MODULE 9 - Motivational Systems and Emotion

1/25/2021 MODULE 9 - Motivational Systems and Emotion
MODULE 9 - Motivational Systems and Emotion
Site: New Era University Printed by: Art Adiel T. Balajadia

Course: PSY213-18/PSYCH 11-17 - Biological/Physiological Psychology Date: Monday, 25 January 2021, 8:22 AM
Book: MODULE 9 - Motivational Systems and Emotion
https://college.neu.edu.ph/mod/book/tool/print/index.php?id=74826 1/21
Description
Lesson 1: Title
Table of contents
1. Introduction/Overview
2. Learning Outcomes
3. Contents
4. Emotion
4.1. Contributions of Biology and Learning to Emotional Expression
4.2. Nervous System Structures Involved in Emotion
4.3. Theories of Emotion
4.4. Roles of Genetics, Brain Damage, and Biochemistry in Aggression
4.5. Roles of Neurotransmitters in Motivation, Reinforcement and Adaptive Motor Responses
1. Introduction/Overview
One of the features of behavior is that it is goal-directed. Humans work overtime to buy their dream house or car, or get up early to go to the gym,
put their their health and happiness in jeopardy to get drugs. The study of motivation intends to explain why such behaviors occur. The term motivation
was first popularized in the early twentieth century. Scholars have consistently described both activation and direction as the key components of motivated
states (Binda, 1969; Lashley, 1938; Woodworth, 1918). This suggests that in order to understand the antecedent conditions that elicit behavior, one must
be able to explain how behavior is stimulated or initiated (i.e., activation) and the reason behavior takes one particular form over another (i.e., direction).
The difficulty inherent in the study of such questions is obvious: Hunger and craving are internal states and thus are not directly observable or
measurable. Early in the twentieth century, when psychology was struggling to gain acceptance as a science, J.B. Watson (Watson, 1913, 1919) and later
B.F. Skinner (Skinner, 1950) convincingly argued that psychology must restrict itself to the study of observable, quantifiable phenomena in order to
survive. Skinner suggested that the science of behavior would exclude "anything of an observed fact which appeals to events taking place somewhere
else, at some other level of observation, described in different terms, and measured, if al all, in different dimensions" (1950, p. 193). In other words
anything which is not observable and within the mental or neurobiological should not be studied within psychology. This argument had a great effect on the
study of motivation. Although motivation is essentially an unobservable phenomenon, it can be studied in favor of more observable and describable
processes instead
According to Paul Gilbert, PhD, we have three types of emotion regulation systems – we’ve got the Threat System, the Drive System, and the
Soothing System.
Now when a client is stuck in a painful cycle of self-criticism and shame, it’s often because these three systems are out of balance. You see, many
clients spend the majority of their time caught in the threat and drive systems – and this can lead to distress.
2. Learning Outcomes
After reading this module, students should be able to:

1.) Describe the major features and purposes of emotion
2.)Summarize the contributions of biology and learning to emotional expression
3.) Identify the nervous system structures involved in emotion
4.) Identify areas of the brain involved with feelings, or reward and pleasure
5.) Explain the roles of genetics, brain damage, and biochemistry in aggression
6.) Explore the roles of major neurotransmitters in the neural basis of motivation, reinforcement and functions to elicit adaptive motor responses
3. Contents
It is another interesting topics to discuss that will aid the students to understand the different mechanisms underlying emotion and motivation which
may not be outwardly manifested at first but will be observable as the individual try to fulfill the needs or wants. The driving force may not be visible at once
but it becomes more interesting to determine why and the how of individual's behavior.
4. Emotion
Emotion
Emotion has two major components: 1) physical sensation such as a rapid heartbeat, and 2) a conscious, subjective experience or feeling, such as
feeling scared. Emotions typically demonstrate valence, or a generally positive or negative quality.
Expression and Recognition of Emotion
Humans express and interpret emotions accurately in one experiment, observers accurately judged whether or not a teacher liked an off-camera
student after watching only 10 seconds of a videotaped interaction (Babad, & Rosenthal, 1991). We might believe that we can hide our feelings, but the
subtleties of emotional expression often give us away.
We use our whole body to express emotion, but humans pay the most attention to the face, particularly to the eyes (Adolphs, 2007). Early in
development, infants prefer gazing at faces rather than at other types of visual stimuli. Movement of the human face is controlled by two cranial nerves, the
facial nerve (cranial nerve VII) and the trigeminal nerve (cranial nerve V). The facial nerve controls the superficial muscles attached to the skin, which are
primarily responsible for facial expressions. The trigeminal nerve controls the deeper facial muscles attached to facial expressions. The trigeminal nerve
controls the deeper facial muscles attached to the bones of the head that are responsible for chewing food and speaking.
The facial nerve has five major branches, with each branch serving a different portion of the face. As shown here, the facial nerves originate in the
two facial nuclei located on either side of the midline in the pons. These nuclei do not communicate directly with each other. This organization makes it
possible for emotional expression to vary in intensity from one half of the face to the other. The facial nuclei receive input from the primary motor cortex
located in the precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe as well as from several subcortical motor areas. The upper third of the face is controlled differently than
the lower two thirds (Koff, Borod, & Strauss, 1985; Rinn, 1984). The upper third of the face receives input from both the ipsilateral and contralateral facial
nerves, whereas the lower two thirds of the face are controlled primarily by the contralateral facial nerve.
When a person suffers damage to the motor cortex of one hemisphere, there is relatively little impact on the muscle tone of the upper face, which
continues to receive ipsilateral input from the healthy hemisphere. But the contralateral lower face will be paralyzed and will appear to sag.
Two motor pathways control facial expressions (Morecraft, Louie, Herrick & Stilwell-Morecraft, 2001). One involves input from the motor cortex and
is primarily responsible for voluntary expression. The second is a subcortical system that is primarily responsible for spontaneous expression. We all know
that the smiles we make for our Identification Card (ID) pictures look different form the spontaneous smiles a photographer catches in a candid photo.
People with damage to the primary motor cortex, are unable to smile on command on the side of the mouth contralateral to their damage. But when they
hear a good joke, they can show some spontaneous smiling on the otherwise paralyzed side of the face. This condition is known as volitional (voluntary)
facial (paralysis) because the ability to express voluntary emotion is impaired. In contrast, people with Parkinson's disease, which involves subcortical
motor structures including the substantia nigra and basal ganglia lose the ability to smile spontaneously while retaining the ability to smile on command.
This condition is referred to as emotional facial paresis because the ability to express spontaneous emotions is impaired.
4.1. Contributions of Biology and Learning to Emotional Expression
Biological Correlates of Emotion
Emotional states are accompanied by complex, interacting physical responses that usually combine activation of the autonomic nervous system, the
amygdala, the cingulate cortex, and the cerebral cortex.
Let us now explore the biological components of emotion and remember the following key points:
The limbic system, autonomic nervous system, and reticular activating system all interact in the physiological processing of emotion.
The limbic system categorizes human emotional experiences as either pleasant or unpleasant mental states. Neurochemicals such as dopamine,
noradrenaline, and serotonin are important components of the limbic system.
The autonomic nervous system, together with the hypothalamus, regulates pulse, blood pressure, breathing, and arousal in response to emotional cues.
When activated, the sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for emergency actions by controlling the glands of the endocrine system.
