CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study

Science stands as the bedrock of human understanding, an enduring pursuit that has

profoundly shaped the very essence of our existence. Its significance transcends mere knowledge

acquisition, for it not only empowers us with insight but also furnishes us with solutions to the

diverse challenges confronting humanity. Science employs a systematic and empirical approach

to explore the natural world, untangle its enigmas, and decipher its intricate tapestry (Smith,

2019). This dedication to rigorous inquiry lays the foundation for a multitude of scientific

disciplines, including chemistry, physics, biology, and mathematics, to flourish

Chemistry is a branch of science that involves the study of matter, its properties, and its

interactions with other matter and energy. It is a fundamental science, and it has a significant

impact on our daily lives. Chemistry plays a vital role in fields such as medicine, agriculture,

energy, and materials science. It is the central science that bridges other scientific disciplines

such as physics, biology, and earth sciences. It is essential in fields such as medicine, materials

science, and environmental science (Hill, 2020). According to the National Science Foundation

(NSF, 2019), Chemistry is important in understanding the natural world and the substances that

make up our environment. It is also essential in developing new technologies and products, from

nanotechnology to advanced materials. Therefore, it is crucial for students to have a good

understanding of chemistry concepts.

However, chemistry is a complex and abstract subject that requires students to have a

solid understanding of theoretical concepts as well as practical skills. To succeed in chemistry,

students must be able to apply theoretical concepts to real-world situations, and communicate the
results effectively. This requires a deep understanding of chemical principles and the ability to

think critically and creatively (National Research Council, 2012). In addition to mastering

theoretical concepts and practical skills, students must develop an appreciation for the relevance

of chemistry to their daily lives and the world around them. This can help to foster a love of

learning and a commitment to lifelong learning (Gabel & Bunce, 1994). To achieve these,

teachers must help by providing opportunities for active learning, such as hands-on laboratory

experiences, collaborative projects and use of active, varying instructional strategies.

Traditionally, chemistry has been taught through lecture-based instruction. However, this

method may not be the most effective method of teaching chemistry, as it often fails to promote

critical thinking, problem-solving, and collaboration among students. Research has shown that

traditional lectures may not be enough to engage students, and students often struggle to retain

the information learned in such a setting. Freeman, Eddy, McDonough, Smith, Okoroafor, Jordt

and Wenderoth (2014) noted in a study the effectiveness of active learning in chemistry

education: A meta-analysis that, that traditional lectures is not sufficient for promoting a deep

understanding of chemical concepts and principles. This is because lectures can be passive,

disengaging for students and can be difficult to follow, especially for students who are struggling

with the material.

Given the limitations of the traditional lecture-based approach in facilitating a deep

comprehension of chemistry concepts, it has become increasingly evident that there is a need for

alternative and active teaching methods in chemistry education. According to Freeman, Haak,

and Wenderoth (2014), active learning methods have emerged as more effective tools for

enhancing students' motivation and their grasp of the subject matter. These active learning

strategies provide opportunities for students to apply theoretical concepts to real-world scenarios,
while also fostering collaboration and communication – crucial skills for success in the

workforce. Examples of such methods include problem-based learning and collaborative learning

strategies, which place a strong emphasis on collaboration, problem-solving and inquiry-based

learning.

Problem-based learning strategy is an approach to learning that emphasizes the process of

problem-solving, rather than the mere acquisition of information. It is a student-centered

approach that centers on engaging students in solving real-world problems through research,

experimentation, and critical thinking. In problem-based learning, students work collaboratively

in small groups or individually to identify and solve real-world problems, often with guidance

from a facilitator. According to Hmelo-Silver (2014), Problem-based learning is a student-

centered approach to learning that emphasizes active, self-directed inquiry and problem-solving.

In this approach, students are presented with a complex, ill-structured problem that requires them

to identify what they need to know, and then engage in a process of inquiry and discovery to

develop a solution.

Problem-based learning has been shown to be an effective strategy in a variety of

subjects, including Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) fields, and

involves presenting students with real-world problems to solve through research,

experimentation, critical thinking, student engagement and motivation leading to better academic

outcomes. A study by Çakır and Talan (2023) investigated the effectiveness of problem-based

learning on the conceptual understanding of enthalpy changes in systems among 11 th grade

students. The results revealed that problem-based learning is an effective way to improve student

understanding of enthalpy changes in systems and in chemistry at large. This compelling

evidence supports the notion that problem-based learning is one of the effective instructional
strategies that can profoundly enhance student learning outcomes and foster deeper

comprehension of complex scientific concepts.

Collaborative learning (CL) is another alternative instructional strategy that emphasizes

the importance of working in groups to promote social interaction and the sharing of ideas. It

involves students working together on tasks, sharing ideas, and providing feedback to each other.

