MPSS 11

M.A.
, Political Science
First Year – 1st Semester
MPSS - 11
POLITICAL THEORY
SCHOOL OF POLITICS AND PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
TAMIL NADU OPEN UNIVERSITY

577, ANNA SALAI, SAIDAPET, CHENNAI - 15
JANUARY 2022
Name of Programme: MA Political Science
Name of the Course Code with MPSS – 11 POLITICAL THEORY

Title:
Curriculum Design : Dr. R. Arumugam Assistant Professor,

SOPPA
Course Writer: Dr. J. Prabhakaran
Content Editor : Dr. J. Prabhakaran
Course Coordinator Dr. R. Arumugam
Translator -
January 2022 (First Edition)
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MPSS – 11 – POLITICAL THEORY
Syllabus
BLOCK I - INTRODUCTION
Unit -1 Meaning, Nature and Scope of Political theory - Relationship
with Allied Disciplines
Unit -2 Approaches to the Study of Political Theory: Historical -
Normative and Empirical study
Unit -3 Key Concepts: State – Society – Sovereignty – Power -
Citizenship - Nation and Nationality - Global Order
BLOCK II - ORGANISATION AND FUNCTIONS OF STATE
Unit -4 Origin of the State - Essential Elements of the State -
Functions of the State
Unit -5 Separation of Powers
Unit -6 Constitution
BLOCK III - THEORIES OF STATE
Unit -7 Theories of State: Divine Theory - Force Theory
Unit -8 Patriarchal and Matriarchal Theory
Unit -9 Social Contract Theory
Unit -10 Evolutionary Theory
BLOCK IV - POLITICAL IDEAS
Unit -11 Rights
Unit -12 Liberty
Unit -13 Equality
Unit -14 Justice - Rule of Law - Civil Society - Revolution - Democratic
Participation
Unit -15 Political Obligation
BLOCK V - POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES
Unit -16 Liberalism and Neo-Liberalism
Unit -17 Marxism
Unit -18 Socialism
Unit -19 Fascism
Unit -20 Gandhism
References:
1. Appadorai, A. The substance of Politics, London: Oxford University
Press, 1968.
2. Gettell, Raymond Garfield, Political Science, Calcutta.
3. Gilchrist, R.N. Principles of Political Science, Bombay: Orient Longman,
1952 (Seventh Edition).
4. Agarwal, R.C. Political Theory, New Delhi S.Chand. Co. 2008.
5. Eddy Asirwatham, Political Theory, New Delhi. 2007
MPSS – 11 – POLITICAL THEORY
Scheme of Lesson
Block I Introduction 1
Unit-1 Meaning, Nature and Scope of Political theory - 2 – 11
Relationship with Allied Disciplines
Unit-2 Approaches to the Study of Political Theory: 12 – 20
Historical - Normative and Empirical study
Unit-3 Key Concepts: State – Society – Sovereignty – 21 – 40
Power - Citizenship - Nation and Nationality -
Global Order
Block II Organisation and Functions of state 41
Unit-4 Origin of the State - Essential Elements of the 42 – 48
State - Functions of the State
Unit-5 Separation of Powers 49 – 57
Unit-6 Constitution 58 – 67
Block III Theories of State 68
Unit-7 Theories of State: Divine Theory - Force Theory 69 – 75
Unit-8 Patriarchal and Matriarchal Theory 76 – 81
Unit-9 Social Contract Theory 82 – 89
Unit-10 Evolutionary Theory 90 – 95
Block IV Political Ideas 96
Unit-11 Rights 97 – 105
Unit-12 Liberty 106 – 112
Unit-13 Equality 113 – 116
Unit-14 Justice - Rule of Law - Civil Society – Revolution 117 – 130
- Democratic Participation
Unit-15 Political Obligation 131 – 135
Block V Political Ideologies 136
Unit-16 Liberalism and Neo-Liberalism 137 - 150
Unit-17 Marxism 151 – 159
Unit-18 Socialism 160 – 167
Unit-19 Fascism 168 – 177
Unit-20 Gandhism 178 – 186
Model Question Paper 187
Plagiarism Report 188
04.01.2022
My Dear Beloved Learners!

Vanakkam,
The Tamil Nadu Open University (TNOU) that is marching towards the motto
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At this momentous juncture, I wish you all bright and future endeavours.
With warm regards,
(K. PARTHASARATHY)
Block I
Introduction
Unit -1 Meaning, Nature and Scope of Political theory -

Relationship with Allied Disciplines
Unit -2 Approaches to the Study of Political Theory:

Historical - Normative and Empirical study
Unit -3 Key Concepts: State – Society – Sovereignty –

Power - Citizenship - Nation and Nationality - Global
Order
1
UNIT - 1
MEANING, NATURE AND SCOPE OF POLITICAL THEORY-

RELATIONSHIP WITH ALLIED DISCIPLINES
STRUCTURE
Overview
Learning Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Nature and Meaning
1.3 Definition of Political Science
1.4 Scope of political science
1.5 Political Theory relationship with allied Disciplines

1.5.1 Sociology
1.5.2 History
1.5.3 Economics
1.5.4 Philosophy
1.5.5 Psychology
1.5.6 Other Social Sciences

Let us Sum up
Check Your Progress
Glossary
Answers to check your Progress
Model Questions
Suggested readings
OVERVIEW
Political theory is the study of political ideas and values like

justice, power and democracy that we use to describe, understand and
assess political practices and institutions. This unit is about the
introduction of the political phenomena of the social system and it
reviews meaning, nature definitions and scope of the political science.
This introduction would express some ideas for new learners of this
discipline of the study and also enable them to understand the functions
of democracy in every human life.
2
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to

 Understand the importance of Political Science in social life.
 Learn the varied spheres and areas of Political Science.
 Explain the relationship of Political Science with other sciences.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
This Chapter would enable the students to understand the basic

structure about politics. The discipline of Political Science makes a
person understand, how some of the necessary functions of the society
are discharged and how people govern and are governed in this social
structure. The human societal structure is an intricate structure. For the
survival and conservation of the human fraternity, individuals need to be
conscious of the society‟s basic components for its operation. Even
though the subject has been debated by various scholars from the
prehistoric times, the history of Political Science as an educational
subject is not very ancient. In this chapter review of the growth and
development of Political Science and its relationship with other social
sciences have been discussed.
1.2 NATURE AND MEANING
The term Political Science or Politics is derived from the Greek
word ‘polis’ which means the city states or the State. Hence, Political
Science deals with the problems of the city or the State in which many
live. But, in the recent times Political Science has ceased to be merely a
science of state craft and eloquence. The scope of the subject has
become, so wide that, it has become difficult to define Politics.
1.3 DEFINITION OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
Many books have been written on political science by eminent

