British Somaliland

Author(s): H. B. Kittermaster
Source: Journal of the Royal African Society , Jul., 1928, Vol. 27, No. 108 (Jul., 1928),
pp. 329-337
Published by: Oxford University Press on behalf of The Royal African Society

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/717022

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
https://about.jstor.org/terms

and Oxford University Press are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend
access to Journal of the Royal African Society

This content downloaded from

138.237.15.168 on Mon, 04 Dec 2023 17:48:29 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 329

BRITISH SOMALILAND

WHY do the Somalis occupy to-day their present po

the scale of civilisation and development ? This is
which perhaps demands a passing thought. The
doubtedly still primitive, having reached only a syst
tribal organisation in which even the tribal elders an
exercise but small control. But these people are by
unintelligent or decadent. It is probable that t
be regarded as among the most virile and intellig
African peoples. Yet consider their position, situa
shore of the Gulf of Aden, a narrow sea through
commerce of the world has passed for centuries. T
was well known even in Roman times, as the terra aromatica
from which came, and still come, scented gums. To the west the
country marches with Abyssinia. Yet neither the indigenous
culture of Abyssinia nor the culture of Europe or Asia, which
trade must constantly have brought to these shores, seems to
have had any lasting effect. It is true that the Somali race
as known to-day is probably not much more than four cen-
turies old, derived as it is supposed to be from union of Arabs
with the native women of Galla origin. But this blend does
not appear to have replaced any other race of higher culture,
although in the western part of the Protectorate, on the trade
route from Zeilah to Abyssinia, are found masonry ruins of
large towns whose builders are completely lost even to local
legend. Neither ease of life from a fertile soil nor tropical
disease has been at work here to retard or destroy develop-
ment, as is supposed to be the case in West Africa, for the
climate is too dry and the ground too sterile to allow either of
these causes to operate.
Perhaps it is just these causes which have produced the
result. The country for the most part is unsuitable to agri-
culture and its inhabitants have never progressed beyond the
stage of stock-owners, and, moreover, they have been driven

This content downloaded from

138.237.15.168 on Mon, 04 Dec 2023 17:48:29 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
330 JOURNAL OF THE AFRICAN SOCIETY

by their environment to specialise in that most blighting form

of stock, the camel. So their life is one long migration from
place to place in search of grazing: no close tribal life has
developed, each family being a unit to itself: their food has
consisted mainly of camel's milk, and food is often scanty when
the rains fail. Such is the life which has produced the Somali
of to-day, lean and wiry, independent, proud, intolerant of
control. But camels he must have if he is to count at all
among his fellows, and to get money to buy camels he
trade or work. He is not afraid to go out into the wor
look for work. Considerable settlements at Cardiff and New-
castle prove that Somalis are willing to reside for years overseas.
Letters from British Consuls all over the world are constantly
being received by the Administration asking if some destitute
"man of colour " can be identified. They are found in the
most surprising places and situations. Yet generally after
half a lifetime of wandering they drift back to their own place
with their savings, and having purchased camels therewith
become indistinguishable from their brethren who have never
left their villages. The writer was on one occasion confronted
in his office by a particularly unsophisticated-looking native.
On being asked in Somali what he wanted, he replied with a
strong Australian accent, " I speak English. I was taken by
my father to Australia when I was quite a nipper." Their
intelligence and their keen ability as traders mark them out
as capable of development, but there appears to be little hope
of a radical change in them unless it is possible to destroy the
camel complex. The best hope of tllat appears to lie in develop-
ing the water resources of the country. For it will support
other stock than camels. Sheep and goats and cattle all thrive
and increase abundantly until comes a disastrous drought-
about every third or fourth year-and 75 per cent. of the
stock dies. The indigenous sheep, the fat-tailed hair sheep of
the East, produces good mutton and an even better skin,
from which is made the world's finest glove leather. Of late
years in particular the Somali has learnt the value of his sheep
and has been developing his flocks for sale, so that he may
buy camels. The export of live sheep increased in I927 by
20 per cent., and markets were being found as far afield as

This content downloaded from

138.237.15.168 on Mon, 04 Dec 2023 17:48:29 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 BRITISH SOMALILAND 33I