Conversely, the parasympathetic nervous system functions when the body is relaxed or at rest and helps the body store energy for future use.
The reticular activating system is believed to first arouse the cortex and then maintain its wakefulness so that sensory information and emotion can be
interpreted more effectively.
4.2. Nervous System Structures Involved in Emotion
Emotions can be explained in biological and neurological terms. The limbic system, autonomic nervous system, and reticular activating system all
interact to assist the body in experiencing and processing emotions.
The limbic system is the area of the brain most heavily implicated in emotion and memory. Its structures include the hypothalamus, thalamus,
amygdala, and hippocampus. The hypothalamus plays a role in the activation of the sympathetic nervous system, which is a part of any emotional
reaction. The thalamus serves as a sensory relay center; its neurons project signals to both the amygdala and the higher cortical regions for further
processing. The amygdala plays a role in processing emotional information and sending that information on to cortical structures.
The hippocampus integrates emotional experience with cognition.
Other parts of the limbic system include the olfactory bulbs, anterior nuclei, fornix, column of fornix, mammillary body, septum pellucidum, habenular
commissure, cingulate gyrus, parahippocampal gyrus, limbic cortex, and limbic midbrain areas.
The processes of the limbic system control our physical and emotional responses to environmental stimuli. This system categorizes the experience
of an emotion as a pleasant or unpleasant mental state. Based on this categorization, neurochemicals such as dopamine, noradrenaline, and serotonin
increase or decrease, causing the brain’s activity level to fluctuate and resulting in changes in body movement, gestures, and poses.
The amygdala, located in the left and right temporal lobes of the brain, has received a great deal of attention from researchers investigating the
biological basis of emotions, particularly of fear and anxiety (Blackford & Pine, 2012; Goosens & Maren, 2002; Maren, Phan, & Liberzon, 2013). The
amygdala plays a decisive role in the emotional evaluation and recognition of situations as well as in the analysis of potential threats. It handles external
stimuli and induces vegetative reactions.
Two parts of the amygdala include the basolateral complex and the central nucleus. The basolateral complex has dense connections with a variety of
sensory areas of the brain. It plays a critical role in classical conditioning and in attaching emotional value to learning processes and memories.
The central nucleus plays a role in attention. It has connections with the hypothalamus and various areas of the brainstem and regulates the activity of the
autonomic nervous and endocrine systems (Pessoa, 2010).
Research suggests that the amygdala is involved in mood and anxiety disorders. Changes in amygdala structure and function have been found in
adolescents who either are at risk for or have been diagnosed with a mood or anxiety disorder (Miguel-Hidalgo, 2013; Qin et al., 2013). It has also been
suggested that functional differences in the amygdala could be used to differentiate individuals suffering from bipolar disorder from those suffering from
major depressive disorder (Fournier, Keener, Almeida, Kronhaus, & Phillips, 2013).
The hippocampus is also involved in emotional processing. As with the amygdala, research has demonstrated that hippocampal structure and
function are linked to a variety of mood and anxiety disorders. Individuals suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder ( PTSD ) show marked reductions
in volume in several parts of the hippocampus, which may be the result of decreased levels of neurogenesis and dendritic branching (the generation of
new neurons and the generation of new dendrites in existing neurons, respectively) (Wang et al., 2010). While it is impossible to determine causation,
studies have found improvements in behavior as well as increase in hippocampal volume following either pharmacological or cognitive behavioral
therapy in individuals suffering from PTSD (Bremner & Vermetten, 2004; Levy-Gigi, Szabó, Kelemen, & Kéri, 2013).
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is part of the peripheral nervous system in humans. It is regulated by the hypothalamus and controls our
internal organs and glands, including such processes as pulse, blood pressure, breathing, and arousal in response to emotional circumstances. The ANS
is generally thought to be outside of voluntary control.
The ANS can be further subdivided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. When activated, the sympathetic nervous
system (SNS) controls the endocrine glands to prepare the body for emergency action. SNS activation causes the adrenal glands to produce epinephrine
(also known as adrenaline), which results in the “fight-or-flight” response. The fight-or-flight response involves increased blood flow to the muscles,
increased heart rate, and other physiological responses that enable the body to move more quickly and feel less pain in situations perceived to be
dangerous.
Conversely, the parasympathetic nervous system (PN) functions when the body is relaxed or at rest; it helps the body store energy for future use.
Effects of PN activation include increased stomach activity and decreased blood flow to the muscles.
The parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions of the ANS have complementary functions, and they operate in tandem to maintain the body’s
equilibrium. Equilibrium of the body, in which biological conditions (such as body temperature) are maintained at optimal levels, is known as homeostasis.
The reticular activating system (RAS) is a network of neurons that runs through the core of the hindbrain and into the midbrain and forebrain. The
RAS is made up of the midbrain reticular formation, the mesencephalic nucleus (mesencephalon), the thalamic intralaminar nucleus (centromedian
nucleus), the dorsal hypothalamus, and the tegmentum. The RAS is involved with arousal and attention, sleep and wakefulness, and the control of
reflexes. The RAS is believed to first arouse the cortex and then maintain its wakefulness so that sensory information and emotion can be interpreted
more effectively. It helps us fulfill goals by directing our concentration toward them and plays a role in individuals’ responses to situations and events.
4.3. Theories of Emotion
Appraisal theory of emotion
According to appraisal theory, our interpretation of a situation causes an emotional response that is based on that interpretation.
The appraisal theory of emotion proposes that emotions are extracted from our “appraisals” (i.e., our evaluations, interpretations, and explanations) of
events. These appraisals lead to different specific reactions in different people.
Psychologist Magda Arnold made early advancements in appraisal theory, proposing that an initial appraisal begins the emotional sequence by arousing
both the appropriate physiological reactions and the emotional experience itself.
In 1991, psychologist Richard Lazarus built on appraisal theory to develop cognitive -mediational theory. This theory still asserts that our emotions are
determined by our appraisal of the stimulus, but it suggests that immediate, unconscious appraisals mediate between the stimulus and the emotional
response.
Lazarus also distinguished between primary appraisal, which seeks to establish the significance or meaning of an event, and secondary
appraisal, which assesses the ability of the individual to cope with the consequences of the event.
Researchers have developed several theories of how human emotions arise and are represented in the brain. The mechanisms behind our
experience of emotions and our cognitive processing of them remains a central topic of research and debate. The appraisal theory of emotion,
developed primarily through the work of prominent researchers Magda Arnold and Richard Lazarus, proposes that emotions are extracted from our
“appraisals” (i.e., our evaluations, interpretations, and explanations) of events. The central question that the appraisal theory seeks to answer
is why different people have different perceptions of and emotional reactions to the same situations.
For example, if a person goes on a romantic date and perceives this date as positive, they might feel happiness, joy, giddiness, excitement, or anticipation
because they have appraised this event as one that could have positive effects. On the other hand, if the date is perceived negatively, the person’s
resulting emotions might include dejection, sadness, emptiness, or fear (Scherer et al., 2001).
Magda Arnold (1903–2002) was an American psychologist who coined the term appraisal to refer to the cognitive processes preceding the elicitation
of emotion. She developed her “cognitive theory” in the 1960s, which specified that the first step in experiencing an emotion is an appraisal of the situation.
According to Arnold, an initial appraisal begins the emotional sequence by arousing both the appropriate physiological reactions and the emotional
experience itself. In this way, she identified physiological changes as important to the process but not as the initiator of people’s reactions and
experiences.
Psychologist Richard Lazarus (1991) adapted Arnold’s work slightly in the development of his cognitive-mediational theory, which asserts our
emotions are determined by our appraisals of stimuli. This appraisal mediates between the stimulus and the emotional response, and it is immediate and
often unconscious. In contrast to the Schachter–Singer theory of emotions, which views emotion as an outcome of the interaction between physiological
arousal and cognition, Lazarus argued that the appraisal precedes cognitive labeling, simultaneously stimulating both the physiological arousal and the
emotional experience itself.
Lazarus argued that the cognitive activity involved in interpreting emotional context could be conscious or unconscious and may or may not take
the form of conceptual processing. He stressed that the quality and intensity of emotions are controlled through cognitive processes, which mediate the
relationship between the person and the environment through coping strategies, which in turn are the basis of the emotional reaction.
In his research, Lazarus specified two major types of appraisal methods: 1) primary appraisal, which seeks to establish the significance or meaning of an
event, and 2) secondary appraisal, which assesses the ability of the individual to cope with the consequences of the event. In the specific context of
emotion and stress, Lazarus described primary appraisals as judgments about the degree of potential harm or threat to well-being that a stressor might
introduce. The perception of a threat then triggers the secondary appraisal—judgment of the options available to cope with the stressor—as well as
perceptions of how effective such options will be.
According to the James–Lange theory of emotion, emotions arise from physiological arousal.
The James–Lange theory of emotion asserts that emotions arise as a result of physiological arousal —i.e., that the self-perception of changes in the
body produces an emotional experience.
According to the James–Lange theory, we experience emotions (such as fear, sadness, and happiness) only after physiological arousal (such as the
fight-or-flight response) has occurred.
One limitation of the James–Lange theory is that it is not known exactly what causes the changes in the body, so it is unclear whether they should be
considered part of the emotion itself.
Critics of the James–Lange theory doubt that there is sufficient variation in physiological arousal to lead to the wide variety of emotions that we
experience.
Researchers have developed several theories of how human emotions arise and are represented in the brain. The James–Lange theory of
emotion, for instance, asserts that emotions arise from physiological arousal: in essence, that the self-perception of changes in the body produce
emotional experiences. According to this theory, we laugh (a physiological response to a stimulus), and consequently we feel happy (an emotion); we
cry, and consequently we feel sad. For example, if you were to encounter a venomous snake in your backyard, your sympathetic nervous system
(responsible for activating your fight-or-flight response) would initiate physiological arousal, making your heart race and increasing your breathing rate.
According to the James–Lange theory of emotion, you would experience a feeling of fear only after this physiological arousal had taken place. Different
arousal patterns would be associated with different feelings.
One limitation of this theory is that it is not known exactly what causes the changes in the body, so it is unclear whether those changes should be
considered part of the emotion itself. Critics of the James–Lange theory also doubt that there is sufficient variation in physiological arousal to lead to the
wide variety of emotions that we experience. To address these limitations, other theories—such as the Cannon–Bard theory—have been developed.
The Cannon–Bard theory of emotion argues that physiological arousal and emotional experience occur simultaneously but independently.
The Cannon–Bard theory of emotion was developed in response to the James-Lange theory, which proposes that emotions arise from physical arousal.
In contrast, the Cannon–Bard theory argues that physiological arousal and emotional experience occur simultaneously, yet independently.
According to the Cannon–Bard theory, when you see a venomous snake, you feel fear at exactly the same time that your autonomic nervous system
responds.
According to this theory, emotional expression results from activation of the subcortical centers of the brain.
Researchers have developed several theories of how human emotions arise and are represented in the brain. The Cannon–Bard theory of emotion
was developed by researchers who criticized the James–Lange theory for its limited ability to account for the wide variety of emotions experienced by
human beings. While the James–Lange theory proposes that emotions arise from physical arousal the Cannon–Bard theory argues that physiological
arousal and emotional experience occur simultaneously, yet independently (Lang, 1994).
This theory explains that when you see a venomous snake in your backyard, you feel fear at exactly the same time that your body initiates its
physiological fight-or-flight response. Even though they occur at the same time, your emotional reaction and your physiological reaction would be separate
and independent.
According to the Cannon–Bard theory, emotional expression results from activation of the subcortical centers of the brain. The optic thalamus, in
particular, is a region that contains the neural organizations for different emotional expressions. An individual’s sensory organs take in an emotional
stimulus, and then information about that stimulus is relayed to the cerebral cortex. It is in the cortex where such information is associated with conditioned
processes, which in turn determine the direction of the response and stimulate the thalamic processes.
The Schachter–Singer theory views emotion as the result of the interaction between two factors: physiological arousal and cognition.
According to the Schachter–Singer theory of emotion (also known as two-factor theory), emotions are the result of the interaction between two factors:
physiological arousal and cognition.
According to the Schacter–Singer theory, physiological arousal is cognitively interpreted based on environmental context; this process culminates in
emotional experience.
For example, if you were to see a venomous snake in your backyard, the Schachter–Singer theory argues that the snake would elicit a physiological
response that would be cognitively labeled as fear based on the context.
Researchers have developed several theories of how human emotions arise and are represented in the brain. Like the James–Lange and
Cannon–Bard theories, the Schachter–Singer theory of emotion (also known as the two-factor theory) attempts to explain emotion as it relates to
physiological arousal.
According to the Schacter–Singer theory, emotion results from the interaction between two factors: physiological arousal and cognition. More
specifically, this theory claims that physiological arousal is cognitively interpreted within the context of each situation, which ultimately produces the
emotional experience. These cognitive interpretations —how a person labels and understands what they are experiencing—are formed based on the
person’s past experiences.
For example, if you were to see a venomous snake in your backyard, the Schachter–Singer theory argues that the snake would elicit sympathetic
nervous system activation (physiological arousal) that would be cognitively labeled as fear (cognition) based on the context. What you would actually
experience, then, would be the feeling of fear.