writers and different definitions have been given. The Oxford English
Dictionary, defined it as, the science and art of government and the
science dealing with the form of organisation and administration of a
state, or part of one with the regulation of its relation with another state.
Hence, the old definitions of Political Science cannot suit the mid-
twentieth century version of Political Science. We may further examine
some other definitions of Political Science given to us by eminent
Political Scientists.
Gettell: Political Science deals with the association of human beings
that form political units with the organisation of their governments and
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with the activities of these governments in making and administering law
in carrying on inter-state relations.
Bluntschli: Political Science is the science which is concerned with the
State which endeavours to understand and comprehend the State, in its
fundamental conditions, in its essential nature, its various forms of
manifestation and its development.
Seeley: Political Science investigates the phenomena of Government as
the Political Economy deals with wealth, Biology with life, Algebra with
numbers and Geometry with space and magnitude.
Paul Janet: Political Science is that part of social science which treats
the foundations of the State and the principles of the government.
Laski: The study of Politics concerns itself with the life of man in relation
to the organised States.
Lass well and Kaplan: Political Science is the study of shaping and
sharing of power. The study of politics is the study of influence and the
influential. The science of politics states the conditions; the philosophy of
polities justifies the in preferences.
Hence, according to Gettell Political Science may also be defined as a
historical investigation of what the State has been an analytical study of
what the State is and politico-ethical speculations of what the State
ought to be.
1.4 SCOPE OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
Political Science is a very wide and comprehensive subject.
There is no agreement among the political scientists as regards the
scope of Political Science. A conference of political scientists, held under
the auspices of the International Political Science Association in Paris in
the year 1948, demarcated the scope of Political Science into four zones
namely Political Theory, Political Institution, Political Dynamics, Parties
Public opinion. and International Relations. As the importance of Political
Science is increasing day by day its scope is also increasing and
becoming wide as follows:
State and Government: Political Science primarily studies the problems
of the State and the Government. The State is defined as a group of
people organised for law within a definite territory. Government is an
agent of the State. Political Science studies the activities of the State
and explains the aims and objectives of the State and the Government.
4
Political Theory: Political theory is a major branch of Political Science.
On the basis of the political ideas or thoughts of political thinkers political
theory formulates definitions of the concepts like democracy, liberty, and
Equality on the grounds of the political obligations. Political theory
explains the rudimentary concepts of Political Science. Political
speculations of the political philosophers and some ideologies such as
individualism anarchism and communism and so on are put together in
one volume which is given the title of political theory. Here the
underlying assumption is that the other parts of political science on the
governmental organisation, political parties and pressure groups,
international relations, etc. are distinct from political theory.
Political Institutions: It deals with the nature of the different political
institutions including the government and explains their merits and
demerits, their structure and working and arrives at different conclusions
on a comparative basis. Besides the study of public administration and
local government may be included in this area. In this connection Dr.
Garner has very aptly observed In organised a way to the some
fundamental problems of Political Science including an investigation of
the origin and the nature of the State an inquiry into nature history and
forms of political institutions and deduction there from so far as possible
of the laws of political growth and development. There are many types of
institutions in a society and the State as an institution that stands
supreme controls all of them. These institutions are useful to the nation
and along with the State.
Political Dynamics: It covers a wide range and includes the study of
political parties; public opinion pressure groups lobbies etc. A scientific
study on the working of these political dynamics helps to explain the
political behaviour of the individuals and the different groups. The study
in this field is often done in collaboration with other social sciences like
sociology anthropology and psychology. Human nature is not static but
dynamic. To understand the functioning of government, it is necessary
for political science to work outward from the nucleus of the study of
government and take into consideration social, psychological and
economic factors. The principles of governance have been changing
from time to time.
Adjustment of the Individual with the State: The Political Science
also includes a study of the nature of relationship between the individual
and the State. Man is the root of politics and the process of adjustment
of men with the society is an important aspect of Political Science. The
State guarantees certain rights and liberties to its citizens and at the
5
same time impose certain reasonable restrictions on them. How to
adjust or reconcile the authority of the State with liberty of individuals is a
difficult problem.
International Relations: International relations which have become
significant covers a wide range and include diplomacy international
politics international law and international organisations like the United
Nations. Human society today is viewed from a world perspective and
there is even talk about the establishment of a World Government in the
distant future. The scope of political science also includes a study of the
International Law. International Law is defined as a body of general
principles and specific rules which are ordinarily binding upon the
member States. The States are the subjects of International Law.
International Law has assumed greater importance in the recent times
with globalisation.
1.5 POLITICAL THEORY RELATIONSHIP WITH ALLIED
DISCIPLINES
Political Science is related to other social sciences. Man is a
social and political animal. His life has many aspects political social
religious economic and ethical. Many social sciences like Political
Science, Sociology, Economics, Philosophy and History etc., deal with
the different aspects of human life. There is a close relationship among
the social sciences. Man is a social being says Professor Bluntsehli and
his various social activities may be studied separately. His political life is
only one part of his total social life but as every human being lives within
a State, the science of the State is necessarily connected with the other
social sciences.
1.5.1 SOCIOLOGY
Sociology is a broad and comprehensive term it is a parent science of all