Suez and Singapore. The country would, in the op

Australians and South Africans who have seen it, pro
suitable for merino sheep, but their introduction
dangerous except under strict control, because th
valuable skin might be destroyed by the cross an
worth selling produced in its place.
During the last ten years, however, a change has
take place in the western part of the Protectorate
soil is much richer and the rainfall more plent
proximity to the agricultural tribes in Abyssinia h
these western Somalis to see for themselves the value
culture, and at the moment it is enjoying quit
Thousands of acres have come under cultivation, and the
Administration is confronted with a new problem which is as
old as history, the conflict between Cain and Abel. As is
always the case with a pastoral people, the ownership of the
land is tribal in the widest sense. No individual can claim
any particular right to any piece of grazing or any well. Bu
once the land is cultivated the matter wears quite a new aspect
for the individual must be allowed to enjoy the fruit of h
toil. At the moment the Administration, while continuing
recognise the tribal ownership of the land, also recognises the
individual's right to the quiet enjoyment of the use of a pl
so long as he is cultivating it effectively. The Administrati
gives all the help it can to this new enterprise, as it is obvious
that it offers a more hopeful line of development than camels
A Department of Agriculture has just been inaugurated on
very modest scale, and it is hoped to improve the nati
methods by advice and demonstration. At present the
methods are very primitive: an iron-shod stick as a ploug
which scratches the ground to a depth of about two inches
and one kind of seed only, a millet. The introduction of ne
methods is greatly helped by the trait mentioned above, t
tendency of the Somali to go abroad. Everywhere in th
Protectorate are found individuals who have travelled and
realise the advantage of new methods. Such men are willing
to be guided by Government advice, and several have already
ordered modern steel ploughs in place of the wooden stick.
The "jungli" native is willing to follow the lead of his own

This content downloaded from

138.237.15.168 on Mon, 04 Dec 2023 17:48:29 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
332 JOURNAL OF THE AFRICAN SOCIETY

relatives when he would regard any Government action with

suspicion. It is hoped by experiment to prove the possibility
of cultivating some more profitable crop than millet. The
establishment of the Department of Agriculture is too recent
to allow proof of the possibility of this development, but
it is on these lines that there appears to be most hope for a
change in the characteristics of the people and their mode bf life.
Unfortunately agriculture must depend on the rainfall, so
far as can at present be foreseen. This, while sufficient in
normal years, is by no means certain and there is a danger lest
a succession of bad seasons discourage further progress.
Irrigation is out of the question except by the expenditure of
a vast sum of money in constructing dams to conserve rain-
water, as there are no permanent streams in the country. On
the other hand, it may be worth while to undertake boring
operations with a view to seeing if there is any artesian or
subartesian source of supply that can be tapped. Any such
improvement, either by extending areas of cultivation or of
natural grazing, would be a step away from the camels. It is
hoped that experiments in this direction can shortly be made
if money can be found to purchase a small boring plant.
The real hope of the Protectorate for extensive development
lies in its mineral resources. A fairly comprehensive mineral
survey of the Protectorate has been undertaken, and the results,
though not justifying a boom, are not discouraging. Petro-
leum is known to exist, and coal and mica, while there are
indications of other minerals. The satisfactory aspect of these
deposits is that most of them appear to occur on the coastal
plain within thirty miles of the sea, and thus if developed their
transport would be a matter of comparative simplicity. One
mica deposit is at the moment being worked by a British
syndicate, though its operations are still in the development
stage and the product has not yet reached the market. The
Anglo-Saxon Petroleum Company have just taken up a con-
cession for testing the worth of the petroleum field. It is
hardly necessary to point out how ideally situated the Pro-
tectorate is for making the most of either oil or coal if they
proved workable. Its port of Berbera is due south of Aden,
distant about I90 miles. It is a natural harbour protected

