Organic Chemistry

Table of Contents
The structure of organic molecules......................................................................................................2
Bonding in Organic Compounds...........................................................................................................2
Types of Bonds......................................................................................................................................3
Formulae of Organic Compounds.........................................................................................................4
Homologous series................................................................................................................................5
Naming of homologous series..........................................................................................................5
Structural Isomerism............................................................................................................................7
Isomers are formed by branching.....................................................................................................8
How to name branched chain isomers.................................................................................................9
Functional groups...............................................................................................................................11
Alkanes (CnH2n+2)..........................................................................................................................11
Reactions of alkanes...................................................................................................................11
The Alkenes (CnH2n).........................................................................................................................12
Reactions of alkenes...................................................................................................................12
Distinguishing between an alkane and an alkene..........................................................................14
Uses of alkanes and alkenes...............................................................................................................15
Uses of alkanes...............................................................................................................................15
Review Questions.......................................................................................................................15
Alcohols (CnH2n+1OH)........................................................................................................................16
Alkanoic acids (CnH2n+1COOH)..........................................................................................................17

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 Organic Chemistry
The structure of organic molecules
 Hydrocarbon part
 Functional group

Organic chemistry is the study of compounds which contain carbon, known as organic
compounds. Most organic compounds also contain hydrogen and oxygen.

Bonding in organic compounds

A carbon atom has four valence electrons and can therefore form four covalent bonds with
other atoms.

Atoms such as:

 Hydrogen
 Oxygen
 Nitrogen
 Halogens (Group 7)

Four hydrogen atoms are arranged in a tetrahedron.

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 Organic Chemistry
Types of Bonds
Single Bonds - Form when adjacent carbon atoms share one pair of electrons between
themselves and are referred to as saturated.

Double Bonds - Form when adjacent carbon atoms share two pairs of electrons between
them and are referred to as unsaturated.

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 Organic Chemistry
Formulae of organic compounds
The formulae of organic compounds can be written in different ways.

 The molecular formula - The Total number of atoms of each element present.

Example: C3 H6 O2

 The fully displayed structural formula – This shows how atoms are bonded in
a two-dimensional diagrammatic form, using a line to represent each covalent bond.

 The condensed structural form – This shows the sequence and arrangement of
the atoms in the molecule so that the position of attachment and nature of each
functional group is shown without drawing the molecule.

Example:

Condensed structural formula - CH3 CH2 COOH

This can be condensed further to C2H5COOH

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 Organic Chemistry

Homologous series
A homologous series is a group of organic compounds which all possess the same
functional group and can be represented by the same general formula.

Characteristics of a homologous series

 Members of a series all have the same functional group

 Members of a series can all be represented by the same general formula
 Members of a series all possess similar chemical properties. As the molar mass
increase, reactivity decrease
 Members of a series show a gradual change in their physical properties as the molar
mass increases the melting and boiling point and density increase.

Naming of homologous series

The name of elements consists of two parts –

Prefix – Total Number of Carbon Atoms

Total Number of Carbon Atoms Prefix

1 Meth-
2 Eth-
3 Prop-
4 But-
5 Pent-
6 Hex-

Suffix – Function Group

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 Organic Chemistry
Name of General Functional Group Naming An example
Homologous Formula Present members of containing 3
Series the series carbon atoms
Alkane CnH2n+2 Carbon-Carbon Prefix + ane Propane (prop
single bond + ane)

Alkene CnH2n Carbon-Carbon Prefix + ene Propene (prop

double bond + ene)

Alcohol or CnH2n+1OH Hydroxyl group Prefix + anol Propanol

alkanol (Prop + anol)

Alkanoic acid CnH2n+1COOH Carboxyl group Prefix + anoic Propanoic

or carboxylic acid acid
acid

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 Organic Chemistry
Structural Isomerism
Structural isomers are organic compounds which have the same molecular formula but
different structural formulae.

Each different structural isomer has a different name, and if they contain the same functional
group they belong to the same homologous series.

Structural isomers can be formed in two ways –

 By the chain of carbon atoms becoming branched

 By the position of the functional group changing

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 Organic Chemistry
Isomers are formed by branching

Carbon chains can have side branches composed of one or more carbon atoms.

