utilized by cyclone separators to separate the particulate matter from the
polluted gas. Centrifugal force several times greater than gravitational force can be generated by
spinning gas stream and this quality makes cyclone separators more effective in removing much
smaller particulates than can possibly be removed by gravitational settling chambers. A simple
cyclone separator consists of a cylinder with a conical base. A tangential inlet discharging near
the top and an outlet for discharging the particulates is present at the base of the cone.

Mechanism of action: The mechanism depends on centrifugal force instead of gravity to

separate particles from gas stream. The generated centrifugal force can be several times greater
than the gravitational force. Therefore, particles that can be removed in centrifugal collection are
much smaller than those that can be removed in gravity settling chambers. Reverse flow cyclone
consists of a cylindrical shell, a conical base dust hopper and an inlet where the dust laden gas
enters tangentially. The dust laden gas enters tangentially, receives a rotating motion and
generates a centrifugal force due to which the particulates are thrown to the cyclone walls as the
gas spirals upwards inside the cone (i.e., flow reverses to form an inner vortex which leaves flow
through the outlet). Particles slide down the walls of the cone and into the hopper. The operating
or separating efficiency of cyclone depends on the magnitude of the centrifugal force exerted on
the particles. The greater the centrifugal force, the greater the separating efficiency.
Like settling chambers, cyclones are frequently used as pre-treatment units to precede other,
higher-efficiency air cleaning devices.

The advantages of settling chambers apply also to cyclones, and in addition cyclones can be used
over a broad range of pressures and temperatures, from below ambient to above 1000oC. Their
performance is insensitive to inlet dust concentration at the inlet; efficiency can increase with
increasing particle concentration; and they can be used effectively for the removal of liquid
droplets from gases, as in the discharge from absorption columns. The disadvantage is the low
efficiency for airborne particles finer than 5 m.

Fabric filters
Filtration is one of the oldest and most widely used methods for separation of particulates from a
carrier gas. A filter is a porous structure composed of a granular or fibrous material, which
retains the particulates and allows the gas to pass through the voids of the filter. Small particles
are initially retained on the fabric by direct interception, inertial impaction, diffusion and
gravitational settling. The filter is constructed of any material compatible with the carrier gas and
particulates and may be arranged in fabric, cloth filters or deep-bed filters.
Fibrous and deep-bed filters have large void spaces amounting from 97 to 99 % of the total
volume. Fabric filters are made in the form of tubular bags or cloth envelopes and are suitable for
a dust loading of the order of 1 g/m3. They are capable of removing dust particles as small as 0.5
microns and will remove substantial quantities of particles of which are closed and lower ends
are attached to an inlet manifold. The hopper at the bottom serves as a collector for the dust. The
gas entering through the inlet pipe strikes a baffle plate, which causes the larger particles to fall
into the hopper due to gravity. The carrier gas then flows upward into the tubes and then
outward through the fabric, leaving the particulate matter as a cake on the inside of the bags.
The filter efficiency during pre-coat formation is low but increases as the pre-coat formed, until a
final efficiency of over 99% is achieved. The pre-coat acts as a part of the filter medium, which
further helps in the removal of particulates. Many such bags are hung in a baghouse. For efficient
filtration and a longer life, the filter bags must be cleaned occasionally by a mechanical shaker to
prevent too many particulate layers from building up on the inside surfaces of the bag.
The advantages of fabric filters include high efficiency for fine particles, ease of operation and
maintenance, dry disposal of solid particles. The disadvantages include relatively high
installation and operating costs, limitations for use in high temperatures and in handling sticky
materials.

Electrostatic precipitators (ESPs)

Electrostatic precipitators are the most popular methods for efficient removal of fine solids and
liquids from gas streams: they can have collecting efficiencies of over 99%. A high potential
electric field is established between discharge and collecting electrodes of opposite polarity. The
discharge electrode is of small cross sectional area, such as a wire or piece of flat stock, and the
collection electrode is large in surface area, such as a plate. The dust-laden gas to be cleaned
passes through the field. At a critical voltage, the gas molecules are ionized at or near the surface
of the discharge electrode. Ions of the same polarity as the discharge electrode attach themselves
to neutral dust particles, which are then attracted to the collecting plate. On contact with the
collecting surface, dust particles lose their charge and can then be easily removed by vibration,
washing or by gravity.
The advantages of ESPs include: high collection efficiency for small particles; low operating
pressure drops; temperature and pressure limitations imposed only by the construction materials
used; dry disposal of solid particles. The disadvantages include large space requirements, high
cost, and need for skilled operation and maintenance. The success of a precipitator depends not
only on the quality of the system but also on adequate operation and maintenance; therefore,
well-trained operators are required.