This content downloaded from

138.237.15.168 on Mon, 04 Dec 2023 17:48:29 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 BRITISH SOMALILAND 333

by a coral spit, of much the same formation as Po

Vessels of IO,OOO tons burden can even now come inside the
harbour, though it is never dredged. Should traffic be diverted
from Aden to Berbera, dredging would soon permit of large
ocean-going vessels coming right inside. It is estimated that
were the necessary expenditure incurred it would be a matter
of no great difficulty to make Berbera as good a port as Port
Sudan.
The dry coastal climate makes the Protectorate as good as
Aden for the production of salt. This is already being done
in a primitive way by the natives, and negotiations are now
in progress with a British syndicate to develop the industry
scientifically. The future prospects of the Protectorate are
not discouraging, but it has a very bad reputation to live down
owing to the activities of the Mad Mullah, and it requires
careful nursing.
So much for the economic aspect of the country: its social
development is a much more intriguing study. It is, however,
a most difficult thing to prophesy the lines of advance along
which this development will take place. At present the com-
munity exactly represents the stage of development of the
Patriarch Abraham and his friends, and photographs taken of
the daily life of the Somalis would serve admirably for an
illustrated edition of the Book of Genesis. Their genealogical
trees, too, read exactly as does, for instance, that of Jacob and
Esau. The parallel is very close. The Somali race is divided
into two main branches, the Isaac and Darod, descended, as
from Jacob and Esau, from two Arab ancestors, Sheikh Jaberti
ibn Ismail and Sheikh Isaac ibn Ahmed (though legend does
not give these two a common ancestor in Abraham). Even
Ishmael son of Hagar appears in certain semi-Somali tribes
such as the Danakil, which the true aristocratic Somali will
not recognise as kin. Both Isaac and Darod are divided and
subdivided like the dukes of the sons of Esau, and the 36th
chapter of Genesis exactly represents the sort of account which
a Somali elder of to-day would give of his descent. Any
individual Somali can trace his descent back to the original
parent stock. But the degree of cohesion in the family
depends entirely on the extent of the strain exerted to test it.

This content downloaded from

138.237.15.168 on Mon, 04 Dec 2023 17:48:29 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
334 JOURNAL OF THE AFRICAN SOCIETY

In opposition to a Government order it would be easy to coalesce

the divisions into a united whole under the heading Isaac or
Darod. But with the Government control removed, families
very closely akin fight readily, and vendettas are part of the
daily life of the people. The people recognise so clearly that
it is only the controlling authority of the British Government
which prevents widespread inter-tribal fighting that there is
absolutely no demand for the withdrawal of the Government
and for self-determination. In fact a rumour some years ago,
that the British Government was tired of the expense of con-
trolling the country and was going to withdraw, brought earnest
petitions from the headmen not to do so. These headmen (Akils)
are not a natural product of the evolution of tribal society.
They are mostly selected by the tribesmen and approved by
the Government as the instruments of communication between
their sections and the Government. It is probable indeed
that, if need arose among the sections for combined action
either against the Government or against surrounding tribes,
the occasion would produce the man, like Moses of old, to lead
the people for a fixed purpose. Indeed in the past there does
seem to have been a rudimentary headship of each of the
larger sections, but it is doubtful how much real power such
heads enjoyed. It is difficult to see how any sort of self-
government can be evolved among such a people, as only a
very small percentage of them have any fixed habitation. The
villages are continually coalescing and splitting up and moving
from place to place after a residence of perhaps a fortnight, so
that even a local public opinion cannot be formed. A tentative
effort has been made at indirect administration by the establish-
ment of Akils Courts in which the Akils themselves decide
petty cases under supervision by the District Commissione
But the Courts have to be carefully watched, as judgment
strongly influenced in every case by personal and family con-
siderations. Still it is possible to see the germs of an evolution
into a more static society. The introduction of agriculture i
already tending to the establishment of villages permanentl
in one location, and the building of Government administrativ
stations in the interior means in every case the springing up o
a town at the station for trading purposes. In such towns

This content downloaded from

138.237.15.168 on Mon, 04 Dec 2023 17:48:29 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 BRITISH SOMALILAND 335