social sciences. It is defined as a science of the society viewed as an
aggregate of the individuals. The term Political Science is narrower than
sociology. Sociology denotes a study of the society in all its
manifestations whereas the Political Science is confined to mostly the
study of the State and Government. In other words while Sociology
deals with man in all his social relations; Political Science is concerned
with man in his political relation alone. Hence Political Science is
regarded as a branch of Sociology. Sociology is derived from Political
Science says Dr. Garner where the knowledge of the facts regarding the
organisation and activities of the State while Political Science derives in
large measure from Sociology, its knowledge of the origin of Political
Authority and the laws of social control.
6
Burns writes that, the most significant thing about Sociology and modern
political theory is that, most of the changes which have taken place in
the political theory in the last thirty years have been along the line of
development, suggested and marked out by Sociology. Thus, Sociology
derives from Political Science the facts about the organization and
functions of the State and Political Science derives from sociology the
knowledge of the origin of the State Government and laws which control
society. According to Dr. Garner the political scientist therefore ought to
be at the same time a sociologist and vice versa.
1.5.2 HISTORY
The relationship between Political Science and History is very close. The
two are complementary to each other. The intimacy between Political
Science and History is well brought out in the following couplet of
Seeley, an eminent English historian, “History without Political Science
has no fruit, and Political Science without History has no root”. The
affinity between History and Political Science is so close that Freeman
goes to the extent of saying that, “History is past politics and politics is
present history”. Willoughby writes, “History gives us the third dimension
of Political Science”.
History provides the necessary raw-materials for Political Science. In the
treatise of Political Science, Gilchrist says that we must trace the history
of various institutions not for the sake of history but to enable us to form
conclusions of our science. In History which not merely records the
events, but it analyses causes and points out tendencies. It overlaps
Political Science. Political Science however goes further. It uses
historical facts to discover general laws and principles it selects analyses
and systematic ally arranger the facts of history in order to extract the
permanent principles of political life. Political Science further is
teleological that is to say, it deals with the State, as it ought to be,
whereas History deals with what it has been.
The Political Scientists goes back to the past in order to explore the
future. Burns says that history something more than the luxury of a
scholar. It will be the inspiration of an honest politician, it will be a real
basis for criticism of the present and modification of the future. It will
then be recognised to be, what it really is the biography of ideals. With
its chronological treatment says Lipson, History offers to the student of
politics, a sense of growth and development and thus, affords insight
into the process of social change. Lord Acton has rightly observed that
the science of Politics is the one science that is deposited by the stream
of history like the grains of gold in the sands of a river.
7
Political Science stands midway and concludes. Lord Bryce says
between history and politics is between the past and present. It has
drawn its material from the one it has to apply it, to the other.
1.5.3 ECONOMICS
Political Science and Economics are both social sciences and hence,
they are closely connected. In the past, Economics which was regarded
as a branch of political science was called political economy. Today, the
two subjects have been separated and given different areas but the
areas are closely related. In the promotion of welfare both the subjects
go hand in hand. In a way, they can be regarded as the two sides of the
same coin. Both aim at the promotion of the social welfare of mankind.
But, their ways are different. While in politics the welfare of the citizen is
secured through good government and better administration in
economies it is secured through efficient production and equitable
distribution of wealth.
Besides all the economic activities are carried on within the State on the
conditions laid down by the State through laws. Political movements are
profoundly influenced by economic causes. Further political institutions
influence the economic life of man in a society. The type of economy
that a State adopts depends upon its political complexion. While
capitalism encourages private enterprises socialism insists on
nationalisation of all means of production. Thus, political set up and
economic life are inter-connected. That is why, it is often said that,
political democracy without economic democracy is meaningless.
1.5.4 PHILOSOPHY
Political Science is also related to Philosophy. Philosophy is defined as
the science of ethics or the science of moral order. It aims at achieving
some ideals. Political Science is not completely devoid of morality or
ideals. In Political Science there are certain ideals which the State and
the citizens should follow. Political philosophy deals with various ideals.
Plato the earliest writer on Political Science was also a great
philosopher. In his book, „The Republic‟ he visualised an ideal State. A
modern view is in favour of maintaining Science. Lord Acton a British
political philosopher rightly said, the great question is to discover not
what the government prescribed, but, what they ought to prescribe. In
the 20th century, Mahatma Gandhi made a lasting contribution by
combining politics with morality. Thus, Political Science and Philosophy
are interlinked. Philosophy is otherwise known as the science of ethics
or morals.
8
According to Professor Gilchrist, “the political ideals cannot be divorced
from ethical ideals”. We cannot conceive a perfect State where wrong
ethical principles prevail. The ethical and the political ideals in this,
coincide. Ethics help us realise more clearly than we do know what is
the nature and content of our moral consciousness. Political Science
also aims at making us good citizens. The close relationship between
Ethics and Political Science is well illustrated by the relation of law to
morality.
A critic observes that, With the close relation between Ethics and
Political, It is the job of civilisation and the conflict between private and
group interests customs that gave rise to individual morality or
consciousness on the one hand and public morality (or law) on the other.
Rights and wrongs with the social sanction became distinguished from
rights and obligations having political sanction behind them. Further
keeping in view this impact of ethical code on political morality,
Montesquieu observed, “If I know of an action which would be useful to
my country, but harmful to Europe or useful to Europe but harmful to the
human race I shall think it a crime”.
1.5.5 PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology is the science which deals with the behaviour of man.
Woodworth says psychology is the science of the activities of individuals
in relation to the environments. It is the science of social consciousness
and deals with the rational and irrational aspects of human life. As
Political Science deals with the political side of the human life it has to
be taken for granted that it is closely related to the Psychology which
deals with all the aspects of human behaviour. Psychology provides us
an insight into the practical behaviour of man.
Political interests and political parties, writes Gettell are to a great extent
psychological in nature and the traditions and ideals of a people are
potent forces in political life. Both, Political Science and Psychology
make attempts to study the human nature. Psychological methods are
often used in order to assess political phenomena. Study of the political
behaviour has become very popular in the modern times. A large
number of political scientists are now engaged to study the behaviour of
men and their surroundings. The study of Political Science without
understanding the way in which human beings behave as individuals
and as members of society is incomplete. A study of mob psychology of
the poor and the rich and the psychology of the ruler and the ruled helps
us to understand the political events. Thus, in modern times Political
Science and Psychology are coming close to each other.
9
1.5.6 OTHER SOCIAL SCIENCES
As time moves on, more and more subjects are closely connected with
Political Science. Anthropology for example which studies man seems to
be related to the study of political science? There are two main divisions
of anthropology namely physical and social. Physical anthropology
throws light on the conditions of primitive individuals and their
environment. It helps political science in studying the origin and
development of the various political institutions. Social or cultural
anthropology deals with the existence growth and interpretation of the
customs, traditions, superstitions and religious beliefs which also
interacting with the political factors in a society.
Political Science is also related to Geography which is defined as the
science of the earth's surface that forms the physical features, natural
and political divisions, climate production, population etc. The impact of
geographical conditions on the political institutions of a country has
always been emphasised by various political writers‟ right from Aristotle
to the present. It was Aristotle who first of all emphasised the impact of
the climate topography and insularity, and the character of the soil, the
presence or absence of mountains, Plains Rivers and outlets upon the
sea and on the political institution. Thus, Geography helps the students
of Political Science to know the influence of the environment on the
political institutions and the nature and character of the people.
Geopolitics has become a popular term in modern times which has
linked the study of politics with various geographical factors.
LET US SUM UP
This unit has summarized the concept of Political Science with
the systematic formats and also had to track the growth and
development of Political Science as a unique academic category. The
discipline inspired interest as political philosophy, in the classical period
and how in the subsequent period the subject emerged as a
methodological and scientific subject. The connectivity of Political
Science alone with other social sciences and also with other disciplinary
studies like psychology and others. As per the discussion of Political
Science as an Art or Science, it proved that political science is a study
and understanding of human function in this societal institution.
Moreover, we have also learnt that Political Science is inherently related
to the other social sciences. The subject Political Science assists us to
understand other social sciences in a much better way.
10
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Political Science is that part of social science which treats the

___________________________ of the State.
2. Psychology is the science which deals with the
_______________________ of man.
3. Philosophy is defined as the science of _____________ or the
science of moral order.
GLOSSARY
Polis : City State.
Politics : Power and inclusion.

Political Science : Study of Government and Political Process
Interdisciplinary approach : Involves the combination of two or more
academic discipline into related activities.
ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. State and Government.

2. Behaviour.
3. Ethics
MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Explain the scope of Political Science.

2. Define nature of Political Science.
3. Define the statement of Gettell in Political Science.
4. Define Psychology role in Political Science.

5. Explain Political Science and its relationship with the allied
disciplines.
SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Johari J.C, (2007), Contemporary Political Theory, Sterling

Publications: New Delhi.
2. Barker, E.(1951), Principles of social and political Theory, Oxford

University Press: London
3. Rout B C (1986), Political Theories: Concepts and Ideologies, S.
Chand Limited: New Delhi.
4. Amal Ray, Mohit Bhattacharya, (1989), Political Theory: Ideas and
Institutions, World Press: Calcutta.
11
UNIT - 2
APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF POLITICAL THEORY:

HISTORICAL - NORMATIVE AND EMPIRICAL STUDY
STRUCTURE
Overview
Learning Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Approaches to the study of Political Science
2.3 Historical Approach
2.4 Normative Approach
2.5 Empirical Approach
2.6 Intrinsic and instrumental value
Let us Sum Up
Check Your Progress
Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested readings
OVERVIEW
The study of political science and in the process of search for

political truth certain procedure must be followed. These procedures are
defined as approaches, methods, techniques and strategies. This unit
discusses the importance of Political Science in the universe of the
ecological system of human life. The approach of the study of Political
Science with different points it to be highlights and revives the new
things in the specific area the specific period and community to
understand the value of politics in development concern.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 Learn the Importance of Political Science relation with the different
approaches.
 Explain the Historical approaches to the study of political science.

 Analyse the different approach which enable the understanding of
the value of Political Science.
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2.1 INTRODUCTION
It is quite difficult to identify and categorise various conceptions

of political theory used by theorists. The difficulty emanates from a
tendency among the theorists to go for an exercise, in which they start
drawing on different conceptions and traditions. In the past, theorists
somewhat maintained, a purity of conception in theory building and
seldom out stepped the framework they had chosen. But, this does not
apply to the contemporary times which are a witness to a crop of the
theory which appears hybrid in nature. But, broadly speaking three
different conceptions emerge in the political theory on the basis of which
both the past and the present theories can be conceptualised, judged
and evaluated. They are Historical Normative and Empirical ions.
2.2 APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF POLITICAL SCIENCE
An Approach may be defined as said to be observing and then

explaining a particular phenomenon. It is the criteria for selecting the
problem, obtaining the data, and seeking answers to some questions.
The approaches to the study of political science are many. They may be
broadly divided into two classes:
a) Normative
b) Empirical
The Normative approaches are said to be value laden. The traditional
approaches to political science are normative i.e., they lean to the said
of „values‟. The traditional approaches are dominated by values and
goals. They are characterized by what „ought to be‟ rather than „what is‟.
2.3 HISTORICAL APPROACH
The term „historical approach‟ to politics may be used in two

meanings. Firstly, it may signify the course of action of reaching at the
laws governing politics through a study of historical occurrences that is
event of the earlier period, as illustrated by the theories advocated by
the philosophers like Hegel and Marx. Karl Popper (1902-94) an
Austrian thinker has depicted this perspective as “historicism”. It signifies
that the historical means are resolved by their innate requirements which
are beyond the control of human ingenuity. Popper has made a criticism
on historicism because it insists on discovering what is certain, and then
supports the totalitarian methods for its recognition, as Hegel and Marx
have done for the realization of their respective visions of future society.
13
In the subsequent place, historical approach stands for an
endeavour at understanding politics through a historical account of
political thought of the old times, as exemplified by George H. Sabine's
(A History of Political Theory 1937). Sabine is one of the main exponents
of the historical conception. Political theory becomes situation
dependent in which each historical situation sets a problem which in turn
is taken care of through solutions devised by the theory. This conception
of political theory is deferential to the tradition.
Cobban also believes that, the traditional mode in which a sense
of history is instilled to the full is the right way to consider the problems
of political theory. It is true that the past acts as a valuable guide in our
endeavour of theory building and teaches us not to be too sure of our
originality. It also hints that it is possible to think in ways other than those
which are fashionable and dominant besides shedding light on the
sources.
The historical understanding also sensitises us about the failings
of the past generations and ties them with the collective wisdom of the
present and promotes imaginativeness in us. The historical conception
also contributes significantly to our normative vision. The history of ideas
may tell us that our social and political universe is a product of things
whose root lies in the past. The novelty of the project called the political
theory is that each specific situation is unique riddled with new
challenges. Therefore the utility of this approach in political theory
beyond a certain level is doubtful as it is always wedded to outmoded
ideas from outmoded ages. The suggestive values of the ideas remain
but the theoretical function recedes considerably.
2.4 NORMATIVE APPROACH
The normative conception in political theory is known by different

names. Some people prefer to call it philosophical theory while others
refer to it as an ethical theory. The normative conception is based on the
belief that the world and its events can be interpreted in terms of logical
purpose and ends with the help of the theorist‟s intuition reasoning
insights and experiences. Normative political theory leans heavily
towards political philosophy because it derives its knowledge of the good
life from it and also uses it as a framework in its endeavour to create
absolute norms. In fact their tools of theorisation are borrowed from the
political philosophy and therefore they always seek to establish inter
relationships among the concepts and look for coherence in the
phenomena as well as in their theories, which are typical examples of a
philosophical outlook.
14
Leo Strauss has strongly advocated the case for normative
theory and has argued that political things by nature are subject to the
approval or disapproval and it is difficult to judge them in any other terms
except as good or bad and justice or injustice. But the problem with the
normative is that while professing values which they cherish they portray
them as universal and absolute. They do not realise that their urge to
create absolute standards for goodness is not without pitfalls.
The normative approach is identified with preferences and values, that is
individual and with social priorities. Choices, goalg, biases and interests
comprise the norms. The emphasis is on moral and rational premises.
The motivating concern is for what ought to be or what should be. For
instance if we come across the statement that only men of wisdom
should become rulers or that every citizen ought to assess the
capabilities of candidates before casting his or her vote the normative
concern is predominant. The normative approach is value laden that is
the values determines the perceptions analysis and prescription. Let us
take some more instances. In ancient Indian thought and Greek
philosophy the concern for the good life and quality of life is indicative of
the value laden normative objectives and essential for understanding
and evaluating the political phenomena and facts. The normative
approach is based on the view that values are inevitable processes
without taking into account the reality that human beings have choices.
The exponents of empirical theory criticises normative for:
a) Relativity of values
b) Cultural basis of ethics and norms
c) Ideological content in the enterprise and
d) Abstract and Utopian nature of the project. But, in the distant past
those who championed normative theory always tried to connect
their principles with the understanding of the reality of their times.
In recent times, again the old sensibility within the normative
theory has re-emerged and the passion for good life and good
society has been matched by methodological and empirical
astuteness. John Rawls‟ A Theory of Justice is a case in point
which attempts to anchor logical and moral political theory in
empirical findings. Rawls, with his imagination, creates an „original
position‟ to connect normative philosophical arguments with real
world concerns about distributive justice and the welfare state.
15
2.5 EMPIRICAL APPROACH
Political theory in the twentieth century is not normative but

another conception known as empirical political theory which derives
theories from empirical observations. Empirical political theory refuses to
accord the status of knowledge to those theories which indulge in value
judgements. Naturally normative political theory is debunked as a mere
statement of opinion and preferences. The drive for value free theory
started in order to make the field of political theory scientific and
objective and hence, a more reliable guide for action. This new
orientation came to be known as Positivism.
Under the spell of positivism, political theorists set out to attain
scientific knowledge about political phenomena based on the principle,
which could be empirically verified and proved. Thus, they attempted to
create a natural science of society and in this endeavour philosophy was
made a mere adjunct of science. This empirical project in political theory
was premised on the empiricist theory of knowledge which claims to
have the full blown criteria to test what constitutes as truth and
falsehood. The essence of this criterion is lodged in the experimentation
and the verification principle. This revolution reached a commanding
position within political theory in the 1950‟s and engulfed the entire field
of study and research by advocating new features.
They included
a) Encouragement to quantitative technique in analysis
b) Demolition of the normative framework and promotion of empirical
research which can be susceptible to statistical tests
c) Non-acceptance and rejection of the history of ideas
d) Focus on micro study as it was more amenable to empirical
treatment
e) Glorification of specialisation
f) Procurement of data from the behaviour of the individual and
g) Urge for value free research.

2.6 INTRINSIC AND INSTRUMENTAL VALUE
When something is desired, aimed at or commended purely for

its own sake, rather than to anything else, i.e., as an end (e.g., the truth,
the good, the beautiful), it represents an intrinsic value. On the other
hand, when something is commended because it serves to another end,
it represents an instrumental value.
16
Critics of the normative method disagree that the empirical method is
objective, while the normative method is subjective. T.D. Weldon, in his
Vocabulary of Politics (1953), maintained that a “political philosophy is
like a matter of caste; one can only state one's taste and go away. There
is no point in arguing this is a biased view”. Although there may be
multiple schools of thought supporting different interpretations of
freedom, equality, and justice, there is always a dialogue between these
schools. Those with different opinions can always gather to evolve or
enter some basic reasoning ideology, and they can prove or refute
various opinions through these ideologies. This is not a matter of
personal taste, which can be admitted but cannot be defended.
The expressions for or against any proposition assumed by the empirical
and normative methods are sometimes confusing. The distinction
between right and wrong can have multiple meanings in contexts such
as mathematical and moral issues. The empirical method is sometimes
understood to refer to true or false, correct, or incorrect classification as
unconditional classification, while the normative method regards them as
conditional. However, it is now generally accepted that even scientific
principles are mainly tentative. No one can claim to have found the
ultimate truth in the physical realm, let alone in the mental realm. The
scientific principles of nature and society can be considered valid until
they are falsified by some new discoveries. Especially in the political
field, we must act before reaching a very high level of scientific
legitimacy. As Robert Dahl put it in politics, “'refusing to decide' is simply
deciding to allow others to decide for you”.
Finally, the empirical method is still mainly descriptive, while the
normative method is mainly descriptive. Experience focuses on the eyes
to discover unchanging laws (for example: the law of universal
gravitation). Therefore, they are beyond human control; people can
discover and describe them. Normative methods deal with adaptive laws
and conditions that are primarily created or adopted by human
communities (for example, laws governing property and public order).
People can check how well they are morally correct or incorrect, and
then recommend the correct course.
By the way, in the normative method, the prescription can be before the
description. For example, the Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle
described their experiences before giving their respective solutions. In
contrast, in the empirical method, the description can be followed by a
prescription or appropriate advice to achieve some obvious goals, such
as economy and efficiency, or several precise goals, such as health and
17
sturdiness. In addition, empirical methods are of great help in studying
the basis of normative argumentation. For example, Aristotle imposed
stricter penalties on slaves who committed similar crimes than on free
men, on the grounds that slaves were less sensitive to punishment. The
empirical method has now undoubtedly established that men are
enthusiastic about punishment because of their status as free men or
slaves.
Proponents of empirical methods strongly criticize normative methods on
the grounds that there is no “scientifically effective or reliable method to
determine morally correct or incorrect. As Leo Strauss has emphatically
stated: "By teaching the equality of values, by denying that there are
things which are intrinsically high and others which are intrinsically low
as well as by denying that there is an essential difference between men
and brutes, it unwittingly contributes to the victory of the gutter”. The
state of estrangement between the empirical and normative perspectives
will be as severe as possible. There is an urgent need to build a bridge
between these two perspectives, useful not only to the sympathizers
involved, but also to human civilization.
Approaches
The Issue
Empirical Approach Normative Approach
Approach
Values (It ought to be

Chief Concern Facts (it is so.)
so.)
Focus of Inquiry Real Ideal
Designed to Discover Determine
Nature of Inquiry Scientific and Descriptive Critical and Prescriptive
Sense - experience and

Based on Speculation and logic
logic
Result of Inquiry Verifiable Debatable
Criteria of Validity True and False Right and Wrong
18
LET US SUM UP
Political theorists concentrate more on theoretical claims instead

of empirical claims about the nature of the politics. There are different
approaches which explain the political system which includes modern
and traditional approaches. In behaviour approach, scientific method is
emphasized because behaviours of several actors in political situation is
capable of scientific study. Normative approach is linked to philosophical
method because norms and values can be determined philosophically.
Another classification of political approach is empirical analysis of
political events. This unit is related to normative and empirical
approaches with the historical importance of Political Science. This
lesson reviewed how normative pay in the political phenomenon and
also experienced theory of empirical ideas support the society of the
systematise development.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Who described historical approach as „historicism‟?

a) Karl Popper b) Sabine c) Mill d) Locke
2. Empirical approach based an
a) Evidence based Approach b) Policy Analysis

c) Historical d) Environmental.
GLOSSARY
Normative : Behaviour deriving from standard norm.

