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ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds except carbonates and Oxides.

Organic compounds
 Organic compounds are compounds which contain carbon except carbonates and Oxides.

Hydrocarbon
 A hydrocarbon is a compound which consists of the elements carbon and hydrogen only.
E.g. methane (CH4), ethene (C2H4) etc.

Homologous series
 A homologous series is a family of similar organic compounds.
 Each member in a family is called homologue.
 Chemical and physical properties of a an organic compound are determined by its
functional group
 A functional group is a group which determines the chemical properties of organic
compounds.
 Organic compounds with the same functional group are grouped in the same homologous
series.

Characteristics of the homologous series

 Members in the family have similar methods of preparation
 They have the same general molecular formula
 They have similar chemical properties because they have the same functional group. i.e
they undergo the same type of reactions.
 Members in the family show a gradual change in physical properties i.e. change from gas
to liquid and solid as the carbon chain increases.
 They differ from the next consecutive member by a –CH2- group.

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Homologous series General formula Functional Name of functional group

group.
Alkanes CnH2n+2 - C–C- Single carbon – carbon bond
Alkenes CnH2n -C=C- Double carbon – carbon bond
Alcohols CnH2n+1 .OH ─ OH Hydroxyl group

Carboxylic acids CnH2n+1 COOH ─ COOH Carboxyl group

Esters CnH2n+1 COOCmH2m+1 -COO- Ester functional group

Nomenclature of organic compounds (naming organic compounds).

 Organic compounds are named according to how many carbon they contain and which
functional group they possess.
 Nomenclature takes into account of the following:
 Prefix
 Suffix
 The prefix in the name tells the number of carbon atoms in the molecule
 The suffix tells the homologous series of the molecule

Prefix Number of carbon atoms Suffix Homologous series

Meth- 1 -ane Alkanes
Eth- 2 -ene Alkenes
Prop- 3 -anol Alcohols
But- 4 -anoic Carboxylic acids
Pent- 5 -anoate Esters
Hex- 6
Hept- 7
Oct- 8
Non- 9
Dec- 10

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ALKANES
 They are saturated hydrocarbons
 They are called saturated hydrocarbons because they have the required (maximum)
number of hydrogen atoms.
 The members of alkanes are known as hydrocarbons – they contain only carbon and
hydrogen atoms
 Their General molecular formula is: CnH2n+2 where n = 1, 2, 3, 4…….
 Alkanes have single carbon – carbon covalent bonds between carbon atoms.
 They insoluble in water
 Their names end with ane.

Examples of alkanes

Number of Chemical Molecular Structural formula Relative

carbon name formula molecular
atoms mass
1 Methane CH4 16

2 Ethane C2H6 30

3 Propane C3H8 44

4 Butane C4H10 58

5 Pentane C5H12 72

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Example
a) Organic compounds form homologous series. Give two characteristics of members of any
homologous series.
b) i) Draw the structure of an alkane with two carbon atoms in the molecule.
ii) Calculate the percentage by mass of hydrogen in this alkane.

Isomerism of alkanes
 Isomerism is the existence of compounds with the same molecular formula but different
structural formula.

Isomers
 Isomers are compounds which have the same molecular formula but different structural
formula.
 Alkanes with more than three carbon atoms exhibit isomerism

Nomenclature of alkane isomers

 The International Union for Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) rules for naming
alkanes

 Choose the longest continuous carbon chain in the molecule.

 Number the carbon atoms in the longest chain chosen starting from the end that gives
the smaller set of numbers nearer the branched methyl group
 Write the number of carbon atom at which the branched methyl group is attached to the
main chain in alphabetical order.
 Put a comma after each group number and a hyphen between the group number and the
methyl group.
 Name the compound as a derivative of the normal alkane having the same number of
carbon atoms as in the longest chain chosen.

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Example 1: Butane has two isomers

Molecular formula: C4H10 Molecular formula: C4H10

IUPAC name: Normal butane IUPAC name: 2 – methyl propane

Example 2: Pentane has three isomers

Molecular formula: C5H12 Molecular formula: C5H12

IUPAC name: Normal pentane IUPAC name: 2 – methyl butane

Molecular formula: C5H12

IUPAC name: 2, 2 – dimethyl propane

Questions
1. The displayed structural formulae below are of different compounds. Which ones are isomers?

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2. Butane and methypropane are isomers. Which formula is different for two isomers?
A. Empirical formula
B. General formula
C. Molecular formula
D. Structural formula

3. Study the organic structures below. Which of the structures are isomers?

4. Which of the pairs of compounds represents isomers?

Physical properties of alkanes

i) Their physical states vary at room temperature and pressure. Lower members are gases;
others are liquids while higher members are solids.
ii) Their melting and boiling points increases as the carbon chain (relative molecular
masses) increases.
iii) Their densities increases as the carbon chain increases.

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Chemical properties of alkanes

i) Combustion
a) In a plentiful supply of air (complete combustion), alkanes reacts with oxygen to form
carbon dioxide and water.
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O

b) In a limited supply of air (incomplete combustion), alkanes react with oxygen to form
carbon monoxide and water.
2C2H6 + 5O2 → 4CO + 6H2O

c) In a very limited supply of air (incomplete combustion), alkanes react with oxygen to
form carbon and water
C3H8 + 2O2 → 3C + 4H2O

ii) Substitution reaction

 A substitution reaction is a reaction in which one atom or group of atoms in a molecule is
replaced by another.
 Alkanes undergo substitution reactions with halogens in the presence of ultraviolet light.