individual title to ground on leasehold has been giv

the last two years, and it is significant of the tend
change of outlook that a leading Somali thought good
the extreme length of selling twenty-five of his camel
to buy a town plot.
Up to the present time it has not been possible to
large number of Somalis sufficiently educated for em
in Government service except in minor posts. A f
educated by the French Roman Catholic Mission wh
established in the Protectorate, have proved themselv
as clerks and telegraphists. Others have been train
mechanics, but the steady application in early year
necessary to produce a reasonably educated man does n
easily to a young Somali. Theoretically the attitud
parents towards education is admirable, showin
anxiety for their children to be educated. This
admittedly due to the greater prospect of making mo
a knowledge of reading and writing gives, but very f
be willing to pay for the education of their sons, and s
would recognise the need of continuous education f
five years. An interesting experiment was inaugu
I9I9, when six Somali youths were selected for ed
the Gordon College, Khartum, on the basis of the
being shared between the parents and the Governm
only of the six stayed the course and went throug
year curriculum up to the secondary standard.
these three the result was most satisfactory, all qualif
good posts in Government service and two of the thre
ately passing the first efficiency bar for promotion.
has been greatly to stimulate the desire to particip
gold mine. But were the Administration to try to
good school in the country, it is probable that co
opposition would have to be faced from the local mull
at present provide so-called education in the Koran
It is only since the destruction of the Mad Mulla
that the country has had any real chance of progr
that date there was no uninterrupted motor comm
between Berbera and the interior; wives for office
luxury whose presence in the country was a matter f

This content downloaded from

138.237.15.168 on Mon, 04 Dec 2023 17:48:29 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
336 JOURNAL OF THE AFRICAN SOCIETY

consideration by the Governor in each individual case; and

houses were built on the assumption that only bachelors would
occupy them. But since I922 a very considerable change has
taken place. Two good motor roads now connect Berbera
with the interior, one to Hargeisa in the west, a distance of
I30 miles, and one via Sheikh and Burao to Erigavo in the
east, a distance of some 300 miles. The rules for wives have
been relaxed for practically all stations, and a serious epidemic
of matrimony has swept through the country, with the result
that houses originally designed for one are found to be getting
unduly cramped for two and their concomitants. A very
well-equipped native hospital has been erected at Berbera and
excellent hospitals have also come into being at Burao and
Hargeisa. The range of effective administration is spreading
yearly and a new station is at the moment under construction
at Buramo on the Abyssinian frontier. All stations are fitted
with wireless telegraphy.
The Protectorate depends for communication with the out-
side world (apart from wireless telegraphy) almost entirely on
a weekly mail-boat from Aden to Berbera. For forty years
the Parsee firm of Cowasjee Dinshaw and Brothers has run a
regular service, bringing the mails and other goods and taking
back live-stock and skins. A second firm has now also come
into competition, M. A. Besse of Aden. Both these firms call
fairly regularly at Zeilah, also in the west, and very occasionally
at the ports in the east, Heis and Las Khoreh. Native dhows
from Aden and Mokalla also ply along the coast, visiting the
smaller places as well as the recognised ports. In the date
season large dhows come direct from the Persian Gulf with
cargoes of dates. The Protectorate has no real lines of com-
munication on its landward side. The natives drift back-
wards and forwards over the frontier in search of grazing, and
a certain number of trade caravans go with them. From
Jigjiga only in Abyssinia is there anything like organised
caravan trade to Hargeisa and Buramo. It would be a matter
of the greatest simplicity to connect Jigjiga by motor road
with both these places. The road between the two British
stations touches the frontier, and nothing but a vast level
treeless plain lies between it and Jigjiga, so that without any

This content downloaded from

138.237.15.168 on Mon, 04 Dec 2023 17:48:29 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 BRITISH SOMALILAND 337

road motor-cars could reach Jigjiga without diffic

the Abyssinian Government steadfastly refuses t
dangerous an experiment to be made. Their attitud
innovations, especially as regards roads from o
"Festina lente."
The country is financially poor. Practically the whole o
its capital at present consists of stock, and every few year
some 50 per cent. of this capital is swept away by a drough
Were more money available it might be possible to mitiga
the effect of such droughts.
Apart from the possibility of improving the water supply b
boring operations, the erection of dams would be possible
many parts of the country. The rainfall is sufficient to cau
millions of tons of water every year to run to waste to the se
and this water could easily be trapped when it forces its w
through the narrow gorges which lead from the high interior
plateau to the coast. Such dams could probably be used
extend the area of irrigation both for cultivation and for
grazing.
But no adequate security can be offered to justify a public
loan for the creation of such capital works as these. As it is,
the annual budget is balanced only by a Loan-in-Aid from the
Imperial Treasury, but when the potentialities of the people
of the Protectorate are taken into consideration it may be
confidently prophesied that this aid will prove a wise
investment.
H. B. KITTERMASTER.

22 Vol. 27

This content downloaded from

138.237.15.168 on Mon, 04 Dec 2023 17:48:29 +00:00
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms