Chemical Engineering Journal 474 (2023) 146011

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Chemical Engineering Journal

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cej

Review

3D-printed flexible sensors for food monitoring

Danyao Song a, 1, Xujun Chen a, 1, Meng Wang a, 1, Zihao Wu a, Xinqing Xiao a, *
a
College of Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100083, PR China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In recent years, the convergence of 3D printing technology and flexible sensors has played a crucial role in
3D printing various fields, particularly in industrial production. The widespread development of 3D printing technology and
Print material flexible sensors has become more evident, with a specific focus on food analysis and monitoring, which is closely
Flexible Sensors
linked to human health. The utilization of 3D-printed flexible sensors in the realm of food analysis and moni­
Food Monitoring
toring offers flexibility, adaptability, and high sensitivity. These sensors enable real-time monitoring and accu­
rate detection, providing cost-effective solutions for ensuring food safety. This review begins by analyzing the
advantages of the 3D printing process in fabricating flexible sensors, followed by an introduction to the benefits
of 3D printing materials and hydrogel materials in sensor fabrication. Subsequently, the review delves into the
detailed discussion of food monitoring applications, specifically the monitoring of gases, microorganisms, and
non-gaseous compounds in food. Each application is thoroughly analyzed, considering its advantages, disad­
vantages, and potential scenarios.

1. Introduction
3D printing technology is an additive manufacturing technology,
also known as additive manufacturing. 3D printing technology is usually
based on digital models, and then powdered metals, plastics, and other
materials with adhesive properties are printed layer by layer to create
the final composition of the object technology [1]. The 3D printing
methods we currently use include multi-jet fusion (MJF), fused deposi­
tion modeling (FDM), direct metal laser sintering (DMLS), electron beam
melting (EBM), digital light processing (DLP), and direct ink writing
(DIW). In recent years, 3D printing technology has developed rapidly in
the manufacturing industry [2]. Compared with traditional
manufacturing, 3D printing has obvious advantages, mainly in terms of
reduced major costs, shorter product manufacturing time, the combi­
nation of materials used in the product, and unique product design [3].
In addition, 3D bioprinting technology is also maturing and playing a
huge role in food and medicine.
3D printing material is an important factor that affects the perfor­
mance of the final product [4]. The printing materials are different, and
the performance of the printing materials is also different, and the
current printing materials are mainly divided into polymer materials,
metal materials, ceramic materials, etc. [5]. Polymers are currently the
most widely used 3D printing materials in FDM devices, and their
strength, impact resistance, heat resistance, hardness, and aging resis­
tance are superior to plastics [6]. 3D-printed metal materials are avail­
able in the form of metal powder, metal foil, and metal wire. Common
metal materials include titanium alloys, stainless steel, cobalt-chromium
alloys, and aluminum alloys [7]. Ceramic materials have excellent
properties such as high strength, high hardness, high-temperature
resistance, low density, good chemical stability, and good corrosion
resistance, and are widely used in aerospace, automotive, biological,
and home improvement materials [8]. In addition, hydrogel materials
are widely used in 3D bioprinting, and the outstanding physicochemical
properties of the hydrogel as a representative bioink make it occupy an
important position in the food and pharmaceutical fields [9].
Due to the technological advances of the times, traditional sensors
are becoming modular, networked, miniaturized, self-energizing, and
green and are beginning to be replaced by flexible sensors in many fields
[10]. Flexible sensors are sensors made of flexible materials, which are
flexible and ductile and can be freely bent or even folded. Due to the
flexible material and structure, flexible sensors can be arranged arbi­
trarily according to the application scenario and can easily detect the
unit under monitor [11]. Flexible sensors are still essentially sensors, the
earliest flexible sensors for flexible substrates, generally requiring ma­
terials with thin, transparent, stretchable, bendable, corrosion-resistant
properties [12]. Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) is a relatively common