Example Substitution reaction

a. Halogenation of methane
 Methane can react with chlorine gas in the presence of sunlight to form chloromethane
and hydrogen chloride.
CH4 (g) + Cl2 (g) → CH3Cl (g) + HCl (g)

Conditions
i. Temperature: 200 oC
ii. Catalyst: Sunlight (ultraviolet light)

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iii) Cracking of alkanes

 Cracking is the breaking down of large hydrocarbon molecules into simpler and smaller
molecules.
 Alkanes break down to produce alkenes, short chain alkanes and in some cases hydrogen
gas.

Types of cracking

i) Thermal cracking
 This is where heat is used to break down large molecules into smaller ones. E.g.
C4H10 → C2H6 + C2H4

C2H6 → C2H4 + H2

ii) Catalytic cracking

 This is where both heat and a catalyst are used to break down large molecules into
smaller ones.
 Common catalysts used include aluminium oxide (Al2O3) and silica (SiO2). E.g.
C17H36 (l) → 3C2H4 (g) + C8H18 + C3H6 (g)

Conditions
i) Catalyst: Aluminium oxide, Al2O3
ii) Temperature: 600oC

Importance of cracking
i. It is used in the production of raw materials for petrol chemicals like ethene and
hydrogen. Hydrogen is used in making plastics and margarine.
ii. It is used in the production of petrol.

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FUELS
 A fuel is a substance which burns in air to produce useful energy.

Sources of fuels
a) Natural gas
 The main component of natural gas is methane.
 Natural gas is usually mined and purified before use.

b) Crude oil (Petroleum)

 Crude oil is a mixture of long chain hydrocarbons and some elements like sulphur
and nitrogen
 Crude oil can be refined by fractional distillation.
 Fractional distillation is a process of separating components of a mixture based on
their boiling points.
 The diagram below shows a fractionating tower and different fractions obtained
from crude oil.

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Fractions of crude oil and their uses

Fraction Number of Use

carbon atoms
Petroleum gases C1 – C4  Used in camping stoves and cookers as bottled gas

Petrol C4 – C10  Used as a fuel in internal combustion engines in

(gasoline) vehicles
Kerosene C10 – C17  Used as a fuel in jets
( paraffin)  Used in paraffin lamps for lighting
 Used in paraffin lamps for cooking
Diesel oil C17 – C20  Used as a fuel in diesel engines like trains, hammer
(gas oil) mills, tractors, lorries
Lubricating oil C20 – C30  Used as a lubricant in machines to reduce friction

Fuel oil C30 – C40  Used as a fuel in ships, power stations and industrial
machinery
Paraffin waxes C40 – C50  Used in making waxes, polishes and wax papers

Bitumen C50 Upwards  Used to tar roads

(residue)  Used as a roofing material

Note
 Petroleum gases have the smallest boiling point and have the smallest relative molecular
mass.
 Bitumen has the highest boiling point and has the largest relative molecular mass. In
addition, bitumen has the longest chain.
 Octane is the main component of petrol.

Example
Crude oil is an important raw material that we need in modern life. Engineers process and refine
crude oil in a tower to produce a number of fractions as shown in the diagram below.

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a. Name the process used to separate the fractions of crude oil.

b. Name the two major elements that are found in crude oil.
c. State two differences in physical properties between fractions extracted at C and B.
d. A large proportion of fraction A has the molecular formula CH4. Write a balanced
chemical equation for the complete combustion of the compound with chemical
formula CH4.
e. Crude oil is a non-renewable energy source. Explain what is meant by a non-
renewable source.
f. Give two reasons why the sun is a better source of energy than crude oil.

ALKENES
 They are unsaturated hydrocarbons.
 They are called unsaturated hydrocarbons because they have a double bond between
carbon atoms.
 The alkenes also form a family of hydrocarbons – they contain only carbon and hydrogen
atoms
 Their General molecular formula: CnH2n, where n = 2, 3, 4, 5…..
 The alkenes contain carbon – carbon double covalent bond (- C = C -). This carbon – carbon
double bond is the Functional group of the alkene family.

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 They have one or more double bonds between carbon atoms.

 Their names end with ene
 They have two hydrogen atoms less than their corresponding alkanes
 Note that the alkene family starts with ethene where n = 2

Examples of alkenes

Number of Chemical name Molecular Structural formula Relative

carbon formula molecular
atoms mass

2 Ethene C2H4 28

3 Propene C3H6 42

4 Butene C4H8 56

5 Pentane C5H10 70

Preparation of ethene gas

 There are two methods used to prepare ethene.

i. Catalytic cracking of alkanes

 This is where a catalyst is used to break down large hydrocarbon molecules into smaller
ones.

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Reaction: C17H36 (l) → 3C2H4 (g) + C3H6 (g) + C8H18 (l)

Conditions
 Temperature: 600 oC
 Catalyst: Aluminium oxide, Al2O3

Note: The broken pot can act as a catalyst.

ii. Dehydration of ethanol

 Ethene can be prepared by the dehydration of ethanol using concentrated sulphuric acid
as a dehydrating agent.
 Sulphuric acid removes water.
C2H5OH (l) → C2H4 (g) + H2O (l)

Conditions
i. Temperature: 180oC
ii. Dehydrating agent: Concentrated sulphuric acid, H2SO4

Test for unsaturation (Test for alkenes)

 Alkenes decolourise bromine solution rapidly.
 Bromine solution can be used to test a hydrocarbon, to see whether it is an alkane or
alkene

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Test
 Shake an alkene with bromine water.