Johnson (2020) defines collaborative learning as an approach in which learners work together in

groups, sharing ideas and knowledge, and building a collective understanding of a concept or

problem. Collaborative learning approach emphasizes social interaction and cooperation among

learners, promoting critical thinking, creativity, and problem-solving skills.

Collaborative learning has been shown to be an effective instructional strategy in

promoting critical thinking, problem-solving, and collaboration among students. In a study by

Obeidat (2020) on the impact of collaborative learning on students' critical thinking and

academic performance in a higher education setting. The findings indicate that collaborative

learning is not only beneficial in promoting critical thinking but also contributes to a noteworthy

improvement in students' academic performance. This study not only affirms the positive effects

of collaborative learning on critical thinking and academic achievements but also emphasizes its

transformative role as an instructional strategy that positively impacts students' learning

In recent years, both problem-based learning and Collaborative learning strategies have

gained popularity as effective alternatives to traditional instruction in chemistry education. A

study by Feng, Liu and Liu (2020) on the comparative effect of problem-solving learning and

traditional instruction in promoting students' problem-solving skills and motivation in organic

chemistry found that Problem-solving learning was more effective than traditional instruction in

promoting students' problem-solving skills and achievement-motivation in organic chemistry.

Similarly, a study by Zhang, Guo and Zhao (2021) on collaborative learning and traditional

instruction in promoting students' acquisition of laboratory skills and enhancing their learning

experience in analytical chemistry found that collaborative learning was more effective than

traditional instruction in promoting students' acquisition of laboratory skills and enhancing their

learning experience in analytical chemistry. These studies suggest that problem-based learning

and collaborative learning can be effective instructional strategies in enhancing students’

achievement-motivation and the acquisition of practical skills in the context of chemistry.

Achievement-motivation refers to the psychological drive or desire individuals have to

excel, accomplish goals, and strive for success in academic or work-related tasks. It is the

intrinsic drive and desire individuals possess to strive for success, set and pursue goals, and excel

in all endeavors. This persistent pursuit of excellence, sense of personal accomplishment, and

willingness to invest effort and overcome challenges characterizes achievement-motivation

(Dweck, 2016; Wigfield & Eccles, 2020). This intrinsic motivation is fueled by the individual's

internal aspirations and desire for competence and mastery in a chosen domain. In the field of

chemistry, achievement-motivation plays a significant role in shaping students' engagement,

persistence, and success in their study of the subject. The desire to excel and achieve in

chemistry can fuel students' intrinsic motivation to explore the complexities of the discipline and

develop a deep understanding of chemistry principles and concepts. A study by Smith, Jones and

Matthews (2022) investigated the relationship between achievement-motivation and academic

performance in chemistry. The findings revealed that students who exhibited higher levels of

achievement-motivation demonstrated greater effort, perseverance, and overall academic success

in chemistry courses. Moreover, the pursuit of achievement in chemistry is closely tied to

students' goals and aspirations within the field.

 Acquisition of practical skills is also an essential competency greatly influenced by

instructional strategy. Acquisition of practical skills refers to the process of gaining and

developing hands-on abilities, techniques, and proficiencies necessary to perform specific tasks

or activities effectively. In the context of chemistry, acquisition of practical skills involves

translating theoretical knowledge into practical application, honing practical abilities through

practice and experience, and building a repertoire of skills relevant to chemistry-related tasks.

Llewellyn & Lee (2021) defines acquisition of practical skills in chemistry as an activity that

involves the development of knowledge and understanding of laboratory procedures and

techniques, the ability to perform experiments safely and effectively, and the capacity to analyze

and interpret experimental data.

Studies has shown that acquisition of practical skills in chemistry depends on

instructional strategies. In a study conducted by Gök and Özmen (2023), the comparative

effectiveness of problem-based learning, collaborative learning, and the lecture method in

enhancing the acquisition of practical skills in a chemistry laboratory setting was investigated.

The results revealed that both problem-based learning and collaborative learning emerged as

highly effective strategies for fostering the acquisition of practical skills. These approaches

encourage active exploration, problem-solving, and experimentation within the chemistry

laboratory environment. Conversely, the lecture method demonstrated comparatively lower

effectiveness in promoting practical skill acquisition. These findings strongly emphasize the

importance of selecting appropriate instructional strategies that facilitate active student

engagement. Implementing strategies such as problem-based learning and collaborative learning

can significantly contribute to the enhancement of practical skill acquisition in the field of

chemistry.
 However, despite the growing popularity of problem-based learning and collaborative

learning in chemistry, there is still a lack of consensus on which instructional strategy is more

effective. Some studies have found that problem-based learning is more effective than

collaborative learning while others have found the opposite. These conflicting findings highlight

the need for further research to compare the effectiveness of problem-based learning and

collaborative learning instructional strategies in promoting students' achievement-motivation and

acquisition of practical skills in chemistry. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to compare the

effects of problem-based learning and collaborative learning instructional strategies on students'

achievement-motivation and acquisition of practical skills in chemistry. Additionally, this

research aims to investigate how the comparative effects of these instructional strategies on

students' achievement-motivation and acquisition of practical skills may vary based on their

gender.