Empirical approach : Seeks to discover and describe search.
Justice : Giving equal freedom and equal power to all.
Instrumental Values : The value of both physical objects and abstract

objects not ended in themselves.
1. Karl Popper
2. Evidence based approach
MODEL QUESTION
1. Describe the approaches in the study of Political Science.

2. Discuss the Empirical and Normative Approaches to the study of
Political Science.
19
SUGGESTED READINGS

University Press: London
20
UNIT - 3
KEY CONCEPTS: STATE – SOCIETY –

SOVEREIGNTY - POWER - CITIZENSHIP -
NATION AND NATIONALITY - GLOBAL ORDER
STRUCTURE
Overview
Learning Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 State
3.3 Definitions of State
3.4 Society
3.5 Sovereignty
3.5.1 Historical Development of Sovereignty
3.5.2 Types of Sovereignty
3.5.3 Austin Theory of Sovereignty
3.6 Power
3.6.1 Power View of Politics

3.6.2 Power and Politics
3.7 Citizenship
3.7.1 Legal and Moral Aspects of Citizenship

3.8 National and Nationality
3.9 Global Order
3.9.1 Impact of Global Order on Political and

Economic Development
Let us Sum up
Check your Progress

Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested readings
21
OVERVIEW
The concept of a nation-state is notoriously difficult to define.

A working and imprecise definition is a type of state that conjoins the
political entity of a state to the cultural entity of a nation, from which it
aims to derive its political legitimacy to rule and potentially its status as a
sovereign state. Sovereignty is a term referring to the independence and
autonomy of the modern nation-states. The state can be divided freely,
internally and externally, according to the type of democracy, the type of
ruler, and the political system. In this unit, we will discuss elaborately
about the different concepts of political theory. This unit is related to the
universal concepts and also serves an on a tool for good governance.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 Understand the concept of state and society.
 Know the various theories of sovereignty.
 Explain the importance of Nation, State and global value of order
on Political Science.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Through the introduction part of this unit it would emphasize the

importance of sovereign power for every citizen of the nation-state and
also the global perspective of the Political Science frame. We can
understand that democracy would follow such an ethical system of
administration and the political phase of the country.
3.2 STATE
The State is regarded as the central theme of Political Science. It

is the most universal and most powerful of all social institutions. There
are different opinions as to the connotation of the term "State". It has
been erroneously used as a synonym for "country", "nation", "society"
and "government". In ordinary language, the word "State" may mean
many things. It may mean "condition". But, in Political Science the term
"State" has a scientific and a definite meaning. In its scientific sense, it
means a collection of human beings occupying a definite territory under
an organised government and is subject to no outside control. There are
different views regarding the first emergence of the concept of the State.
The Greeks used the word "Polis" which corresponds mostly to the
English term "state". The Greeks used the word "Polis" for "City States".
The term was appropriate because at that time there were "city states" in
ancient Greece.
22
"Political Science" says Seeley was for the Greeks a largely municipal
science." The Romans used the term "Civets" which also means the
same thing. The Tetons‟ employed the term "status" which means
existence. The modern term "State" has been derived from the word
"status". It was Niccole Machiavelli (1469-1527) who first of all seems to
have used the term "State" (State) in Political Science. Thus, it becomes
very clear that the term "State" was not very popular until the sixteenth
century. The concept of modern state was not known to the people living
in a greater part of the Medieval Age. In the course of time the concept
became popular and acquired the neutral sense of authority, pure and
simple or constitution whatever its principles or direction.
3.3 DEFINITIONS OF STATE
Aristotle defined the State as "a union of families and villages
having for its end a perfect and self sufficing life by which we mean a
happy and honourable life."
Holland: "The State is a numerous assemblage of human beings
generally occupying a certain territory amongst whom the will of the
majority or class is made to prevail against any of their member who
oppose it."
Burgess defines the State as a "particular portion of mankind
viewed as an organised unit."
Bluntschli: "The State is a politically organised people of a
definite territory."
Woodrow Wilson: "The State is people organised for law within
a definite territory." Laski defined State as "a territorial society divided
into government and subjects claiming within its allotted physical area, a
supremacy over all other institutions."
The State is a natural a necessary and a universal institution. It is natural

because it is rooted in the reality of the nature of human beings. It is
necessary because it is continuing in existence for the sake of "good
life." Man needs the State to satisfy his diverse wants and to be what he
desires to be. Without the State he cannot develop his personality.
The State is also a universal institution. It has existed whenever and
wherever man has lived in an organised society. Stateless existence is
considered to be impossible. Hence, the State is said to be a universal
institution. The state has four essential elements or characteristics, that
in chide Population, Territory, Government, and Sovereignty.
23
3.4 SOCIETY
Society is a comprehensive term that includes all types of social

organisations that men have formed to satisfy their needs and to achieve
a better life. Society is nothing but a collection of individuals. It is within
us and around us. Wherever life exists there is society. Thus, a study of
the social organizations may not strictly fall within the scope of Political
Science. It is the job of civics and sociology to analyse the working of
social organisations in detail. But as students of Political Science whose
scope is confined to the study of the State, we should also have some
knowledge of the social nature of man and social organisations.
"Society" may be defined in various ways. MacIver says "Society is a
system of usages and procedures of authority and mutual aid of
grouping and division of controls of human behaviour and liberties". A
celebrated sociologist F. H. Giddings writes that "society exists among
those who resemble one another to some degree in body and mind and
who are near enough or intelligent enough to appreciate the fact."
Society rests on "consciousness of mankind." Talcott Parsons, another
reputed sociologist says "The arrangement encompassing the most
inclusive and continuous relationships in terms of which man pursued
his fulfilment and survival is called society."
Social institutions and political processes are interlinked. The social
norms, values, environments, institutions and behaviours influence not
only the political behaviour in a given society but also determine the
nature of the political institutions, ideologies and the systems. The State
is a part of the social system which represents the supreme power
structure in a given society. The question of legitimacy always arises in
the power relation structure of any political system. Similarly, political
parties and pressure groups do form the influential sector of the social
structure. The formal institutions of the State do affect social structure.
Thus, the society, government and politics are linked, inter-dependent
and inter-woven. The values and norms which prevail in a society also
help to determine the political order and process. Indeed political
institutions are themselves recollections of the social structures.
Therefore the study of politics or of society demands an enquiry into the
relationship between the society politics and government.
Aristotle the Greek philosopher writes "Man is a social animal. He who
lives without the society is either a beast or a God." Thus man is by
nature and necessity a social animal. He is born in the society, lives in
the society and dies in the society.
24
Society is indispensable for the human beings. Man is a gregarious
animal. He possesses an inborn quality for social life. Social life is a
necessity for him. Without society he cannot lead a "good life". The aim
of society is to promote individual happiness. Without the individuals, the
society cannot exist. Society is like an instrument to achieve human
happiness. It is a means to an end the aim of human welfare.
3.5 SOVEREIGNTY
Etymologically the word sovereignty has been derived from the