Result
 The brown colour of bromine disappears immediately.
 In other words alkenes decolourise bromine water.

Explanation
 When ethene reacts with bromine water, the colourless liquid called 1, 2 – dibromoethane
is formed.
C2H4 (g) + Br2 (l) C2H4Br2 (l)

Note
When an alkane is shaken with bromine water, there is no reaction.
Alkanes do not undergo addition reactions because they are saturated.

Chemical properties of alkenes

 Alkenes are more reactive than alkanes because the double bond opens up to allow
chemical reactions.
 Alkenes undergo two notable chemical reactions.

1. Combustion
 Alkenes react with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water. E.g.
C2H4 (g) + 3O2 (g) 2CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)

2. Addition reactions
 An addition reaction is a reaction where a molecule is added to an unsaturated
molecule by breaking a double bond.

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Examples of addition reaction involving ethene

a) Halogenation – reaction with halogens
 Ethene reacts with chlorine to form 1, 2 – dichloroethane.
C2H4 (g) + Cl2 (g) → C2H4Cl2 (l)

b) Hydrogenation – reaction with hydrogen

 Hydrogenation is the reaction of alkenes with hydrogen to form corresponding
alkanes.
 Hydrogen makes the unsaturated compounds to become saturated.
 Hydrogenation is important in the industry because it is used in the production of
margarine from unsaturated vegetable oil.
 Vegetable oils are changed into fats which are saturated by hydrogenation
 Ethene reacts with hydrogen to form ethane.
C2H4 (g) + H2 (g) → C2H6 (g)

Conditions
i) Temperature: 200 oC
ii) Catalyst: Nickel metal

c) Hydration – reaction with water

 Hydration is the reaction of alkenes with steam to form alcohols.
 Ethene reacts with steam in the presence of phosphoric acid to form ethanol.
C2H4 (g) + H2O (g) → C2H5OH (l)

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Conditions
i) Temperature: 300oC
ii) Catalyst: Phosphoric acid, H3PO4
iii) Pressure: 65 atm.

Uses of ethene
 Used in the manufacture of plastics (polyethene)
 Used in the manufacture of ethanol
 Used in the process of ripening fruits.

QUESTIONS

Question 1 (2022 GCE)

Propene is one of the many important hydrocarbons obtained from crude oil. Like propane, it is
made up of molecules which contain three carbon atoms.
a) i) Draw a structural formula for propene. [1]
ii) How does propene differ from propane in terms of bonds? [1]
iii) To which group of hydrocarbons does propene belong? [1]
iv) Give the molecular formula for propane and propene respectively. [2]
b) i) Explain why propene reacts immediately with bromine water whereas propane does
not. [1]
ii) Describe what would be observed during the reaction. [1]
c) Propene is obtained by breaking down longer chains of hydrocarbons. What is this
process called? [1]
d) Propene is a monomer for making an important plastic. State the name of the polymer it

forms. [1]

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Question 2 (2021 G.C.E)

A hydrocarbon V which contains only 3 carbon atoms was bubbled through bromine solution
and there was a rapid decolourisation of the solution.
a) i) Identify the hydrocarbon V. [1]
i) Draw the structure of the hydrocarbon V. [1]
ii) To which homologous series does the hydrocarbon V belong? [1]
iii) Write the general formula of the homologous series where the hydrocarbon V
belongs. [1]
b) i) Explain the danger of burning the hydrocarbon V in limited oxygen. [3]
ii) Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction in (b) (i) above. [2]
c) Under suitable conditions, the hydrocarbon V was polymerized and the polymer W was
produced. Display the structure of polymer W. [1]

Question 3 (2021 S.C)

Study the following series of reactions for ethene

a) Name,
i) Gas A
ii) Gas B
iii) Gas C
iv) Condition D
v) Liquid E
vi) Liquid F [6]
b) Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction of ethene with excess oxygen. [2]
c) Give the structural formula of liquid E. [1]
d) State the industrial application of the reaction of ethene with gas A to form ethane. [1]

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Question 4 (2019 S.C)

Butene, C4H8, is a compound belonging to the alkene series.
a) State the general formula for the alkene [1]
b) Draw the displayed formula for the second member of the series. [1]
c) Butene is prepared by cracking petroleum oils. Name the other method by which it may
be prepared. [1]
d) But-1-ene can be polymerised.
i) Name the type of polymerisation it undergoes. [1]
ii) Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction between ethanoic acid and
the compound named in (e) (i) above. Include state symbols. [3]

Question 5 (2018 S.C)

Ethene C2H4 is an unsaturated hydrocarbon. It is manufactured from petroleum as shown in the
flow diagram.

a) Name the two process Y and Z [2]

b) Describe either process X or Z, include necessary conditions for any reactions. [2]
c) Ethene can undergo hydrogenation process with hydrogen. Write the reaction equation
using displayed structure. [2]

Question 6
Ethene, C2H4, is a hormone found in most plants. Tomatoes release ethene as they ripen. Fruit
growers use ethene as a ripening agent.
a) Draw a displayed structural formula of ethene.
b) i) State the homologous series to which ethene belongs.
ii) Give the general formula of this homologous series.
iii) State the molecular formulae of the fourth and fifth members of this homologous series
respectively.
c) State one major source of ethene and the method by which it is obtained.