In their research, Singer and Schachter injected participants with adrenaline (epinephrine), which causes a number of physiological effects, such as
increased blood flow to the muscles and increased heart rate. They found that injecting the drug did not lead participants to experience any given emotion.
Contrary to the James–Lange theory, therefore, which asserts that emotions arise from physiological arousal, this theory argues that bodily changes can
support conscious emotional experiences but do not necessarily cause them. Rather, the interpretation of a certain emotion depends on both the
individual’s physiological state as well as their circumstances, a relationship mediated by cognitive processing.
The facial feedback hypothesis asserts that facial expressions are capable of influencing our emotions.
According to the facial feedback hypothesis, facial expressions are not only the results of our emotions but are also capable of influencing our emotions.
In other words, the act of smiling can itself actually make you feel happier.
Research investigating the facial feedback hypothesis has found that suppressing facial expressions of emotion may decrease how intensely those
emotions are experienced.
Emotion is displayed not only through facial expression but also through tone of voice, behavior, and body language.
Children who have autism spectrum disorder have difficulty recognizing the emotional states of others. Research has shown that this may stem from an
inability to identify facial expressions and other nonverbal expressions of emotion.
Does smiling make you happy, or does being happy make you smile? The facial feedback hypothesis asserts facial expressions are not only the
results of our emotions but are also capable of influencing our emotions. In other words, the act of smiling can itself actually make you feel happier.
(Buck, 1980; Soussignan, 2001; Strack, Martin, & Stepper, 1988).
Research investigating the facial feedback hypothesis has found that suppressing facial expressions of emotion may decrease how intensely
those emotions are experienced (Davis, Senghas, & Ochsner, 2009).
Recently, the use of Botox to temporarily paralyze facial muscles has also provided strong experimental support for some kind of facial-feedback
mechanism involved in emotion. Havas, Glenberg, Gutowski, Lucarelli, and Davidson (2010) discovered that individuals with depression reported lessened
depressive symptoms after paralysis of their frowning muscles with Botox injections. Findings from this and other studies suggest that facial feedback
modulates the neural processing of emotional content.
In an attempt to objectively assess the facial feedback hypothesis, Strack, Martin, and Stepper (1988) devised an experiment that would hide their
true goals from the participants. Participants were simply told that they were taking part in a study to determine the difficulty of accomplishing certain tasks
for people who do not have the use of their hands or arms. To this end, participants held a pen in their mouth in one of three ways: the Lip position would
contract the orbicularis oris muscle, resulting in a frown; the Teeth position would contract the zygomaticus major or the risorius muscle, resulting in a
smile; and the control group would hold the pen in their non-dominant hand. All participants had to complete a questionnaire while holding the pen and rate
the difficulty of doing so. The last task, which was the experiment’s real object of interest, was for the participants to subjectively rate the the funniness of a
cartoon. As predicted, participants in the Teeth condition (who were, technically, smiling throughout the exercise) reported significantly higher amusement
ratings than those in the Lips condition. This outcome supported the facial feedback hypothesis.
4.4. Roles of Genetics, Brain Damage, and Biochemistry in Aggression
Roles of Genetics in Aggression
Genetic predisposition to aggression appears to be deeply affected by the polymorphic genetic variants of the serotoninergic system that influences
serotonin levels in the central and peripheral nervous system, biological effects of this hormone, and rate of serotonin production, synaptic release and
degradation.
But until recently, no genes had been shown to contribute to severe or recidivistic violent behaviors such as homicide. According to a meta-
analysis on data from 24 genetically informative studies, up to 50% of the total variance in aggressive behavior is explained by genetic influences (Dec
7, 2015).
The basic difference between men and women lies in their genotype. Most people have 23 pairs of chromosomes and on these chromosomes are
our genes. One pair of chromosomes decides whether we are male (XY) or female (XX). Early psychologists investigating aggression believed
the genetic cause of aggression could lie in the Y chromosome. They were particularly interested in examining individuals with a genotype of XYY.
These individuals were often referred to as ‘super males’ as they possessed two male Y chromosomes.
More recently psychological research has focused on examining individuals with the normal XY genotype. Psychologists have used selective
breeding in animals and have found that aggression is a trait that can be transmitted from parent to offspring, thus supporting the genetic explanation.
Research with human subjects has focused on twin studies that have looked at the incidence of aggression displayed by monozygotic (MZ or identical)
and by dizygotic (DZ or non-identical) twins. Differences in rates (concordance) of aggression between these sets of twins have indicated that aggression
has a genetic element.
Brain Damage with Emotional Consequences
Area of Brain Emotional Consequences

Damaged
Amygdala Difficulty perceiving negative emotions, particularly fear, expressed by

others
Frontal lobe Reduced fear and anxiety
Left cerebral hemisphere Depression
Right cerebral hemisphere Cheerful mood
4.5. Roles of Neurotransmitters in Motivation, Reinforcement and Adaptive Motor Responses
The neurotransmitter dopamine (DA) has a crucial role in motivational control – in learning what things in the world are good and bad, and in
choosing actions to gain the good things and avoid the bad things. The major sources of DA in the cerebral cortex and in most subcortical areas are the
DA-releasing neurons of the ventral midbrain, located in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) and ventral tegmental area (VTA) (Bjorklund and
Dunnett, 2007). These neurons transmit DA in two modes, ‘tonic’ and ‘phasic’ (Grace, 1991; Grace et al., 2007.
In their tonic mode DA neurons maintain a steady, baseline level of DA in downstream neural structures that is vital for enabling the normal functions
of neural circuits (Schultz, 2007). In their phasic mode DA neurons sharply increase or decrease their firing rates for 100–500 milliseconds, causing large
changes in DA concentrations in downstream structures lasting for several seconds (Schultz, 1998; Schultz, 2007).
With the advances in genetic testing in the last fifty years, specific genes have been identified which have been shown to carry the aggression trait
down to individuals. One such gene is the MAOA gene, and one variant has been named the ‘warrior gene’. The MAOA gene is responsible for the
production of the protein monoamine oxidase. This protein allows the metabolizing of noradrenaline, serotonin and dopamine. A dysfunction in this gene
can result in these neurotransmitters not being broken down in the body. If adrenaline isn’t metabolized, then we end up with too much adrenaline. This
can cause hypersensitivity in the fight or flight response and individuals may overreact to an external stimulus and perceive a threat where one does not
exist. Furthermore, if dopamine is not broken down, increased or excessive levels of dopamine are also linked to aggressive behavior. Serotonin has a
calming influence, and low levels have been implicated in a reduction of control over impulsive behavior.
The MAOA gene –located in the X chromosome- is also known as the warrior gene, since abnormal versions of the gene often result
in aggressive behaviors. Several animal models in which the function of MAO-A is defective display excessive levels of serotonin, dopamine, and
norepinephrine (noradrenaline) in the brain (Dec 7, 2015).
Genetic predisposition to aggression appears to be deeply affected by the polymorphic genetic variants of the serotoninergic system that
influences serotonin levels in the central and peripheral nervous system, biological effects of this hormone, and rate of serotonin production, synaptic
release and degradation.
Although much more research is needed, it appears that aggressive behavior, like most other behaviors, is affected by an interaction between
genetic and environmental variations.
Biochemistry and Aggression
Drug use particularly alcohol use, interacts with human aggression. Prison studies and police reports show that alcohol use is involved in 65% of
murders, 88% of knife attacks, 65% of spousal abuse incidents, and 55% of physical child abuse incidents (Steele & Josephs, 1990). Alcohol is also
associated with the majority of suicides. Alcohol contributes to violence by reducing the inhibition of aggression normally managed by the cingulate and
frontal cortices.
Testosterone might influence aggression by increasing reactivity to threatening stimuli. Women who were given testosterone showed stronger
subcortical reactions to images of angry faces (Hermans, Ramsey, & van Honk, 2008). Once again it showed that if subcortical reactions are strong
enough to overwhelm cortical inhibition, aggression is the likely outcome. Animal research has shown correlations between testosterone levels and
aggressive behavior.

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1/25/2021 MODULE 9 - Motivational Systems and Emotion

MODULE 9 - Motivational Systems and Emotion

Site: New Era University Printed by: Art Adiel T. Balajadia

After reading this module, students should be able to:

Expression and Recognition of Emotion

4.1. Contributions of Biology and Learning to Emotional Expression

Biological Correlates of Emotion

4.2. Nervous System Structures Involved in Emotion

4.3. Theories of Emotion

Appraisal theory of emotion

4.4. Roles of Genetics, Brain Damage, and Biochemistry in Aggression

Roles of Genetics in Aggression

Brain Damage with Emotional Consequences

Area of Brain Emotional Consequences

Amygdala Difficulty perceiving negative emotions, particularly fear, expressed by

Frontal lobe Reduced fear and anxiety

Left cerebral hemisphere Depression

Right cerebral hemisphere Cheerful mood

4.5. Roles of Neurotransmitters in Motivation, Reinforcement and Adaptive Motor Responses

Biochemistry and Aggression

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