Scrubbers
Scrubber is a device used to entrap a targeted object using a scrubbing medium. The scrubbing
medium can be selected based on the properties of the pollutant and the carrier gas in the
exhaust.
In a scrubber, the polluted gas stream is brought into contact with the suitable scrubbing medium,
by spraying, by forcing through, by sucking out or by some other contact method. The scrubbing
media entraps the targeted pollutant by physical phenomenon like simple capture, adsorption,
etc. or by chemical phenomenon like absorption, dissolution, ion exchange, etc.
Based on the type of scrubbing media used, the scrubbers are of two types, dry scrubbers and wet
scrubbers. In dry scrubbers solid scrubbing media like activated granular charcoal, activated
alumina, zeolt, etc.been used

Scrubbers can be designed to collect particulate matter and/or gaseous pollutants. Wet scrubbers
remove dust particles by capturing them in liquid droplets. Wet scrubbers remove pollutant gases
by dissolving or absorbing them into the liquid. Wet scrubbers are widely used in cleaning
contaminated gas streams because of their ability to remove effectively both particulate and
gaseous pollutants. They are designed to incorporate small dust particles into larger water
droplets, which can then be removed by simple mechanisms such as gravity, impaction on
baffles, or by centrifugal collectors. The droplets are produced, for example, by spray nozzles, by
the shearing a liquid film with the gas stream, or by the motion of a mechanically driven rotor,
and principles used to incorporate the dust into droplets include inertial impaction, direct
interception, diffusion,

Advantages and disadvantages

For particulate control, wet scrubbers (also referred to as wet collectors) are evaluated against
fabric filters and electrostatic precipitators (ESPs). Some advantages of wet scrubbers over these
devices are as follows:

Wet scrubbers have the ability to handle high temperatures and moisture.

In wet scrubbers, the inlet gases are cooled, resulting in smaller overall size of equipment.
Wet scrubbers can remove both gases and particulate matter.

Wet scrubbers can neutralize corrosive gases.

Some disadvantages of wet scrubbers include corrosion, the need for entrainment separation or
mist removal to obtain high efficiencies and the need for treatment or reuse of spent liquid.Table
1 summarizes these advantages and disadvantages. Wet scrubbers have been used in a variety of
industries such as acid plants, fertilizer plants, steel mills, asphalt plants, and large power plants.

Table 1. Relative advantages and disadvantages of wet scrubbers compared to other control
devices

Advantages Disadvantages

Small space requirements Corrosion problems

Scrubbers reduce the temperature and volume of
the unsaturated exhaust stream. Therefore, vessel
sizes, including fans and ducts downstream, are
smaller than those of other control devices.
Smaller sizes result in lower capital costs and
more flexibility in site location of the scrubber.
No secondary dust sources
Once particulate matter is collected, it cannot
escape from hoppers or during transport.
Handles high-temperature, high-humidity gas
streams
No temperature limits or condensation problems
can occur as in baghouses or ESPs.
Minimal fire and explosion hazards
Various dry dusts are flammable. Using water
eliminates the possibility of explosions.
Ability to collect both gases and particulate matter
Water and dissolved pollutants can form
highly corrosive acid solutions. Proper
construction materials are very important.
Also, wet-dry interface areas can result in
corrosion.
High power requirements
High collection efficiencies for particulate
matter are attainable only at high pressure
drops, resulting in high operating costs.
Water-disposal problems
Settling ponds or sludge clarifiers may be
needed to meet waste-water regulations.
Difficult product recovery
Dewatering and drying of scrubber sludge
make recovery of any dust for reuse very
expensive and difficult.
Meteorological problems
The saturated exhaust gases can produce a
wet, visible steam plume. Fog and
precipitation from the plume may cause local
meteorological problems.

Gaseous pollutants Control:

Commonly applied technologies for treating gases and vapor include the following: absorption,
adsorption, condensation, thermal oxidation (catalytic and non-catalytic) and biofiltration. Each
of these treatment techniques are typically economic over a certain range of concentrations, and
are better suited to treat some pollutants than others.
Adsorption
Adsorption is an interfacial phenomenon, molecules adhere at the surface of the solid adsorbent.
A large surface area is required to collect the pollutant molecules resulting in a larger physical
size and container. Adsorption from dilute gas streams is complicated by the occurrence of high
humidity and the presence of other compounds whose removal is not desired, but which also
occupy adsorption sites. Competition for adsorption sites reduces the capacity of the adsorbent
for the target molecules. At high relative humidity, a phenomenon known as "capillary
condensation" results in further loss of adsorption capacity further increasing the need for
adsorbent and the size of the unit. Although hydrophobic adsorbents are now available, used in
industrial applications, and perform better under high humidity conditions than granular
activated carbon GAC, they are too expensive for use with non-regenerable systems. Adsorption
systems used for SVE (soil vapor extraction processes )operation have traditionally been
non-regenerable systems because of the low concentrations. Since pollutants are only trapped,
and not destroyed by adsorption, disposal of the spent adsorbent must be taken into
consideration, since it may need to be treated as a hazardous waste.

Absorption
The removal of one or more selected components from a gas mixture by absorption is probably
the most important operation in the control of gaseous pollutant emissions. Absorption is a
process in which a gaseous pollutant is dissolved in a liquid. Water is the most commonly used
absorbent liquid. As the gas stream passes through the liquid, the liquid absorbs the gas, in much
the same way that sugar is absorbed in a glass of water when stirred. Absorption is commonly
used to recover products or to purify gas streams that have high concentrations of organic
compounds. Absorption equipment is designed to get as much mixing between the gas and liquid
as possible.
Absorbers are often referred to as scrubbers, and there are various types of absorption equipment.
The principal types of gas absorption equipment include
spray towers, packed columns, spray chambers, and venture
scrubbers. The packed column is by far the most commonly
used for the absorption of gaseous pollutants. The packed
column absorber has a column filled with an inert
(non-reactive) substance, such as plastic or ceramic, which
increases the liquid surface area for the liquid/gas interface.
The inert material helps to maximize the absorption
capability of the column. In addition, the introduction of the
gas and liquid at opposite ends of the column causes mixing
to be more efficient because of the counter-current flow
through the column. In general, absorbers can achieve
removal efficiencies grater than 95 percent. One potential problem with absorption is the
generation of waste-water, which converts an air pollution problem to a water pollution problem.

Incineration
Incineration, also known as combustion, is most used to control the emissions of organic
compounds from process industries. This control technique refers to the rapid oxidation of a
substance through the combination of oxygen with a combustible material in the presence of
heat. When combustion is complete, the gaseous stream is converted to carbon dioxide and water
vapor. Incomplete combustion will result in some pollutants being released into the atmosphere.
Smoke is one indication of incomplete combustion. Equipment used to control waste gases by
combustion can be divided in three categories: direct combustion or flaring, thermal incineration
and catalytic incineration. Choosing the proper device depends on many factors, including type
of hazardous contaminants in the waste stream, concentration of combustibles in the stream,
process flow rate, control requirements, and an economic evaluation.

A direct combustor or flare is a device in which air and all the combustible waste gases react at
the burner. Complete combustion must occur instantaneously since there is no residence
chamber. Flares are commonly used for disposal of waste gases during process upsets, such as
those that take place when a process is started or shut down. A flare can be used to control
almost any emission stream containing volatile organic compounds. Studies conducted by EPA
have shown that the destruction efficiency of a flare is about 98 percent.
In thermal incinerators the
combustible waste gases pass over or
around a burner flame into a residence
chamber where oxidation of the waste
gases is completed. For thermal
incineration, it is important that the
vapor stream directed to the thermal
incinerator have a constant combustible
gas concentration and flow rate. These devices are not well-suited to vapor streams that fluctuate,
because the efficiency of the combustion process depends on the proper mixing of vapors and a
specific residence time in the combustion chamber. Residence time is the amount of time the
fuel mixture remains in the combustion chamber. Often, supplementary fuel is added to a thermal
incinerator to supplement the quantity of pollutant gases being burned by the incinerator. Energy
and heat produced by the incineration process can be recovered and put to beneficial uses at a
facility. Thermal incinerators can destroy gaseous pollutants at efficiencies of greater than 99
percent when operated correctly.

Catalytic incinerators are very similar to thermal incinerators. The main difference is that after
passing through the flame area, the gases pass over a catalyst bed. A catalyst is a substance that
enhances a chemical reaction without being changed or consumed by the reaction. A catalyst
promotes oxidation at lower temperatures, thereby reducing fuel costs. Destruction efficiencies
greater than 95 percent are possible using a catalytic incinerator. Higher efficiencies are possible
if larger catalyst volumes or higher temperatures are used. Catalytic incinerators are best suited
for emission streams with low VOC content.
Condensation
Condensation is the process of converting a gas or vapor to liquid. Any gas can be reduced to a
liquid by lowering its temperature and/or increasing its pressure. The most common approach is
to reduce the temperature of the gas stream, since increasing the pressure of a gas can be
expensive. A simple example of the condensation process is
droplets of water forming on the outside of a glass of cold water.
The cold temperature of the glass causes water vapor from the
surrounding air to pass into the liquid state on the surface of the
glass.
Condensers are widely used to recover valuable products in a
waste stream. Condensers are simple, relatively inexpensive
devices that normally use water or air to cool and condense a vapor
stream. Condensers are typically used as pretreatment devices.
They can be used ahead of adsorbers, absorbers, and incinerators to
reduce the total gas volume to be treated by more expensive
control equipment. Condensers used for pollution control are
contact condensers and surface condensers. In a contact
condenser, the gas comes into contact with cold liquid. In a
surface condenser, the gas contacts a cooled surface in which
cooled liquid or gas is circulated, such as the outside of the tube.
Removal efficiencies of condensers typically range from 50
percent to more than 95 percent, depending on design and
applications Air Quality Standards
The National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) are
standards established by the United States Environmental Protection Agency that apply for
outdoor air throughout the country. Primary standards are designed to protect human health,
including sensitive populations such as children, the elderly, and individuals suffering from
respiratory disease. Secondary standards are designed to protect public welfare (e.g. building
facades, visibility, crops, and domestic animals).
NAAQS requires the EPA to set standards on eight criteria pollutants:
1. Ozone (O3)
2. Particulate Matter
o PM10, course particles: 2.5 micrometers (μm) to 10 μm in size (although current
implementation includes all particles 10 μg or less in the standard)
o PM2.5, fine particles: 2.5 μm in size or less
3. Carbon monoxide (CO)
4. Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
5. Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
6. Lead (Pb)