Gender refers to the socially and culturally constructed roles, behaviors, activities,

expectations, and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women.

Unlike biological sex, which is based on physical and physiological characteristics such as

reproductive organs and chromosomes, gender is a complex and multifaceted concept shaped by

cultural, historical, and societal factors. Prior research has indicated that gender differences exist

in academic motivation and performance across various subjects, including science and

technology fields (Hyde, 2014). By incorporating gender as a variable in this study, the research

seeks to explore whether the effects of problem-based learning and collaborative learning on

achievement-motivation and acquisition of practical skills in chemistry differ for male and

female students.
 Understanding the potential moderating influence of gender on the effectiveness of

instructional strategies is crucial for promoting equitable and inclusive education. By comparing

the effects of these instructional strategies, while considering the moderating role of gender, this

study will provide a comprehensive understanding of how instructional strategies can be

optimized to meet the diverse needs and experiences of students in chemistry. Ultimately, this

study will contribute to the growing body of literature on effective instructional strategies in

chemistry and help to inform instructional practice in the field.

Statement of Problem

The significance of chemistry in science cannot be overstated, as it serves as a

fundamental discipline upon which numerous scientific and technological advancements rely.

The importance of chemistry is not only evident in its central role in understanding the physical

and chemical properties of matter but also in its practical applications across various fields. Its

significance extends to various aspects of the nation's growth, prosperity, and well-being.

Despite its pivotal role in advancing scientific knowledge, innovation, and economic

development, there is a concerning issue that needs to be addressed – the consistently poor or

low performance of secondary school students in chemistry. This has reflected in the students’

performance in internal and some external examinations over the years.

Reports indicate a declining trend in the percentage of students achieving at least a C6

grade in Chemistry from 2019 to 2021. According to the West African Examination Council

(WAEC) Chief Examiner’s report, the percentage of candidates obtaining at least a C6 grade in

Chemistry has remained below 48.96%. This figure is notably below the average which is 50%

deemed necessary for pursuing further studies in any science-related career. The Chief

Examiner's detailed analysis sheds light on several issues contributing to this decline. These
include students' inadequate grasp of basic concepts, a weak application of theoretical

knowledge, challenges in identifying colors in practical experiments, incorrect application of

units, and an inability to identify cations and anions in qualitative analysis.

The NABTEB chief examiner's report from 2018 to 2021 also identifies students’

weaknesses leading to poor performance in the examination, including poor knowledge of

practical work, incorrect balancing equations, poor drawing skills, lack of mathematical skills

and inability to draw correct inferences from practical observations. The chief examiner

recommends a greater focus on practical laboratory work and the use of active instructional

strategies.

Factors contributing to this trend of low student performance may include ineffective

teaching methods, insufficient student revision, inadequate learning environments, and a lack of

motivation for the subject. To address this challenge effectively, it is crucial to adopt active,

student-cantered instructional strategies that promote problem-solving and collaboration.

Previous research has shown that of problem-based learning and collaborative learning

instructional strategies have been effective in promoting student learning outcomes in various

fields, including Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) fields. However,

there is limited research on the comparative effectiveness of these two strategies in promoting

students' achievement-motivation and acquisition of practical skills in chemistry. Therefore, the

purpose of this study is to compare the effects of problem-based and collaborative learning

instructional strategies on students' achievement-motivation and acquisition of practical skills in

chemistry.

By comparing the effects of problem-based learning and Collaborative learning on

students' achievement-motivation and practical skill acquisition, this study will provide insights
into which instructional strategy is more effective for promoting students' achievement-

motivation and practical skill acquisition in chemistry. Ultimately, the results of this study could

help to improve the quality of chemistry education and contribute to the development of a more

skilled and competent workforce in the field of chemistry.

Purpose of Study

The purpose of this study is to determine the relative effects of problem-based learning

and collaborative learning instructional strategies on students' achievement-motivation and

acquisition of practical skills in chemistry. The study aims to determine which of these two

strategies is more effective in promoting student learning outcomes in chemistry. The study will

specifically seek to:

1. determine the effect of problem-based learning and collaborative learning instructional

strategies on students' achievement-motivation in chemistry.

2. determine the effect of problem-based learning and collaborative learning instructional

strategies on students' acquisition of practical skills in chemistry.

3. investigate the influence of gender on students’ achievement-motivation in chemistry.

4. investigate the influence of gender on students' acquisition of practical skills in chemistry.

5. determine the interaction effect of treatment and gender on students’ achievement-

motivation in chemistry.

6. determine the interaction effect of treatment and gender on students’ acquisition of

practical skills in chemistry

Research Questions

The following research questions will guide the study:

1. What are the achievement-motivation mean scores of students taught chemistry using

problem-based learning and those taught using collaborative learning instructional

strategies?

2. What are the practical skill acquisition mean scores of students taught chemistry using

problem-based learning and those taught using collaborative learning instructional

strategies?

3. What is the mean achievement-motivation scores of male and female students in

chemistry?

4. What is the mean practical skill acquisition scores of male and female students in

chemistry?

5. What is the interaction effect of treatment and gender on students’ achievement-

motivation in chemistry?

6. What is the interaction effect of treatment and gender on students’ acquisition of practical

skills in chemistry?

Hypothesis of Study

The following null hypotheses were formulated for this study to determine the effects of

problem-based learning and collaborative learning instructional strategies on students'

achievement-motivation and acquisition of practical skills in chemistry, with a significance level

of 0.05.
 H01: There is no significant difference in the mean achievement-motivation scores of

students taught chemistry using problem-based learning and those taught chemistry using

collaborative learning instructional strategies.

H02: There is no significant difference in the mean practical skills acquisition scores of

students taught chemistry using problem-based learning and those taught chemistry using

collaborative learning instructional strategies.

H03: There is no significant difference in the mean achievement-motivation scores of male

and female students in chemistry.

H04: There is no significant difference in the mean practical skills acquisition scores of

male and female students in chemistry.

H05: The interaction effect of treatment and gender on students’ achievement-motivation

in chemistry is not significant

H06: The interaction effect of treatment and gender on students’ acquisition of practical

skills in chemistry is not significant

Significance Of Study

The study holds both theoretical and practical significance. Theoretically, it draws from

well-established educational and psychological theories, including Self-Determination Theory by

Ryan and Deci (2000), Cognitive Development Theory by Jean Piaget (1957), and The Social

Cognitive Theory by Albert Bandura (1986).

Self-Determination Theory, developed by Ryan and Deci in 2000, posits that individuals

have innate psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. When these needs

are met, individuals are more intrinsically motivated. In the context of this study, it has

theoretical implications. Specifically, it sheds light on how problem-based learning and

collaborative learning affect students' autonomy and competence, which are key components of

Self-Determination Theory. This understanding is essential for comprehending how these

instructional strategies impact students' intrinsic motivation to learn chemistry. Furthermore, it

explores the influence of collaborative learning on students' sense of relatedness to peers and

instructors.

Cognitive Development Theory, put forth by Jean Piaget in 1957, emphasizes the stages

of intellectual development and active learning. The study's theoretical significance concerning

Piaget's theory includes exploring how problem-based and collaborative learning provide

scaffolding for students' cognitive development and how each strategy promotes the assimilation

of chemical knowledge. It also delves into how these methods create cognitive challenges for

students, driving cognitive growth. Comparing these effects provides insights into which strategy

is more effective for cognitive development in chemistry education.

The Social Cognitive Theory by Albert Bandura (1986) focuses on social interactions,

observational learning, and self-regulation. This study assesses how students' observational

learning is influenced by problem-based learning and collaborative learning and examines their

self-efficacy regarding chemistry skills, which influences motivation and skill acquisition.

This comparative study on the effects of problem-based learning and collaborative learning in

chemistry is theoretically significant, deepening the understanding of how these strategies align

with established educational and psychological theories.

Practically, the study can inform and improve educational practices, curricular

development, and instructional strategies in chemistry education. Understanding which strategy

is more effective for improving students' achievement motivation and practical skill acquisition
can guide educators and institutions in selecting the most suitable approach for specific teaching

goals. This knowledge can lead to improved learning outcomes for students.

The findings can also inform the design and revision of chemistry curricula, making them

more engaging and effective. Instructors can tailor teaching methods to individual students'

needs, allowing for more personalized and effective teaching. The practical implications are

significant for enhancing students' achievement-motivation and practical skill in chemistry.

The study can also benefit the professional development of chemistry educators, guiding

teacher training programs to equip instructors with the necessary skills to implement the most

effective instructional strategy.

Generally, the practical significance of this study in chemistry is extensive, impacting

instructional practices, curriculum design, motivation, skill development, resource allocation,

and the overall educational and career success of students in the field of chemistry.

Scope of the study

This research will investigate the comparative effects of two instructional strategies,

problem-based Learning (PBL) and collaborative learning (CL), on students' achievement-

motivation and the acquisition of practical skills in chemistry. The study will be conducted with

senior secondary school 2 (SSS2) chemistry students, focusing on practical topics that are part of

the SSS2 chemistry curriculum. The research will employ both quantitative and qualitative

analyses to assess the impact of these instructional strategies. The geographical scope of the

study is limited to Pankshin Education Zone of Plateau State, while the findings may have

broader implications for regions with similar educational contexts and curricula.