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: xxqjd@cau.edu.cn (X. Xiao).
1
Danyao Song, Xujun Chen and Meng Wang contributed equally to this work.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2023.146011
Received 3 June 2023; Received in revised form 6 September 2023; Accepted 9 September 2023
Available online 11 September 2023
1385-8947/© 2023 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
D. Song et al.
flexible substrate material that not only has these properties but is also
easily available and chemically stable [13]. Then there are conductive
materials, that is, metallic materials, mainly for the manufacture of
electrodes and wires, generally, flexible sensors do not use ordinary
metals, but metal nanoparticles or nanowires, which have better con­
ductivity and are easy to achieve in thin films [14]. Flexible sensors will
also use carbon materials, mainly graphene and carbon nanotubes.
Flexible sensors are one of the important landed applications of gra­
phene materials, which are thin, transparent, and well-conductive. And
these can be achieved by 3D printing, so it is very suitable for 3D
printing [15]. The combination of flexible sensors and 3D printing will
become a hot issue in the future, which will promote technological
innovation in various fields [16].
The food health industry is directly related to the issue of dietary
health of all human beings, and the first step in maintaining human
health status is to grasp the relationship between diseases from the
mouth [17]. Currently, there are many methods of food analysis and
monitoring, including sensory monitoring methods, physical monitoring
methods, chemical analysis, and instrumental monitoring methods [18].
In the food industry, instrumentation is commonly used and sensors are
the main way and means of obtaining information in the production
field, and with the gradual increase in the importance of food moni­
toring, the field of application of monitoring technology will be further
expanded [19]. The combination of 3D printing and flexible sensors is an
emerging area of research in today’s world, where the production of
flexible sensors through 3D printing is simpler, and the choice of ma­
terials is more diverse than traditional manufacturing methods [20]. The
combination of 3D printing and flexible sensors will have a very wide
range of applications in the field of food health [21]. This paper de­
scribes the current state of development and application of 3D printing
and flexible sensors, followed by the development of the potential of 3D
printing technology for manufacturing flexible sensors for food inspec­
tion applications.
2. 3D printing technology for flexible sensors
Flexible sensors are sensors that provide reliable measurement of
physical quantities with high accuracy, fast response time, and appli­
cability to a variety of applications [22]. However, traditional
manufacturing methods often struggle to meet the demands of cost,
manufacturability, and design freedom, limiting the application of
flexible sensors. And with the continuous development of 3D printing
technology, the manufacturing of flexible sensors has been revolution­
ized [23]. 3D printing technology is a new manufacturing and pro­
cessing process that allows the production of complex shapes and
structures, saves materials, increases productivity, eliminates the need
for additional products after processing, enables personalization and
customization needs [24]. 3D printing technology is used in various
fields such as architecture, aerospace, transportation and travel,
biomedicine, art, and education [25].
2.1. 3D printing processes and methods
Inkjet printing and aerosol jetting are two methods of 3D printing. In
making flexible sensors, inkjet printing makes the conductive electrodes
of the flexible sensor [26]. This method allows for high resolution and
flexibility and is suitable for making fine sensor structures [27]. Aerosol
spraying can be used to make sensitive material layers for flexible sen­
sors for detecting physical quantities such as pressure and strain. Aerosol
spraying can achieve high precision and uniformity and is suitable for
making flexible sensors with high sensitivity [28]. Common 3D printing
methods include MJF, FDM, DMLS, EBM, DLP, SLA, and DIW. Among
them, MJF, DMLS, and EBM are less used in flexible sensor applications.
These three advanced 3D printing technologies are mainly used to
manufacture metal and plastic parts. Flexible sensors need to be soft and
thin, and these three 3D printing technologies typically produce harder,
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Chemical Engineering Journal 474 (2023) 146011
thicker parts that are difficult to meet the specific requirements of
flexible sensors. FDM, DIW, SLA, and DLP are more common and pop­
ular in the manufacturing of flexible sensors [29]. Fig. 1 shows the flow
and application of these three printing processes. As shown in Fig. 2 is
the 3D printing flow chart, which summarizes the general process flow
of 3D printing.
In addition to this, 3D bioprinting is an emerging biomanufacturing
technology, a new field that combines traditional 3D printing with
biology, a special 3D printing technology [34]. 3D bioprinting tech­
nologies have developed rapidly in recent years and are widely used in
various fields. These 3D printing technologies can provide more flexible
and efficient production methods, and therefore their use in flexible
sensor manufacturing is becoming more and more common [35]. Bio-3D
printing is the fabrication of biomaterials or biological units (cells/
proteins, etc.) with complex structures and functions, as well as
personalized biomaterial 3D structures or in vitro 3D bio-functional
bodies by additive manufacturing methods [34], as shown in Fig. 3.
Bio-3D printing technology allows the fabrication of a diversity of
flexible sensors that, in the case of biomedical sensors, can be adapted to
the individual needs of medical devices [36]. The manufactured flexible
sensors are more biocompatible and biologically accessible, allowing for
better adaptation to environmental changes and the physiological state
of the human body, leading to better exploration and biological
research. Bio-3D printing technology also allows for high precision and
high-resolution printing, which allows for greater accuracy and control
in small and fine sensors [37]. Among the most commonly used printing
methods for bio-3D printing are three: inkjet bioprinting, micro-
extrusion molding bioprinting, and laser-assisted bioprinting. As
shown in Fig. 4, the three types of bio-3D printing are displayed [38].
2.2. 3D printing for flexible sensors
Flexible sensors are sensors that can bend and deform on curved
surfaces and are widely used in medicine, robotics, smart wearables, and
other fields. And 3D printing technology provides a flexible, efficient,
and customizable method for manufacturing flexible sensors. In this
section, we will focus on the practical applications of the above
commonly used 3D printing processes and methods for flexible sensors.
We will take flexible pressure sensors, flexible temperature sensors,
flexible pH sensors, and bio-3D printed biosensors as examples to discuss
their applications in detail.
Flexible pressure sensors have a wide range of applications in med­
icine, robotics, smart wearables, and other fields. For food monitoring,
the sensor can be adjusted to accommodate food samples of various
shapes and curved surfaces, ensuring a better fit and adaptability. Its
flexible design enables accurate detection of pressure changes in food
samples. The sensor’s high sensitivity enables precise measurement of
even small pressure changes, thereby providing accurate data for food
monitoring. Sinha et al. fabricated tactile fingertip sensors for smart
gloves, which consist of piezoresistive pressure sensing elements sand­
wiched between 3D printed silver nanoparticle electrodes on a poly­
imide layer, similar to human earth skin [39]. The sensor array is
mounted on smart gloves for recognizing sharp and blunt objects with
high accuracy. The sensor’s ultra-low cost, no crosstalk, fast response,
and wide sensing range give it great potential for applications. Li et al.
discussed a 3D printing method using FDM to fabricate flexible strain
sensors [30]. The sensors are made from a blend of thermoplastic
polyurethane elastomeric polymers and conductive carbon black parti­
cles to form a composite filament. The sensor is then printed in a unique
periodic configuration using fine filaments, thereby increasing its flex­
ibility. The sensors can detect strain and can be adjusted for sensitivity
by changing their geometric configuration. New manufacturing tech­
niques facilitate the use of new materials and broaden the innovation
path for flexible sensors. Ma et al. prepared flexible multimodal tactile
sensors with different sensing characteristics at different printing speeds
by the DIW technique [33]. By examining the response of the sensor to
D. Song et al. Chemical Engineering Journal 474 (2023) 146011

Fig. 1. The process and application of the four printing processes. a. Flowchart of flexible sensor fabrication using FDM3D printing process; b. Schematic of strain
sensing behavior test method for FDM printed CBP/TPU sensor with periodic configuration and flexible TPU film substrate[30]; c. Processing workflow comprising
SLA 3D printing and GNP dip-coating to fabricate piezoresistive pressure sensor[31]; d. Flowchart of DLP 3D printing process; e. DLP 3D printed capacitive sensor; f.
Capacitive sensor Principle diagram[32]; g. Flow chart of DIW preparation of flexible multimodal haptic sensor; h. Photograph of the printed conductive path on
PDMS substrate; i. Response of flexible haptic multimodal sensor to finger flexion and extension, finger press, thermal airflow, plantar pressure, and knee joint
motion, respectively[33].

finger flexion and extension, pressure, and thermal airflow, its potential
application in multimodal sensing was verified. Kamat et al. fabricated
flexible piezoresistive pressure sensors with superior performance using
SLA-printed body-centered cubic structures, a method that allows for
better control of the microstructure in the sensors [31]. Kim et al. pre­
pared piezoelectric photopolymer-based polyvinylidene difluoride
(PVDF) blends using SLA printing to improve the piezoelectric coupling
coefficient [40]. Designing different process variables to achieve
optimal dissolution, 3D printability and piezoelectric properties for
PVDF is optimal and promotes the development of flexible pressure
sensors.
Flexible temperature sensors have an important role in temperature
monitoring, smart home, automotive, and other fields. The flexible
design allows the sensor to be in close contact with the food surface,
providing more accurate temperature measurements. Flexible sensors
can be adapted to different shapes and sizes of food samples, providing a
wider range of applications. With fast response and high sensitivity,
flexible sensors can monitor temperature changes in food products in a
timely manner to ensure food safety and quality. Song et al. used fused
deposition modeling 3D printing technology for the one-step fabrication
of capacitive force sensors and resistive temperature sensors [41].
Capacitive force sensors and resistive temperature sensors are made by
fused deposition modeling 3D printing technology using conductive and
dielectric material wires, respectively. The capacitive force sensor with a
parallel plate structure can achieve a relative sensitivity of 0.088%/N,
and the resistive temperature sensor can achieve a relative sensitivity of
2.2%/◦ C. This fabrication method is simpler than conventional
fabrication methods. Meanwhile, Mu et al. used DLP technology to
fabricate flexible sensors made of polymeric nanocomposites [32]. The
inks used in the printing process were a mixture of light-curing resins
and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT), which provide conduc­
tivity to the printed objects. DLP printing technology provides a fast way
to create sensor arrays in an integrated system that can detect force,
strain, and level changes. Dankoco et al. fabricated flexible temperature
sensors by inkjet printing to monitor the surface temperature of the
human body, the sensors were fabricated by depositing thermistors
consisting of silver on a polyimide substrate [42]. The sensor has good
linearity and less than 1% hysteresis and has great potential in the field
of temperature sensing.
Flexible pH sensors have a wide range of applications in environ­
mental monitoring, food safety, medical diagnostics, and other fields.
For food monitoring, the flexible design allows for more accurate pH
measurements and a wider range of applications. With high sensitivity
and fast response, flexible sensors can monitor pH changes in food
samples in real-time, providing timely food quality monitoring and
safety assurance. Shweta et al. fabricated a flexible pH sensor using CNT
material by aerosol jet printing [43]. The chemo-resistive pH sensor has
the sensing element printed on top of a silver electrode. This printing
method allows high-resolution printing and its fabricated pH sensors
have good sensitivity and reproducibility. Qin et al. developed an inkjet
printing process to produce a flexible pH sensor [44]. Similar pH sensing
behavior can be obtained by printing carbon nanotubes on a flexible
polymer substrate. The developed inkjet printing process and pH sensing
electrode provide a cost-effective solution for future electrochemical

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D. Song et al. Chemical Engineering Journal 474 (2023) 146011

Fig. 2. General process of 3D printing manufacturing.

Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of biological 3D printing.

monitoring systems.
Biosensors have an important role in medical diagnostics, biological
research, and other fields. Flexible biosensors allow for customized
design and production, providing high sensitivity and stability for food
monitoring capabilities. Mojena-Medina et al. used inkjet printing
technology to fabricate flexible sensors that can be used to monitor the
growth and behavior of skin cells [45]. These sensors, made using silver
nanoparticles and SU-8 on a flexible substrate, are cell-compatible,
which means they do not harm the cells being monitored and are a
low-cost solution for monitoring cell growth and migration in real time.

4
D. Song et al. Chemical Engineering Journal 474 (2023) 146011

Fig. 4. Three types of bioprinting.

And these sensors have potential use in monitoring laboratory-grown
skin tissue and wound healing. Rabbani et al. investigated the effect of
substrate material, printing density, printing pattern, and color intensity
on the number of bacteria recovered [46]. The results showed that laser
printers can be effectively used for transferring bacteria onto paper
substrates and for manufacturing biosensors. Selection of the appro­
priate number of printed bacteria using printing capacity and a novel
toner bio-powder to adapt the printing substrate for the fabrication of
bacterial biosensors.
3. 3D printed materials of flexible sensors
At present, the materials used to manufacture flexible sensors using
3D printing technology mainly include polymer materials, metal mate­
rials, ceramic materials, etc. In addition, there are hydrogel materials
suitable for bio-3D printing [47]. The properties of various materials are
shown in Fig. 5. These materials have excellent repeatability, adapt­
ability, and customizability. It enables the fabrication of arbitrarily
complex shapes, which is ideal for the manufacture of flexible sensors.
3.1. Polymer materials
As the most widely used class of 3D printing materials today, Ther­
moplastic elastomers, polymer composites, etc. are commonly used in
the manufacture of flexible sensors. The main characteristics of such
polymers are their excellent flexibility and elasticity, along with some
electrical conductivity and mechanical strength. This makes elastic
polymers one of the common choices for manufacturing flexible sensors
[52]. Some polymer materials have good gas barrier properties and can
be made into food packaging sensors that can extend the freshness of

Fig. 5. Properties of various materials. a. The PEDOT: PSS patterned layer on a flexible substrate; b. Microscopic strain measurements; c. Sensor time response[48];
d. Perspective view of a flexible multifunctional inductive sensor; e. Excellent tensile and bending properties of the sensor[49]; f. The fabrication process of the TiO2
nanofibrous network; g. A photograph of an ultrathin TiO2 nanofibrous network; h. Cyclic bending and cyclic compression tests of TiO2[50]; i. Schematic diagram of
hydrogel preparation; j. Tensile stress–strain curves[51].

5
D. Song et al.
food. Polymer materials can usually prepare adsorbent materials, the
sensor can be made to detect pesticides and other ingredients in food.
Latessa et al. developed a low-cost flexible polymer sensor in which a
polymer poly(3,4-ethylene-dioxythienyl) polystyrene sulfonate
(PEDOT: PSS) film was exfoliated and deposited on a polyimide sub­
strate by electrochemical synthesis [48]. The strain coefficient of this
sensor is much higher than the general flexible strain gauge, and the
dynamic response is good. Young et al. describe a method for fabricating
flexible gas sensors using carbon nanotubes and polymer substrates
[53]. The researchers transferred high-density carbon nanotubes from
silica/silicon substrates to flexible substrates for large-scale production
of such sensors. The sensor exhibited high sensitivity to ethanol gas at
room temperature and showed good reproducibility. Sun et al. describe
the use of elastic poly(dimethyl-siloxane) carriers to fabricate single-
crystal semiconductor nanoribbons in stretchable geometries [54]. The
surfaces of these ribbons were chemically bonded to PDMS supports,
resulting in a level of mechanical stretchability that exceeded the
intrinsic strain at the breaking level of the ribbon material itself.
3.2. Metal materials
The strength and wear resistance of metallic materials are usually
higher than those of plastic and fiber materials, and therefore they have
a wide range of applications in flexible sensor manufacturing. The
process of using metallic materials to fabricate flexible sensors typically
employs electrochemical deposition techniques. This technique can be
performed by depositing a layer of metal onto a thin polymer substrate
to produce a thin, flexible metal film. The metal film can be easily bent,
twisted, and stretched, which makes it ideal for flexible sensor fabrica­
tion and can effectively reduce sensor manufacturing costs and increase
production efficiency [55]. Metallic materials can also be used to 3D
print metal particles to fabricate flexible sensors. By adding metal par­
ticles such as copper and iron or printing materials with various high-
strength metal fibers, flexible sensors with high strength, high elec­
trical conductivity, and high resistance to water evaporation can be
fabricated [56]. These metallic materials can produce 3D coatings dur­
ing the flexible sensor manufacturing process, which means that metal
films can be fabricated with precise and highly complex surface shapes
and structures to enable special sensor functions, such as precision
pressure sensors. Metallic materials are used to make the electrode and
wire portion of the flexible sensor to determine the amount of salt or
other dissolved substances in the food by measuring the conductivity of
the food. Due to the good thermal conductivity of metallic materials,
temperature sensors can also be made to monitor changes in food tem­
perature during cold chain transportation.
Zhou et al. used liquid metal to make a new 3D printed multifunc­
tional inductive flexible and stretchable sensor that is capable of
measuring axial tension and curvature [49]. The sensor was fabricated
using a developed coaxial liquid metal 3D printer by co-printing silicone
rubber and liquid metal, which provides excellent stability and reli­
ability. Liu et al. fabricated strain sensors and bending sensors by 3D
printing technology using liquid metal microchannels [57]. Later, they
integrated them into the sensing glove of human bodies to detect the
gestures of human hands and integrated the bending sensors into the
robotic hands to control the movement of the soft robotic hands, which
finally realized the human–computer interaction.
3.3. Ceramic materials
Ceramic materials are special inorganic materials with high strength
and high-temperature stability as well as good corrosion resistance,
protection, and biomedical acceptability, which makes them promising
for a wide range of applications in 3D printing for manufacturing flex­
ible sensors [58]. Ceramic materials can be used for 3D printing flexible
sensors by rapid sintering techniques (e.g., microwave sintering tech­
niques). Sensors of various shapes can be easily fabricated using this
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Chemical Engineering Journal 474 (2023) 146011
material and have the advantage of being able to be reinforced by heat
treatment. In addition, ceramic materials can be optimized for flexible
sensors by controlling composition, microstructure, and other aspects to
achieve a variety of property modifications [59]. The high hardness and
toughness of ceramic materials can be achieved by simultaneously
inhibiting grain growth and exerting grain boundary hardness; special
properties such as damping and electrical conductivity can also be
achieved by selecting appropriate additives [60]. Ceramics have good
heat and corrosion resistance and can be used to manufacture food
packaging types of sensors to protect food from external contamination
and oxidation, as well as storing high-temperature or acidic food, and
high-temperature cooking conditions for food status monitoring.
Jin et al. fabricated two silicon nitride ceramic dot matrix structures,
Gyroid and Octet truss structures, using DLP technology [59]. Varying
the design parameters of the structures can change their compressive
strength, elastic modulus, and energy absorption capacity, and the
Gyroid structure exhibits superior mechanical properties for the same
dimensions. Shen et al. fabricated 0–3 piezoelectric composites with
polydimethylsiloxane as the matrix and lead zirconate titanate as the
piezoelectric phase [60]. The effect of different solid phase contents on
the rheological properties of the slurry, which is a ceramic slurry, was
investigated, and it was verified experimentally which case after 3D
printing is more suitable to be made into flexible sensors. This material
has a promising future in flexible electronic devices. Fu et al. fabricated
a flexible capacitive pressure sensor with high structural elasticity using
ceramic materials [50]. The sensor has high stability because of the
excellent mechanical stability of the ceramic nanofiber network. The
sensor can be used for real-time health monitoring and motion detec­
tion. Because of the high-temperature resistance of ceramic, it can
operate properly at 370 ◦ C and thus shows great promise for harsh
environment applications.
3.4. Hydrogel
Hydrogel has properties such as flexibility and transparency, which
allow it to be precisely manufactured in arbitrary shapes by 3D printing
technology. Hydrogels also have a high level of biocompatibility, which
makes them particularly important in 3D-printed biomaterials [61]. By
exploiting these characteristics, we can create more flexible and more
adaptable flexible sensors that bring significant value to a variety of
applications. The adsorption properties of hydrogel can enable the
fabricated sensors to monitor the chemical composition in food, and the
introduction of bioreceptors on its surface can also be used for the
detection of microorganisms such as bacteria and molds in food, which
can help in the management of food safety and the prevention of bac­
terial contamination. Current hydrogels for 3D bioprinting include
single-component hydrogels, interpenetrating network hydrogels, su­
pramolecular hydrogels, nanocomposite hydrogels, composite hydro­
gels, polyurethane and ionic gels [62].
One-component hydrogels are single natural or modified hydrogels
that form hydrogels on their own in the presence of initiators, etc. This
type of hydrogel has been widely used for 3D bioprinting, for example,
hydrogels based on sodium alginate, gelatin, and collagen [63]. Wu et al.
used rigid gelatin as one of the main raw materials to make a hydrogel
with high mechanical strength, rapid self-recovery, fatigue resistance,
and excellent anti-swelling properties [64]. The results of this study
provide a new idea for the preparation of gelatin-based hydrogels with
anti-swelling properties. It has a prominent role as a bio-3D printing ink
for flexible sensors, drug detection, etc.
Interpenetrating network hydrogels are unique hydrogel mixtures
formed by entangling two or more hydrogel components together in the
form of network interpenetration, and their morphological features such
as cell-like structure, interfacial interpenetration, and biphasic conti­
nuity give the hydrogels good mechanical strength and responsiveness
[65]. Huang et al. altered the spatial conformation of bovine serum al­
bumin by unfolding, and subsequently, the fully exposed peptide chains
D. Song et al.
were able to induce in situ polystyrene sulfonic acid conductive
hydrogels to form interpenetrating network conductive hydrogels in one
step and rapidly [66]. Its excellent properties combined with 3D printing
technology make it promising for the 3D printing of flexible sensing
electronics.
Supramolecular hydrogels are self-assembled hydrogels formed by
networks of low molecular weight molecules, oligomers, or polymers
that self-assemble into larger fibers or some sort of ordered superstruc­
ture within minutes to hours through non-covalent interactions and then
cross-link and entangle through covalent or non-covalent interactions
[67]. Ma et al. applied the principle of supramolecular structure design
to cross-link conducting polymers and flexible template polymers with
dynamic chemical bonds to form high-strength electroactive hydrogels
with dynamic network structures [68]. The designed polyaniline-
polyvinyl alcohol supramolecular hydrogel has a tensile strength of
5.3 MPa, an elongation at break of more than 250%, a specific capaci­
tance value of more than 1000F/g, and a specific capacitance retention
rate of 90% after 1000 charge/discharge cycles, which substantially
exceeds existing electroactive hydrogels. Based on this, combined with
3D printing technology, it provides an idea for the manufacturing of
high-performance capacitive flexible sensors.
Nanocomposite hydrogel is a hydrogel with added nanoparticles
[69]. The addition of nanoparticles to the hydrogel can change the
physical, chemical, and biological properties of the hydrogel matrix, and
the hydrogel with the addition of nanoparticles has better printing
properties, mechanical properties, thermal stability, etc. Zhang et al.
prepared a sustainable hydrogel from natural glyoxylic acid (GL) and
biocompatible polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) in a water/glycerol solvent [51].
The hydrogel has a high molecular weight, high mechanical properties,
good biocompatibility, frost resistance, and anti-drying ability. Inspired
by the reducing properties of GL, a gradient silver nanoparticle layer can
be constructed in situ on the hydrogel surface without the addition of
reducing agents. It not only provides UV shielding and an antibacterial
effect to the hydrogel but also effectively improves the sensing proper­
ties. The desired properties were also achieved so that the hydrogels
could be assembled into sensors to detect the full range of human motion
with high sensitivity, stability, and durability. Combined with 3D
printing technology, it provides ideas for designing high-performance,
multifunctional, and sustainable flexible sensors.
Composite hydrogels are heterogeneous hydrogels formed by the
interaction of multiple hydrogels, and the combination of multiple
materials and cells can print complex three-dimensional biological
structures with multiple morphologies, structures, mechanical proper­
ties, and multifunctional components, thus establishing multiple bio­
logical structures with bio-nano-morphological structures and
functional properties [70]. Liu et al. added nano cellulose to gelatin and
polyacrylamide and then replaced the water molecules in the hydrogels
with a mixture of zwitterionic betaine and ammonium sulfate using a
simple solution substitution method [71]. The new composite hydrogel
has properties such as toughness, high electrical conductivity, and freeze
protection. The prepared hydrogels have excellent mechanical proper­
ties due to the introduction of nano cellulose and the “salting” effect of
gelatin and ammonium sulfate. In the future, combined with 3D printing
technology, flexible sensors made of this amphoteric hydrogel will be
able to adapt to low-temperature environments and be used in more
industrial production.
Polyurethane is an elastomer with good flexibility and stretchability,
making it one of the ideal materials for preparing flexible sensors. Peng
et al. utilized polyurethane and carbon nanotube composite casting to
make a porous flexible strain sensor, which has great potential for
wearable devices [72]. Meanwhile, Zeng et al. fabricated light-healing
polyurethane by molecular design, which has excellent mechanical
strength and healing rate, and has a wide range of applications [73]. In
flexible sensors, polyurethane can be used as the base material of the
sensor to provide soft support and protection. At the same time, poly­
urethane can also be used as the sensing layer of the sensor, which is
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Chemical Engineering Journal 474 (2023) 146011
sensitive to external forces, pressures, deformations, and other physical
quantities through its elastic properties.
Ionic gels are gel systems formed in water using ion exchange ma­
terials like polyelectrolytes. These gels can create a network by
absorbing water and possess excellent water adsorption and retention
properties. Peng et al. prepared light-curing resins of ionic liquids and
hydrogen-bonded acrylate monomers, and the resulting sensors exhibi­
ted high-pressure sensitivity, low hysteresis, and stable signals over time
[74]. The sensors are currently used to monitor pulse, finger, gait, and
other human movements, but could be extended to monitor food prod­
ucts due to their antimicrobial properties and accurate temperature
change detection. Ionic gels usually have good biocompatibility and
tunable physicochemical properties, and thus have a wide range of ap­
plications in the field of flexible biosensors.
Hydrogels are considered to be the best candidates for flexible sen­
sors due to their high biocompatibility and adjustable mechanical
properties. With the increasing application of 3D printing, the “ink” for
3D printing is no longer limited to inorganic substances such as plastic
powder. With its excellent biocompatibility and the cross-fertilization of
3D printing technology, “bio-ink” will achieve great success in the fields
of medical health, food safety, and life science.
4. Applications in the field of food monitoring
At present, there are many methods for food analysis and moni­
toring. One is the sensory monitoring method, which is used to assess the
quality characteristics of food such as color, aroma, taste, shape, and
texture, as well as people’s tendency to prefer food through human
sensory organs [75]. The second is the physical monitoring method,
through the measurement of physical quantities to understand the tissue
composition and content of food [76]. The third is the chemical analysis
method, through the chemical properties of the food tissue composition
as the basis for analysis [77]. The fourth is the instrument monitoring
method, also known as the physical and chemical monitoring method,
which is based on the physical and chemical properties of food, using
sophisticated analytical instruments and various sensors for food
monitoring, which has the advantages of simplicity, sensitivity, speed,
accuracy and so on [78]. The application of sensors in food monitoring
has been widely used in the instrumental monitoring method, which has
led to the full improvement of the automated process of food. Flexible
sensors fabricated using 3D printing technology have been developed in
the fields of food monitoring, analyzing ingredients in food, food
packaging, etc., depending on the method of food detection we cate­
gorize the overview according to gases, microorganisms, and non-gas
compounds, as shown in Table 1 and Fig. 6.
4.1. Gases monitoring method
In the field of food safety, the application of gas sensors is very
important. By 3D printing flexible sensors, we can realize the rapid
detection and monitoring of harmful gases in food, so as to protect the
health and safety of consumers. Ma et al. investigated the development
of a gas sensor using a nanostructured conducting polymer that detects
biogenic amines, such as spoilage and cadaverine, which are indicators
of meat spoilage [82]. This is a sensor that monitors gases for food
monitoring. The sensor can act as a switch in near-field communication
(NFC) tagging circuits. It has a high sensitivity to 5 ppm ammonia NH3.
The sensitivity is ΔR/R0 = 225% for 5 ppm ammonia NH3 and 46% and
17% for 5 ppm humic and cadaveric amines, respectively. Nano­
structured polyaniline (PAni), the switching material in the sensor, is
inherently non-toxic and has good in vitro and in vivo biocompatibility.
This technology can be used to create smart sensing for food condition
monitoring applications in daily life, storage, and supply chain. Lv et al.
investigated the preparation and characterization of an ammonia sensor
based on a PEDOT: PSS film containing iron chloride (FeCl3) additive
[79]. The sensor monitors food with ammonia as the key analyte. This
D. Song et al. Chemical Engineering Journal 474 (2023) 146011

Table 1
3D printing for food monitoring.
Food monitoring Monitoring Design content Based on Advantages Applications References
methodology targets

Gases Monitoring NH3 A gas sensor using nanostructured Nanostructured High sensitivity The technology can be [82]
Method conducting polymers conductive polymers used to create intelligent
sensing for food condition
monitoring applications
in everyday life, storage,
and supply chains
NH3 It investigated the preparation and PEDOT with iron chloride Ten-fold increase in It has potential [79]
characterization of ammonia (FeCl3) additive: PSS film response value and a 30- applications for
sensors based on PEDOT: PSS films fold reduction in monitoring NH3 gas
containing iron chloride (FeCl3) response time under ambient conditions
additives and can also be used as an
indicator of food spoilage
C₂H₅OH、 A new method for fabricating fully Flexible polymer foil Good response and It has great potential for [83]
NH3、CO inkjet-printed gas sensors on sensitivity to different smart food packaging and
flexible polymer foils concentrations of premature disease
ethanol, ammonia, and detection
carbon monoxide gases
at 300 ◦ C
TVB-N A hydrogel that protects Water, agar, and purple Good stability and anti- For smart food packaging [84]
anthocyanins from leaching sweet potato leaching properties
anthocyanins
Microorganisms Escherichia coli A method for detecting disease- Magnetic Nanoparticle High sensitivity It can be developed for [85]
Monitoring causing bacteria in food using Cluster the detection of food
Method magnetic nanoparticle clusters pathogens.
(MNC) and 3D-printed spiral
microchannels
Escherichia coli Development of a transparent, Transparent cyclic olefin Stable during the shelf Packaging solution for [80]
durable, and flexible sensing polymer (COP) films life of perishable real-time monitoring of
surface packaged foods pathogens
Non-gas Carbohydrate Bionic “intestinal microcapsules” Copper oxide Specific and accurate There is also a wide range [86]
Compounds electrochemical cell sensors nanoparticles detection of wheat of application prospects
Monitoring fabricated by 3D printing alcohol-soluble protein in food monitoring
Method H2O2 A three-dimensional printable Conductive polymers of Linear responses at 61.3 It provides a promising [87]
paper sensor made of a conductive poly(3,4-ethylene- × 10− 9 and 61.3 × 10− 6 approach for the
polymer called poly(3,4-ethylene- dioxythiophene) development of flexible
dioxythiophene) polystyrene polystyrene sulfonate and cost-effective sensors
sulfonate (PEDOT: PSS) (PEDOT: PSS) for food detection.
Chlorpyrifos, A lateral flow biosensor using a Fluorescent aptamer Improved sensitivity and Portable and practical [81]
Diazinon, and fluorescent aptamer-based zero background tool for on-site detection
Malathion biosensor integrated with a of multiple pesticides in
smartphone spectrum reader food samples
C6H12O6 A new technique for fabricating PDMS Good uniformity, Laboratory Glucose [88]
microelectrodes on conductivity, and Biosensing System
polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) to excellent adhesion to
form biosensors in microchannels PDMS
H2O An integrated multimodal flexible Stacked Znin2s4 Durable and stable Real-time monitoring of [89]
sensor system for plant growth nanosheets performance monitoring food freshness and
management of humidity quality, providing real-
time information on the
condition of food
Methane- Design and preparation of long- Long-range ordered Good specificity, The potential value in [90]
phosphonic range ordered macro-porous anti- macro-porous anti- selectivity, and establishing pesticide
opaline hydrogel particles with opaline hydrogel particles significant reflection detection systems in food
methane-phosphonic acid with methane- peak shift for methane- safety
imprinting sites phosphonic acid blotting phosphonic acid
sites

sensor was prepared using inkjet printing on a flexible polyimide film,
Polyimide film is non-toxic, stable, and suitable for use in medical and
food industries. The addition of FeCl3 to the PEDOT: PSS film signifi­
cantly improved the NH3 sensing performance of the sensor with a
tenfold increase in response value and a 30-fold reduction in response
time compared to the pure PEDOT: PSS film. The thin-film sensor has
potential applications for monitoring NH3 gas under ambient conditions,
and because ammonia is a common by-product of protein breakdown in
food, it can be used as an indicator of food spoilage. Kassem et al.
describe a new method for fabricating a fully inkjet-printed gas sensor
on a flexible polymer foil [83]. The sensor was made by printing a
platinum heater and gold electrodes on top of a substrate separated by a
thin layer of printed polyimide insulation. The researchers used a hy­
drosol gel process to synthesize a nanoscale tin dioxide-based sol, which
was converted to a stable ink and inkjet printed on the gold electrode.
Electrical measurements of the printed sensor characterized the
response and sensitivity to different concentrations of ethanol,
ammonia, and carbon monoxide gases at an operating temperature of
300 ◦ C in dry and humid air. With ethanol, ammonia, and carbon
monoxide as the key analytes, this sensor is extremely sensitive to lower-
range chemical gases and is reversible. The sensor is stable and can be
packaged for applications in the food monitoring industry. It has great
potential for smart food packaging and premature disease detection.
Zhai et al. developed a novel colorimetric film for real-time monitoring
of fish freshness based on the combination of starch/polyvinyl alcohol
(SPVA) and rosehips anthocyanins (RACNs), fixed in the headspace of
the packaged fish [84]. These colorimetric films, which were immobi­
lized in the headspace of the packaged fish, presented a gas-based sensor

8
D. Song et al. Chemical Engineering Journal 474 (2023) 146011

Fig. 6. Different monitoring methods. a. Illustration of the fabrication process for PEDOT: PSS based film sensors; b. Schematic diagram of the gas sensing per­
formance measuring system; c. Schematic illustration of sensing mechanism of FeCl3-PEDOT: PSS hybrid[79]; d. Illustration of highly sensitive DNAzyme sensors
cleaving in the presence of live E. coli cells; e. Meat and apple samples wrapped in film containing sensors; f. Representative bright-field (top) and fluorescence
(bottom) images of sensors on the solid food sample wrapped in food packaging. Food samples were inoculated with a bacteria mixture of E. coli (right) and the same
bacteria mixture without E. coli (left) at 4 ◦ C[80]; g. Mobile phone fluorescence spectrum reader; h. Smartphone-based fluorescence detection principle[81].

in the form of a gas sensor when reacting with the total volatile salt
nitrogen (TVB-N) These colorimetric films exhibit specific color changes
based on gas sensors when reacting with TVB-N. The films are stable for
up to 14 days at refrigerated and room temperatures, with a relative
color change of less than 5%, and are safer and more environmentally
friendly due to the natural pigments in the films. The colorimetric film
can reflect the freshness of fish food in real time with high sensitivity.
This kind of sensor has great application value in the packaging of fish.
4.2. Microorganisms monitoring method
The sensor is stable for at least 9 days at various pH conditions (pH 14–3)
and can detect E. coli in meat and apple juice at concentrations as low as
103 CFU/Ml. The stability of the developed biosensor is much greater
than the shelf life of packaged food products, is simple and requires
minimal user intervention, is compatible with packaging materials
currently in use, and since the DNA zyme probe can be generated by in
vitro selection to react to different bacteria, this sensor has great po­
tential for application in food packaging and creating surfaces that can
specifically detect and report the presence of target bacteria in complex
environments.

Microbial contamination is a major food safety concern. Using 3D
printed flexible sensors, highly sensitive microbial sensors can be
developed to rapidly and accurately detect microbial contamination
such as bacteria and molds in food products, providing real-time
monitoring and control means for food production and processing. Lee
et al. presented a method for the isolation and monitoring of pathogenic
bacteria from foodstuffs using magnetic nanoparticle clusters (MNCs)
and 3D-printed helical microchannels for the detection of pathogenic
bacteria from foodstuffs without the need for complex pre-treatment
[85]. This method can detect the presence of pathogenic bacteria in
10 mL of milk samples with a sensitivity of 100 cfu/mL (colony forming
units per mL), and the efficient and safe isolation and monitoring
mechanism makes it highly applicable in the field of food monitoring.
The sensor developed by Yousefi and other researchers and scholars was
fabricated by covalently attaching picoliter-sized microarrays of an E.
coli-specific RNA-cleaving fluorescent DNA enzyme probe (RFD-EC1) to
a thin, flexible, and transparent cyclic olefin polymer (COP) film [80].
4.3. Non-gas compounds monitoring method
Chemical residues in food are an important issue for food safety.
Utilizing 3D-printed flexible sensors, high-sensitivity compound sensors
can be developed that can rapidly detect pesticides, heavy metals, and
other harmful compounds in food, providing an effective means for food
quality monitoring and food safety management. Jiang et al. fabricated a
bionic “intestinal microcapsule” electrochemical cellular sensor by 3D
printing, which could specifically and accurately detect wheat alcohol-
soluble proteins [86]. Subsequently, self-assembled flower-like copper
oxide nanoparticles were synthesized and multi-walled carbon nano­
tubes were functionalized with hydrazide to improve the performance of
the sensor. This sensor reduces the error of manually modified screen-
printed electrodes, and the cellular sensor loaded with 1 ×106 cells/
mL of cell suspension and immobilized for 10 min can sensitively detect
wheat alcohol-soluble proteins. Conductive bio-composite hydrogels
have also been prepared since then, and such hydrogels have also been

9
D. Song et al.
widely used in food monitoring. A three-dimensional printable paper
sensor made of a conductive polymer called poly(3,4-ethylene-
dioxythienyl) polystyrene sulfonate was presented by Giaretta et al
[87]. Paper-based sensors have the advantages of non-pollution, good
flexibility, lower cost, and a wide range of raw material sources. The
detection of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), a by-product of enzymatic re­
actions, is of great interest in food and medical applications. The linear
response of the sensor is in the range of 61.3 × 10− 9 and 61.3 × 10− 6,
and the correlation between drug resistance and H2O2 concentration
depends to a large extent on the level of integrase. It provides a prom­
ising approach for the development of flexible and cost-effective sensors
for food detection. Cheng and colleagues proposed a new method for
detecting multiple pesticides in food samples using a fluorescent
aptamer-based lateral flow biosensor integrated with a smartphone
spectrum reader [81]. The detection limits of this sensor for chlorpyri­
fos, diazinon, and malathion were 0.73 ng/mL, 6.7 ng/mL, and 0.74 ng/
mL, respectively. reduced the detection limits of pesticide residue levels
in food, and the recoveries of vegetable samples were estimated to be in
the range of 82.4%–112.8% in practical applications. The biosensor also
uses a novel fluorescent inhibitor nano pair to perform “signal on” rather
than “signal off”, resulting in increased sensitivity and zero background.
The biosensor is integrated with a 3D-printed smartphone reader,
making it a portable and practical tool for in situ detection of multiple
pesticides in food samples. A new technique for fabricating microelec­
trodes on polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) to form biosensors in micro­
channels has been proposed by Wu et al [88]. Using inkjet-printed silver
nanoparticles and modifying the surface of PDMS with a chemical called
(3-Mercaptoplico) tri-methoxy silane (MPTMS) to improve its surface
wettability and adhesion to silver, the resulting silver patterns exhibited
good uniformity, electrical conductivity, and excellent adhesion to
PDMS. Successful fabrication of a three-electrode electrochemical
biosensor and its integration into a lab-on-a-chip glucose biosensing
system. Lu et al. present an integrated multimodal flexible sensor system
for plant growth management that uses stacked Znin2s4 (ZIS) nano­
sheets as the core sensing medium to rapidly sense light illumination and
monitor humidity with durable and stable performance [89]. The pro­
posed ZIS-based flexible sensor can not only sense light illumination
with fast response (~4 ms), but also monitor humidity with long-lasting
stable performance, and using 3D printing technology, this flexible
sensor can be printed on food packaging materials, which can monitor
the freshness and quality of food products in real-time, and provide real-
time information about the condition of food products. Huang et al.
designed and prepared long-range ordered macro-porous anti-opaline
hydrogel particles with methane-phosphonic acid imprinting sites [90].
The sensor enables a redshift of >120 nm from green to red, which can
be recognized by the naked eye in less than five minutes. It can be easily
recognized without any complex and time-consuming instrumentation.
The detection limit is as low as 1 × 10− 6 mol/l. This work provides an
excellent strategy for designing highly sensitive colorimetric sensors for
phosphorus pesticide detection, and the safety level can be classified by
adjusting the size of the hydrogel particles. It has promising applications
as a colorimetric sensor for food safety, ecological pollution determi­
nation, and rapid detection of nerve gases.
5. Conclusions and prospects
All the technologies behind 3D printers and sensors have made sig­
nificant progress in the last few years, but the challenges are increasing
as the two technologies are mixed and combined. There are clear ad­
vantages when sensors are 3D printed, including lower costs, fast
manufacturing speeds, and high precision [3]. In addition to these
inherent advantages, it is possible to embed sensors into printed struc­
tures by pausing 3D printing at any time [91]. Compared to traditional
inspection methods, 3D-printed flexible sensors can provide more ac­
curate results, being able to detect small changes and respond to them
10
Chemical Engineering Journal 474 (2023) 146011
quickly. 3D printing technology allows precise control of the sensor
manufacturing process, making the performance and response of each
sensor very consistent and repeatable, which is of great value in mass
production [92]. The sensors can be easily mounted on food surfaces or
other areas to be monitored, and are also easy to remove and clean,
reducing operational difficulties and costs. Thus, 3D printed sensors are
an inevitable process in sensor development and a triumph of 3D
printing technology in the sensor field. However, even though 3D-
printed sensors have a promising future, there are still significant chal­
lenges that limit the production of future sensors. First is the use of 3D
printing, material issues can limit the performance and reliability of
printed sensors, and sensors may fail or fail after a long period of use, so
better design and manufacturing processes are needed to improve their
reliability, it is especially important to study the ideal material, un­
suitable materials can sometimes have a huge impact [93]. Second,
there is still a lack of information on the lifetime of 3D-printed sensors
and it is impossible to know how long a 3D-printed product can be used
[94]. In addition, each sensor may have slightly different response
characteristics and therefore needs to be calibrated to ensure its accu­
racy and repeatability. Finally, there is a lack of standards and specifi­
cations for 3D-printed flexible sensors in food inspection, which need to
be developed to ensure their safety and effectiveness.
3D printed sensors, although more widely developed, are not yet
widely used in food analysis and monitoring. Food analysis and moni­
toring are particularly important for food safety and are closely related
to human health. The sensor has the advantages of fast analysis, high
accuracy, and low price in the field of food analysis and monitoring, and
can detect substances that cannot be detected by other methods, and the
sensor can also be tested online, making a significant contribution to
food composition analysis and predicting the shelf life of food [95].
Currently, sensors can accurately detect proteins, organic acids, amino
acids, as well as some food additives, minerals, alcohols, etc. in the field
of food monitoring. In addition, they can measure the freshness of food
as well as detect microorganisms and various harmful substances con­
tained in food to ensure food safety. Despite the many advantages of 3D
printed sensors, if they are to be used for food monitoring, attention
must be paid to the non-toxicity of the printed materials, which should
guide future research. Although the application of 3D-printed sensors in
food inspection is not yet perfect, it has to be said that there is a huge
potential for future development.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgment
This research is supported by the 2115 talent development program
of China Agricultural University.
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