Latin word "Superanus" which means supreme or paramount. It implies
that it is the supreme power or absolute power. It is a juristic concept
which implies that the government should have the supreme power of
coercion. Through, the exercise of this power the government can
compel its citizens to obey. The will of the State is expressed through
sovereignty and this will is binding on individuals and associations
situated within the State. Sovereignty is therefore an important
characteristic of the State.
Sovereignty has two aspects, namely internal and external.
Internally it means that, the State has complete legal authority over all
individuals and associations situated within it. Laski rightly observes "It
issues orders to all men and all associations within the area it receives
orders from none of them. The will is subject to no legal limitation of any
kind. Externally it means that the State is legally independent of foreign
domination. It is not subject to any compulsion by any other foreign
States. By external sovereignty it is meant that every State is
independent of the other States. Laski has again observed that "The
modern State is a sovereign State. It is, therefore independent in the
face of other communities. It may infuse its will towards them with a
substance which need not be affected by the will of any external power."
Definitions of Sovereignty, according to Boding Sovereignty are the
supreme power of the State over citizens and subjects unrestrained by
law. Grotius writes Sovereignty is the sovereign political power vested in
him whose acts are not subject to any other and whose will cannot be
overridden.
Willoughby says Sovereignty is the supreme will of the State. Dug says
that, “sovereignty is the commanding power of the State, it is the will of
the nation, organised in the State, it is right to give unconditional orders
to all the individuals in the territory of State. Burgess characterizes
sovereignty as the Original, absolute unlimited power, over the individual
subject and over all associations of the subjects.
25
Jellinek defined sovereignty as that characteristic of the State by virtue
of which it cannot be legally bound except by its own will or limited by
any other power than itself.
The above definitions indicate that, sovereignty is the supreme coercive
power. It is an unlimited power of the State. It implies that, the State is
internally supreme and externally free. It is considered to be an essential
characteristic of the state. Stephen Leacock rightly sums up somewhere
within the State that there will exist a certain person or body of persons
whose commands receive obedience. Unless there is such a body there
is no State, to be an essential characteristic of the State.
3.5.1 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SOVEREIGNTY
In Ancient thought sovereignty is considered as an indispensable

character of modern state. As a concept of Political Theory, it goes back
to the days of Aristotle. It was Aristotle, who for the first time mentioned
the idea of the supreme power. However Aristotle did not attempt to
present a systematic theory of sovereignty. He simply talked about the
need of having a supreme power in a State. This was primarily because
in the City States of the ancient Greece there hardly exists as a
controversy between an individual and the State. The Romans too did
not bother much about sovereignty. However there are traces of
"sovereignty" in the Roman concept of "Imperium."
During the middle age there came to prevail feudalism. In such a set up,
the feudal lords claimed considerable autonomy from the royal control.
Hence, they resented the idea of a supreme power within the State.
Similarly the Christian Church sought to be independent of royal
authority. The Church Fathers wanted complete non interference in the
ecclesiastical affairs. This often led to conflict between royal and papal
authority. Hence during the middle age the existence of feudal structure
of society and powerful church fathers did not prove conducive to the
idea of sovereign State.
Rise of modern national states in the 16th century, gave rise to the idea
of sovereignty. It was Machiavelli, who for the first time talked of the
supremacy of political power by religious or moral codes. However,
Machiavelli did not provide a consistent theory of sovereignty. Boding,
after Machiavelli it was Jean Boding a French Philosopher who first
asserted the theory of sovereignty. According to him "sovereign" must
be free from internal and external control. However Bodin‟s theory of
supreme sovereignty was not absolute. His sovereign was subjected to
the limitation of the divine and the human laws.
26
Grotius Another sovereign who has been referred to as the father of
modern International Law developed the external aspect of sovereignty,
a thinker who contributed to the theory of Hobbes Thomas. Hobbes an
Englishman was the next man in the modern period who contributed to
the theory of sovereignty. In his "Leviathan" he referred to the origin of
the State as a result of a social contract. This implied the establishment
of a legal sovereign unlimited by any limitations imposed by Hobbes laid
the foundation of the theory of legal sovereignty which was developed
later by Austin. Locke asserted the existence of a "supreme power"
behind the legally established government. Thus, Locke made his
contribution to the theory of political sovereignty.
Austin was the next person to provide a systematic theory of legal
sovereignty. Austin's theory of sovereignty has been discussed in detail
elsewhere in this chapter. Pluralists have strictly not made a positive
contribution to the theory of sovereignty. Their ideas on sovereignty
were primarily a challenge against the theory of legal sovereignty
advocated by Austin. A detailed examination of the ideas of Pluralists
shall be made in this chapter.
3.5.2 TYPES OF SOVEREIGNTY
Titular Sovereignty: Titular Sovereignty is the term used to denote a
king or queen, who has no real powers but one who symbolizes the
sovereign power of the State. Perhaps the best example of a titular
sovereign is the British Queen. She has no real powers. All powers are
exercised on her behalf by the Ministers who are responsible to the
British Parliament. She is the constitutional monarch of England, having
merely a titular position in the constitutional system. Yet all orders are
issued in the name of the Queen.
Legal Sovereignty: By legal sovereignty means "the person or body in
who resides the right of the ultimate power of laying down the general
rules." For instance in England the Parliament is the legal sovereign as
the Parliament is the final law making authority in England. There is no
other power or body that can declare parliamentary laws as invalid or
ultra vies. Hence, the legal sovereign is the sovereign whom the lawyer
recognizes.
Political Sovereignty: Political sovereign on the other hand is the
sovereign which lies behind the legal sovereign. While the British
Parliament may be the legal sovereign in England but the real power
behind the Parliament is the electorate. It is the power of the electorate
that empowers the Parliament. Hence, behind the legal sovereign there
exists the political sovereign. Political sovereignty is not readily found in
27
a community. It is very difficult to locate it. In those States where there is
direct democracy the political sovereign coincides with the legal
sovereign.
Popular Sovereignty: Concept of popular sovereignty emerged during
the 16th and 17th centuries. The term "popular sovereignty" denotes
that, ultimately the sovereign power rests on the people. This expression
was used to express resentment against the authority of autocratic
monarchs. It was Rousseau's theory of General Will that gave support to
the notion of popular sovereignty. It still remains as a rather vague
concept. It is difficult to prove that, all actions of the legal sovereign are
determined by the mass of people. However, the fact remains that a
legal sovereign has to care for public opinion. So however vague the
nature of popular sovereignty may be it still influences the legal
sovereign.
National Sovereignty: The term "National Sovereignty" was used for
the first time by the French revolutionists in their famous declaration
known as the "Declaration of the Rights of Man'". It is not the same thing
as "popular sovereignty". "National Sovereignty" implies that sovereignty
is not divided and fragmented among the entire population. On the other
hand sovereignty rests in the “nation" personified as a whole. This
however is an abstract concept. Exercise of sovereignty has to be
through persons and institutions.
De Facto Sovereignty: Sometimes it may so happen that a legal
sovereign may be displaced by force or otherwise by another body of
persons who exercise sovereign rights temporarily without a legal basis.
In such cases this body or person may be called as de facto sovereign.
De Jure Sovereignty: During World War II several European States
were overrun by the Axis powers. But, the leaders of these countries
formed a Government in exile in London. Thus, they continued to have
de jure sovereignty over their respective territories despite the German
occupation.
3.5.3 AUSTIN THEORY OF SOVEREIGNTY
John Austin was a British Jurist who belonged to the group of