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ALCOHOLS
 Also known as alkanols
 General molecular formula: CnH2n + 1 OH, where n = 1, 2, 3, 4…
 Functional group: hydroxyl group, ─ OH
 Their names end with anol
 They are not hydrocarbons because they contain oxygen
 Alcohols they are not alkalis even though they contain ─ OH. They are neutral liquids.

Examples of alcohols
Number of Alcohol Molecular formula Structural formula Mr
Carbon atoms

CH3OH
1 Methanol 32

C2H5OH
2 Ethanol 46

C3H7OH
3 Propanol 60

C4H9OH
4 Butanol 74

C5H11OH
5 Pentanol 88

Preparation of alcohols
 The following are the methods of preparing alcohols.

a) Hydration of ethene
 Alcohols are prepared when alkenes react with steam.
 Ethanol can be prepared when ethene reacts with steam.

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C2H4 (g) + H2O (g) → C2H5OH (l)

Ethene Steam Ethanol

Conditions
ii) Temperature: 300oC
iii) Catalyst: Phosphoric acid, H3pO4
iv) Pressure: 65 atm.

b) Fermentation of sugars
 Fermentation is the decomposition of sugars using enzymes in yeast to produce ethanol
and carbon dioxide.
 Sugars (glucose) is mixed with water and yeast and allowed to react for a few days in the
absence of air (oxygen).
 During fermentation, yeast acts on glucose and converts it into ethanol.

Glucose Ethanol + Carbon dioxide

C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2

Conditions for fermentation

i. Optimum temperature: 37 oC
ii. Catalyst (enzyme): Zymase

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Note
 Fermentation should take place in the absence of air (oxygen) to prevent oxidation of
ethanol to ethanoic acid.
 If the temperature goes above 40oC, the enzymes in yeast which catalyze the reaction
become denatured.

Example
Study the following sequence of reactions.
Glucose ethanol ethene

i) What name is given-to the process by which glucose changes into ethanol?
ii) Name the enzyme responsible for the change in (1) above.
iii) What gas is produced during this process?

Physical properties of alcohols

a. They are colourless inflammable liquids
b. They have low boiling points. Their boiling points increases as the carbon chain increases
c. They are soluble in water. Their solubility in water decreases as the number of carbon
chain increases

Chemical properties of alcohols (Reactions of alcohols)

1. Combustion of alcohols
 Alcohols burn in air (react with oxygen) to form carbon dioxide and water. E.g.
Ethanol + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water
C2H5OH + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 3 H2O

2. Dehydration of alcohols
 Dehydration is the removal of water from a compound.
 Water is removed from alcohols to form alkenes using concentrated sulphuric acid as a
dehydrating agent. E.g.
C2H5OH (l) → C2H4 (g) + H2O (l)

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3. Oxidation of alcohols to carboxylic acids

 Oxidation is the addition of oxygen to a substance
 Alcohols are oxidised to carboxylic acids either by bacteria in the air or using an
oxidising agent.

a) Oxidation of Ethanol to ethanoic acid by bacteria in the air

C2H5OH + O2 → CH3COOH + H2O

b) Oxidation of ethanol to ethanoic by using an oxidising agent such as acidified potassium

per manganate [KMnO4 ] and potassium dichromate (VI) [K2Cr2O7]
C2H5OH + 2[O] → CH3COOH + H2 O

 The oxygen is from the oxidizing agent.

 When ethanol reduces potassium permanganate, the reaction is indicated by the colour
change from purple to colourless on mixing.
 When ethanol reduces potassium dichromate, the reaction is indicated by the colour
change from orange to green on mixing.

Uses of ethanol
i. Used in alcoholic drinks such as beer and wines
ii. Used as a solvent
iii. Used in making methylated spirit
iv. Used as a fuel
v. Used in the preservation and sterilization of food

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QUESTIONS

Question 1 (2022 S.C)

The following diagram shows some of the reactions of ethanol.

a) Draw the structural formula for ethene.

b) Give the names for
i) Solution P
ii) Process Q
iii) Gas R
c) Write a balanced chemical equation for the complete combustion of ethanol.

Question 2 (2021 S.C)

The structures shown are members of one of the homologous series in organic chemistry.

R S T

a) Give the general formula for this homologous series. [1]

b) What is the functional group for the homologous series? [1]
c) S is used as a fuel because it burn in oxygen. Write a balanced chemical equation for this
reaction. [2]
d) Which of the following compounds R, S or T would have the highest boiling point? [1]

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Question 3 (2015 G.C.E)

89. Study the flow diagram below carefully.

Heavy oil Process A Substance B Process C Ethanol

a) Name Process A and Process C.

b) Name Substance B.
c) Give one significance of Process A

Question 4
When concentrated sulphuric acid is added to ethanol, the following reaction

a) What type of reaction is this?

b) What test can be done to show that ethene is formed?
c) State the general formula for the homologous series in which ethene is belongs.

CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
 They are also known as Alkaloids
 General molecular formula: CnH2n+1COOH, where n = 0, 1, 2, 3….
 Functional group: Carboxyl group, ─ COOH.
 Their names end with ‘noic acid’
 They are not hydrocarbons because they contain oxygen

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Examples of carboxylic acids

Number of Chemical name Molecular formula Structural formula Mr
Carbon atoms

1 Methanoic acid HCOOH 46

2 Ethanoic acid CH3COOH 60

3 Propanoic acid C2H5COOH 74

4 Butanoic acid C3H7COOH 88

5 Pentanoic acid C4H9COOH 102

Preparation of Carboxylic acids

 Carboxylic acids can be prepared by the oxidation of alcohols either by bacteria in
atmospheric air or using an oxidizing agent.
 Ethanoic acid for example, is prepared by the oxidation of ethanol.

a) Oxidation of ethanol in air

 Ethanoic acid can be prepared by the oxidation of ethanol by bacteria in atmospheric air.
 When a solution of ethanol is exposed to air, the oxygen present slowly oxidizes ethanol
into ethanoic acid in the presence of bacteria.
 Vinegar, which is a solution of ethanoic acid in water, is made this way.
C2H5OH + O2 CH3COOH + H2O

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b) Oxidation of ethanol using Acidified potassium dichromate (VI)

 Ethanoic acid can also be prepared by the oxidation of ethanol using an oxidizing agent e.g.
Acidified potassium dichromate (VI)
C2H5OH + 2[O] CH3COOH + H2O

 The oxygen is from the oxidizing agent.

 The orange acidified potassium dichromate (VI) solution turns green in this reaction.

Physical properties of carboxylic acids

ii) They turn blue litmus paper red
iii) They have PH values less than 7
iv) They have a sour taste

Chemical properties (reactions) of carboxylic acids

1. They react with reactive metals to form a salt and hydrogen gas. e.g.
2Na + CH3COOH → CH3COONa + H2

2. They react with alkalis and bases to form a salt and water only. E.g.
NaOH + CH3COOH → CH3COONa + H2O

3. They react with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to form a salt, water and carbon
dioxide. E.g.
i. NaHCO3 + CH3COOH → CH3COONa + H2O + CO 2
ii. CaCO3 + CH3COOH → (CH3COO) 2Ca + H2O + CO 2

4. They react with alcohols to form esters, the process is called esterification.
 Ethanoic acid can react with ethanol to form an ester called ethyl ethanoate and water.
CH3COOH + C2H5OH ⇌ CH3COO C2H5 + H2O

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Similarities between esterification and neutralization

i) Both reactions produce water
ii) Both reactions are exothermic

Differences between esterification and neutralization

Esterification.
Reaction is between alkanols and alkanoic acid
Products are water and ester
The reaction is catalysed by sulphuric acid
The reaction is reversible
Neutralisation.
Reaction is between acid and base
Production are salt and water
Reaction is not catalyzed
The reaction is not reversible (irreversible)

Uses of carboxylic acids

 Production of esters
 As solvent
 Production of salts
 Food preservative e.g benzoic acid

QUESTIONS
1. Below is a list of some organic compounds represented by the letters A to E.
A B C D E
CH4 C4H10 C4H9OH C4H8 CH3COOH

a. Give the name of compound A.

b) Identify the two compounds, from the list, that belong to the same homologous series?
c) i) State the compound which has the same functional group as ethanol.
ii) Draw the displayed molecular structure of ethanol.
iii) Construct a chemical equation for the hydration of ethene to form ethanol.
d) i) Give one compound that is an unsaturated hydrocarbon, from the list above.
ii) Describe a chemical test for an unsaturated hydrocarbon.
e) Compound E is acidic.
i) State the name of the compound E.
ii) Describe a test to show that compound E is acidic.

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Question 2
Organic acids are a homologous series of compounds having the carboxylic group —COOH
joined to an alkyl radical.
a. What is the general formula for organic acids?
b. Draw the structure of butanoic acid.
c. A reaction between an alcohol and an organic acid is described as esterification and this is
similar to neutralisation.
i) Ethylethanoate is an ester. Name two reagents used to prepare it.
ii) State two ways in which esterification is different from neutralisation.
iii) Write a balanced chemical equation for the esterification of ethylethanoate.

Question 3 (2016 G.C.E)

The following table shows some information about the second member in the respective
homologous series. Complete the table by filling in the correct information.

Homologous series Name of the member Displayed full structural formula

Alkane i) ii)
iii) Ethanol iv)
v) vi)

ESTERS
 They are also known as Alkanoates
 This is a family of organic compounds formed by the reaction of an alcohol with a
carboxylic acid in the presence of concentrated sulphuric acid (H2SO4).
 This type of reaction is known as esterification. In esterification, ester and water are the
products.
 Members of the ‘ester’ family have strong and pleasant smells.
 Many esters occur naturally and are responsible for the flavours in fruits and the smells
of flowers.

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Naming of Esters
 Esters are named after the alcohol and acid from which they are derived:
 The name of the ester formed follows the order: alcohol part first, then acid part.
 In alcohols, when the OH group is removed, the remaining hydrocarbon part is called
alkyl group. If it contains one carbon atom, it takes the root of methane and become
methyl. This theory applies to alkyl group that have more than one carbon atom.
 In carboxylic acids, they lose one hydrogen atom to produce alkanoates. If it contains
three carbon atoms, it takes the root of propane and become propanoate.
 For example, if methanol reacts with Propanoic acid, the ester formed will be called
methyl propanoate
 The formula of the ester formed follows the order: acid part first, then alcohol part. E.g.
C2H5COOCH3 (methyl propanoate)

Note: When naming, always begin with alky group from alcohols and end with alkanoates
group from carboxylic acids

Example
 Ethanoic acid can react with ethanol to form an ester called ethyl ethanoate and water.
CH3COOH + C2H5OH ⇌ CH3COO C2H5 + H2O

Ethanoic acid ethanol ethyl ethanoate water

 In this reaction, ethanoic acid loses the –H group while ethanol loses the – OH group to
form water.
 The remaining sections of the molecules join together to form the ester.

Conditions for esterification

ii. Temperature: 800oC
iii. Catalyst: Sulphuric acid

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Chemical properties of esters

a) Reaction with water.
 Esters react with water to form carboxylic acids and alcohol.
 This process is called hydrolysis i.e. the addition of water to a compound.
 In hydrolysis reactions, the ester is split into the carboxylic acid and the alcohol parts of
the molecule.
 For example, ethyl propanoate can be hydrolise to Propanoic acid and ethanol.

Ethyl propanoate + water ⇌ Propanoic acid + ethanol

C2H5COO C2H5 + H2O ⇌ C2H5COOH + C2H5OH

b) Reaction with basic solution.

 Esters react with basic solution to form metal ethanoate and alcohols.
 This process is called saponification. It is used in soap making whereby ester react
with sodium hydroxide solution. For example,

Ethyl ethanoate + sodium hydroxide → Sodium ethanoate + ethanol

CH3COOC2H5 (aq) + NaOH (aq) → CH3COONa + C2H5OH

c) Burns with bright flame colours.

Uses of esters
i. They are used in perfumes due to sweet fruit smells
ii. They are used in food and drink flavouring
iii. Manufacture of soap
iv. A solvent

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QUESTIONS
Question 1 (2022 S.C)
Ethanol is product of many fermentation reactions. The molecular formula of ethanol is C2H5OH
a) Draw the displayed molecular structure of ethanol [1]
b) When ethanol is heated with potassium dichromate (VI) it is converted to ethanoic acid.
i) What type of reaction is this? [1]
ii) Give one safety rule to be observed when handling ethanoic acid in the laboratory.[1]
c) Ethanoic acid reacts with ethanol in the presence of catalyst to produce a new substance.
Give the name and deduce the formula of the new substance. [2]
d) Ethanoic acid is a weak acid. It can react with a metal such as sodium and magnesium to
liberate hydrogen gas.
i) Compare the rates of reaction of ethanoic acid with sodium and with magnesium. [2]
ii) What would be observed when aluminium is added to ethanoic acid? Give a reason for
your observation. [2]
iii) Give one use of aluminium based on the observation made in (d) (ii) [1]

Question 2 (2019 G.C.E)

The series of processes below show the links to the formation of an ester known as ethyl
ethanoate.

a) From the reaction scheme above, name processes K, L and M.

b) Construct the chemical equation describing process K. Include state symbols.

c) State both the chemical name and common name for substance P.

d) State the general formula of the series where substance P belongs.

e) Give any two uses of ethyl ethanoate.

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Question 3 (2017 S.C)

Below are chemical formulae of organic compounds.

C2H4 CH3OH CH3 CH2CO2H HCO2H C2H6 CH3COCH2OH

a) Name the compound which reacts with steam.

b) Draw the structural formula of a compound which turns blue litmus paper red.
c) Choose two compounds which are isomers.
d) Which two compounds can undergo esterification?

Question 4
Below is a structure of an ester made in a reversible reaction between a carboxylic acid and an
alcohol.

a) i) Draw the structure of the carboxylic acid used in the reaction. [1]
ii) State one condition necessary for the formation of the ester above. [1]
b) A student carried out an experiment to compare the relative strengths of dilute methanoic
acid and dilute sulphuric acid.
i) Describe a test that can be used to distinguish between the two acids. [2]
ii) Name a metal that will react with both acids. Describe what you would see during the
reaction.

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MACROMOLECULES
 Macromolecules are also known as polymers
 They are giant molecules formed by joining smaller units called monomers.
 They are produced by the process called polymerisation.

Polymerisation
 Polymerisation is the joining up of smaller units called monomers to form larger
molecules called polymers.

Types of macromolecules
 There are two types of macromolecules; synthetic and natural macromolecules

1. Synthetic macromolecules (Synthetic or artificial polymers)

 Synthetic polymers are man-made structures
 They are divided into two categories; addition polymers and condensation polymers.

a) Addition polymers
 Addition polymers are polymers formed from smaller identical unsaturated monomers by
the process called addition polymerisation
 No other product is formed apart from the polymer
 Addition polymerisation is polymerization where the polymer has the same empirical
formula as the monomer.

Examples of addition polymers

i) Polyethene
 Polyethene is formed when ethene molecules combine

Polyethene
Uses of Polyethene
i. Used in making plastics bags (carrier bags)
ii. Used in making squeezing bottles.

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ii) Polyvinyl chloride

 Polyvinyl chloride is formed when vinyl chloride molecules combine.

Polyvinyl chloride
Uses of polyvinylchloride
i. Used in making PVC paints
ii. Used in making electrical insulators, records, seat covers, rain coats

iii) Polypropene
 Polypropene is formed when propene molecules combine

Polypropene

iv) Polytetrafluoroethene
 Polytetrafluoroethene is formed when tetrafluoroethene molecules combine

Polytetrafluoroethene

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Summary
Monomer Polymer
Ethene Poly(ethene)

Vinyl chloride Poly(vinyl chloride)

Tetrafluoroethene Poly(tetrafluoroethene)

Propene Poly(propene)

PLASTICS
 There are two types of plastic.
i) Thermoplastics
ii) Thermosets

(a) Thermoplastics: These are kinds of plastics that melt or soften when heated.
Examples
 Polyethene
 Polystyrene
 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

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Characteristics of thermoplastics
 They are flexible and therefore, do not break easily
 They are soften hence they melt at low temperature
 They stretch under tension because molecules are able to slider over each other

Advantages of thermoplastics
 They are easily moulded
 They are easily soften or melt when heated

b) Thermoset plastics.
 The kind of plastic which do not melt or soften on heating.
 They only reduced to charcoal and decompose on further heating.

Examples:
 Melamine
 phenolic

Disadvantages of plastics
 They do not decay hence they cause environmental and sanitation problems.

QUESTIONS
Questions 1 (2021 G.C.E)
The structure displayed below is a polymer that was formed from monomer Y.

a) Name the polymer. [1]

b) i) Name the monomer Y. [1]
ii) Construct the displayed structure of monomer Y. [1]

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c) Monomer Y was reacted with steam under suitable conditions and an organic compound
Z was produced.
i) To which homologous series does compound Z belong? [1]
ii) Write the general formula of the homologous series stated in (c) (i). [1]

Questions 2 (2017 G.C.E)

The structure below is for a polymer.

a) i) Name the polymer.

ii) Name and draw the structural formula of the monomer for the polymer.
b) i) State the type of polymer that is shown above?
ii) Give one use of the polymer.
c) Ethanol is an alcoholic beverage which can be brewed from cassava. Outline the process
by which ethanol can be prepared
d) Ethanol is used as a fuel. Construct a balanced chemical equation for its complete
combustion.

Question 3 (2016 S.C)

Study the following sequence of reactions.
Glucose ethanol ethene polyethene

a) i) What name is given-to the process by which glucose changes into ethanol?
ii) Name the enzyme responsible for the change in (1) above.
iii) What gas is produced during this process?
b) Name the process and the catalyst used when ethene changes into polyethene.
c) Draw the structure of polyethene with three repeating units.
d) When polyethene is burnt in excess air, two products are formed, Name the products.
e) Polyethene is a non-biodegradable substance. Explain what is meant by the term non
biodegradable and state the effect of such polymers on the environment.

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b) Condensation polymers
 Some man-made polymers are formed by condensation polymerisation.
 Condensation polymerization involves two smaller units which combine to form a
larger molecule with the elimination of the water molecule.
 Condensation polymers do not have the same empirical formula as the monomers.

Examples of condensation polymers

i. Nylon
ii. Terylene

Nylon
 Nylon is a typical polyamide with amide linkages.
 A polyamide is a polymer containing many amide linkages.
 Below is the structure of amide linkage

Amide linkage

 Monomers: Diamine and Dicarboxylic acid

Diamine Dicarboxylic acid

 The structure of nylon is similar to that of protein

 Part of the structure of nylon is shown below

Amide linkage

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Repeating unit

Uses of nylon
i. Making clothing
ii. Making ropes
iii. Making bristle for brushes

Example
1. Nylon is a synthetic polymer which has an amide linkage similar to that of proteins
a) What is meant by the term synthetic polymer?
b) Draw the structure of nylon, showing at least three monomer units. Circle the amide
linkage in the structure drawn
c) Draw the structures of the two monomers from which nylon is made
d) By what type of polymerization is nylon formed from its monomers?
e) What other product is formed?

Terylene
 Terylene is typical polyester with ester linkages.
 A Polyester is a polymer containing many ester linkages

The ester linkage

 Monomers: Diol and Dicarboxylic acid

Diol Dicarboxylic acid

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 The structure of Terylene is similar to that of fats.

 Part of the structure of Terylene

Ester linkages

Repeating unit

Uses of Terylene
i. Making tents and sails.
ii. Making clothing

Advantages of synthetic polymers

i. They are durable. They do not rust, corrode or decay.
ii. They are lighter than steel, wood or stone
iii. They are thermal and electrical insulators since they are poor conductors of heat and
electricity
iv. They are not expensive. They are produced as by-products of oil refining
v. They are flexible in use
vi. They are water proof

Disadvantages of synthetic polymers

i. They are non-biodegradable. This means they cannot be decomposed by bacteria.
ii. Causes pollution since they are non-biodegradable.
iii. Plastics burn easily and may produce poisonous gases on combustion. They need to be
coated with fire retardants to reduce the risk of fire.

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Reasons for recycling plastics

 They are difficult to dispose off: Plastic bags do not rot when they are thrown away, so
they pollute the environment
 When some plastics burn, they produce harmful gases: For example polyvinylchloride
(PVC) gives off fumes of hydrogen chloride when it burns. This would form hydrochloric
acid in the eyes and throat.

Example
Terylene is synthetic polyester which has an ester linkage similar to fats. The structure of a
Terylene molecule is shown below

a. What is polyester?
b. Name the elements that make up an ester link
c. State one use of Terylene
d. Draw a box around a repeating unit in this Terylene structure
e. Name the plastic commonly used for making plastic bag
f. State two reasons why there is need to recycle plastics
g. Explain why Terylene can cause pollution

QUESTIONS
Question 1 (2019 S.C)
Nylon and Terylene are polymers.
a) What is meant by the term polymer? [1]
b) Apart from being polymers, give one similarity between the two. [1]
c) i) Which of the two polymers is a polyester? [1]
ii) Hence draw the structure of the polymer showing two repeating units.
Encircle any ester link on the chain. [2]

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Questions 2
Terylene has the simplified structure shown below.

i. State the functional groups on the monomers used to make terylene.

ii. State the type of polymerisation that occurs when terylene is made.
iii. Many problems are caused by the disposal of plastics. Describe one method of
disposal of plastic and a problem caused by this method.