Example –

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 Organic Chemistry
How to name branched chain isomers
Side chains branching off from the longest chain of carbon atoms are called alkyl groups.
They have a general formula CnH2n+1 and are named using the appropriate prefix with the
ending yl

Example

The name of any branched chain molecule has three parts –

1. The number of carbon atoms to which the alkyl group (side chain) is attached.
2. The name of the alkyl group
3. The number of carbon atoms in this chain indicates the correct prefix, homologous
series and ending

Example

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Organic Chemistry

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 Organic Chemistry
Functional groups
Alkanes (CnH2n+2)

Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons, meaning they have only single bonds between
adjacent carbon atoms. Alkanes with 1 to 4 carbon atoms are gases at room temperature, 5 to
16 carbon atoms are liquids and those with 17 or more carbon atoms are solids.

Alkanes are relatively unreactive because the carbon-carbon single bonds are strong and
not easily broken.

Reactions of alkanes

Alkanes burn easily in air or oxygen

Alkanes burn in air or oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water as steam. They burn with
clear, blue, non-smoky flames because they have a low ratio of carbon to hydrogen atoms.

Alkanes undergo substitution reactions with halogens

The hydrogen atoms in the alkane are replaced by halogen atoms. For the reaction to occur,
energy in the form of UV light is required. The products are known as haloalkanes or alkyl
halides

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 Organic Chemistry
The Alkenes (CnH2n)

Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons because they each contain one carbon-carbon
double bond. The presence of this double bond as their functional group makes alkenes
more reactive than alkanes.

Reactions of alkenes

Alkenes burn easily in air or oxygen

Alkenes burn in air or oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water as steam. They burn with
smoky yellow flames because they have a higher ratio of carbon and hydrogen atoms. Not
all carbon is converted to carbon dioxide and the unreacted carbon remains, giving the flams
a yellow, smoky appearance. The reactions are exothermic.

Alkenes undergo addition reactions

Alkenes undergo addition reactions with other molecules in which the alkene and other
molecules react to form one molecule. One bond in the double bond is broken and the
compound formed is saturated (it has no double bonds; single bonds alone are created)

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 Organic Chemistry
Examples

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 Organic Chemistry
Distinguishing between an alkane and an alkene

An alkane can be distinguished from an alkene by reacting both with bromine solution and
acidified potassium manganate (VII (7)). Both reactions test to see if the compound
contains a carbon-carbon double bond causing it to be unsaturated.

Test to determine if a solution is an alkane or alkene

N.B – In UV light alkanes cause a solution of bromine to slowly change colour from red-
brown to colourless due to a slow substitution reaction occurring.

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 Organic Chemistry
Uses of alkanes and alkenes
Uses of alkanes

 Alkanes are used as fuels for the following reasons.

o They burn very easily.
o They release large amounts of energy when they burn because the reactions
are exothermic.
o They burn with clean blue flames which contain very little soot
o They are easy to store, transport and distribute.
 Alkanes are used as solvents because they are non-polar and can dissolve other non-
polar solutes, e.g. hexane and heptane are used as solvents for making fast-drying
glues and extracting oil from seeds.
 Alkenes are used as starting materials in the manufacture of a wide variety of
important chemicals because they readily undergo addition reactions. They are used
to manufacture alcohols, antifreeze and synthetic rubbers. Alkenes undergo
polymerisation reactions, they are used to manufacture a wide range of polymers
(plastics)

Review Questions

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 Organic Chemistry
Alcohols (CnH2n+1OH)

Alcohols (alkanols) have the hydroxyl group (OH) as their functional group. All alcohols
undergo similar reactions because they all contain the hydroxyl group. The strength of the
reactions decreases as the number of carbon atoms increases.

General physical properties of alcohols

 Alcohol molecules are polar because they possess the polar –OH group.
 Alcohols are less volatile than their corresponding alkanes because of their functional
group the forces of attraction between alcohol molecules are stronger than the forces
between non-polar alkane molecules with the same number of carbon atoms. All
alcohols are liquids or solids at room temperature. Their boiling points increase as
the number of carbon atoms per molecule increases.
 Alcohols are soluble in water because water is a polar solvent. Their solubility
decreases as the number of carbon atoms per molecule increases.

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 Organic Chemistry
Alkanoic acids (CnH2n+1COOH)

Alkanoic acids (carboxylic acids) have the carboxyl group (COOH) as their functional
group. Alkanoic acid molecules are polar due to the –OH part of their functional group being
polar. Like alcohols, alkanoic acids are less volatile than their corresponding alkanes and are
soluble in water. When they dissolve in water they partially ionise and are therefore weak
acids. Type equation here .

Example

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