Question 3
The structure of terylene is represented in the diagram below.

a) Draw a box around a repeating unit in this structure.

b) Why does terylene cause pollution?

Question 4
The diagrams below show sections of the polymer chain of two condensation polymers.

a) i) Draw a circle around an amide linkage in the diagram. Label this amide linkage.
ii) Draw a circle around an ester linkage in the diagram. Label this ester linkage.
b) Name a type of naturally occurring polymer that has a similar linkage to nylon.
c) Why are nylon and terylene known as condensation polymers?
d) Fishing nets used to be made of natural fibres but many nets are now made from nylon.
e) Suggest one advantage other than strength and one disadvantage of using nylon in place of
natural fibres to make fishing nets.

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2. Natural Macromolecules (Natural Polymers)

 Natural macromolecules occur in living organisms

Examples of natural macromolecules

i. Proteins
ii. Fats
iii. Carbohydrates

a) Proteins
 Proteins are made by condensation polymerisation
 They are condensation polymers
 They are polyamides like nylon because they contain the amide linkages
 Protein hydrolysis results in amino acids

b) Fats
 Fats are complex esters made up of three fatty acids (carboxylic acids) and one
glycerol (alkanol).
 They are polyester like Terylene because they contain the esters linkages.
 Fats are three fatty acids) and one glycerol as fat backbone.
 Fat hydrolysis results in fatty acids and glycerol

c) Carbohydrates
 Carbohydrates are sugars which include starch
 Carbohydrates are formed from simple sugars like glucose
 Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in the form CxH2yOy where x is
a multiple of six.
 The linkage present in starch is called glycosidic.
 Part of the structure of starch is shown below.

Glycosidic

 Starch hydrolysis results in glucose

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Similarities between nylon and proteins

i) Both are condensation polymers
ii) Both contains the amide linkages
iii) Both produce amino acids when hydrolysed.

Difference between nylon and proteins

i) Nylon is a synthetic (artificial) polymer whereas proteins are natural polymers.

Similarities between Terylene and fats

i) Both are condensation polymers
ii) Both they contain the esters linkages.
iii) Both produce fatty acids and glycerol when hydrolysed.

Difference between Terylene and fats

i) Terylene is a synthetic (artificial) polymer whereas fats are natural polymers.

Saponification (Hydrolysis of fats)

 Saponification is the process by which fats react with sodium hydroxide solution in the
presence of water to form soap.
 Soap is manufactured by heating natural fats and oils of either plants or animals with a
strong alkali, sodium hydroxide solution.
 Fat is boiled with aqueous sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to form soap.
 The esters are broken down in the presence of water (hydrolysed).

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Example
1. Some large molecules may be broken down to smaller molecules by hydrolysis.
a) What is formed in the hydrolysis of?
i) Protein
ii) Fat
iii) Starch
b) If starch is represented as

c) Complete the following to represent its hydrolysis

QUESTIONS
Question 1 (2018 S.C)
Both fats and proteins are natural polymers.

a) Name the synthetic polymer that has the same linkage as

i) Fats
ii) Proteins [2]
b) i) Draw the type of linkage found in the synthetic polymer named in (a) (i) above
and name the linage [2]
ii) Synthetic polymers are non-biodegradable. What is meant by this statement? [1]
c) The structure displayed below is for another natural polymer.
i) Name this polymer. [1]
ii) Is this polymer an addition or a condensation polymer? Give a reason for your
answer. [2]
iii) Draw the structure of the monomer used to synthesise this polymer. [1]
iv) What type of linkage is found in this polymer? [1]

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Question 2 (2016 S.C)

The table below shows some information on two polymers.
Name of polymer Formula Type of polymer
Polyvinylchloride A

B C

a) Complete the table above.

b) What is the best method of disposing of polyvinyichioride and polymer B?
c) Name the products of protein hydrolysis.

Question 3 (2014)
Proteins are naturally occurring macromolecules.
a) (i) Define the term macromolecule.
(ii) Name another naturally occurring macromolecule.
b) Proteins can be hydrolysed to amino acids. State a suitable reagent and condition for this
hydrolysis.
c) The structure of a section of a protein can be represented as

i) Describe one similarity in the structure of a protein and the structure of nylon.
ii) Describe one way in which the structure of a protein differs from the structure of
nylon.

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Question 4
Plastics are organic polymers. The table below describes two types of plastics. Complete the
table. Part of the table has been completed for you as an example.

Name Repeating unit Use Type of polymerisation

used in manufacture
Poly(ethene) a) Making plastic bag b)

c) d) Condensation
polymerisation

Question 5
A carbohydrate is formed from the reaction of many small molecules, one of which is
represented by the diagram below:

a. i) What is the general name of the small molecules which combine to form very large
molecules?
ii) Show how two of the small molecules like the one drawn above would join together to
form a bond.
b. Starch is hydrolysed to glucose by the enzymes in yeast and the glucose is then converted
to an alcohol by a second process. Name:
i) The second process.
ii) The alcohol produced.
c. State two uses of alcohol named in (b) (ii) above.
d. Terylene is an ester. State one use of terylene.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY BY MR. LUBOMBO. B