Utilitarian‟s like Bentham. His theory of sovereignty was essentially a
legal theory of sovereignty. In his work entitled Lectures theory Austin's
theory was influenced by the writings of Hobbes and Bentham. Austin's
theory of sovereignty is otherwise known as "The Monistic Theory" or
Monism. The traditional theory of sovereignty reached its climax in the
hands of John Austin.
28
3.6 POWER
The concept of power is the central concept in the modern

political theory. Many words are used interchangeably with power.
These influence control, imposition, coercion force, subordination,
domination rule, authority, status, prestige, leadership, honour etc. But,
instead of all these power is preferred, as power is a value free and clear
concept. It is said that power is the base of Real Politics which is
concerned with the achievement exercise maintenance and distribution
and sharing of power. Power is an important concept in politics and
sociology. However, it is difficult to define it. Parsons writes
"unfortunately the concept of power is not a settled one in the social
sciences, either in political science or sociology." Similarly he wrote “The
concepts 'power' and 'influence' are central to the study of politics as
well as among the most difficult concepts to define." Power has been
defined by Wiseman "as the ability to get one's wishes carried out,
despite the opposition." Guild and Palmer say, "By power we mean the
ability to affect or to control the decisions, policies, values or fortunes of
others."
Friedrich maintains, "Power is not primarily a thing, a possession,
but rather a relation." Similarly, "Power is generally thought to involve
the bringing about of an action by someone against the will or the desire
of another." Hoogerwerf, defines power as the "possibility to influence
the behaviour of others in accordance with the actors own purposes."
According to Bertrand Russell power is the production of intended
effects and he identifies power with the ability to cause things to happen.
David Easton says that power is "a relationship in which one group of
persons is able to determine the actions of another in the direction of the
former's own ends."
3.6.1 POWER VIEW OF POLITICS
Many studies have emerged during the past century with regard to
human motives and human activities, especially the social activities of
human beings. What are the prime motives of the men which pull them
into some kind of social activity? Is it mere survival or something more is
involved .Hobbes in the 17th century maintained that fear or loss of life
compelled people to the political activity. Bentham maintained that the
desire to have 'pleasures' (Philosophy of Hedonism) is the basis of all
social activity. In the 19th century three other different views emerged.
Marx maintained that economic factors are the basis of human political
actions. Max Weber gave importance to the desire for power as the
basis of human social activities.
29
According to Weber, human actions are motivated by the desire to
acquire more and more .Though supporters of the view can be traced
back to the ancient as well as the medieval periods the view has gained
currency mainly in the 20th century, Machiavelli's. Views The Prince
1512 written in is perhaps the most fascinating study of power on record;
it tells how dictatorial powers can be achieved and maintained.
Machiavelli maintained that power and love are the oldest known
phenomena of human emotions and power is a better means of control
than love, because love is personal and power is impersonal power.
In the 17th century, Hobbes opined that life is a perpetual and restless
desire of power which ceases only in death. Hobbes emphasised the
positive aspect of power and maintained that absolute power of the state
is the only alternative and is always better than a complete absence of
Power anarchy. Political thought of the 18th and 19th centuries
suggested ways to curb the absolute power of the state, in order to save
the human rights and freedom. It was also maintained that power has a
corrupting influence and absolute power corrupts absolutely (Lord
Acton).
In the later part of the 19th century, power has been used as a unifying
force and many German philosophers like Nietzsche, Treitschke and
Bernhard, wrote in praise of power of the state. However, in the 20th
century the power view of politics, gained prominence and the prominent
support of the view in our century are: Max Weber, Catlin, B. Russell,
Members of Chicago School (Lass well, Merriam, Kaplan) Watkins,
Morgenthau, Key (Jr) etc.
3.6.2 POWER AND POLITICS
The relationship of politics and power cannot be denied. But, the

important question is whether politics is merely power and nothing else,
the development of political sociology as a subject and behaviourism as
a trend, the view is further strengthened. According to the power view,
politics is nothing, but, a study of internal and external power of the State
and the society. Disraeli says, "Politics is the possession and distribution
of power." Similarly, Bismarck remarked, "Politics is the science of
power." Lass well maintain "Politics is the study of influence and the
influenced." He further says "Politics as a discipline the study of the
shaping of political power" According to Max Weber Politics is "the
struggle to share or influence the distribution of power whether between
states or among the groups within a state."
30
However, Weber distinguishes power from domination. He defines
power as the ability to impose one's Will on another against opposition,
while domination is the 'imperative control' that flows directly from the
belief that authorised commands will be obeyed, without the sanction of
the physical coercion. As Robert A. Dahl puts, "The first and salient fact
one needs to know about power is that neither in ordinary language nor
in political science there agreement on terms actors and definitions".
Some others have defined power in the following ways:
a) T.H. Green "Power is simply the extent of capability to control
others so that they will do what they are wanted to do."
b) Lundberg "By power, we mean the extent to which persons or
groups can limit or regulate the alternative courses of action open
to other persons or groups, with, or without their consent."
c) Max Weber "Power is the probability that one actor (individual or
group) within a social relationship is in a position to carry out his
own Will, despite resistance, regardless of the basis on which this
probability rests."
d) Lass well "Power is participation in the making of decisions and is
an interpersonal relation."
e) R.A. Dahl "Power is a relation among actors in which one actor
induces other actors to act in some way, they would not otherwise
act."
f) Morgenthau "By Political Power, we refer to the mutual relations of
control among the holders of public authority and between the
latter and the people at large."
g) Tawney "Power is the capacity of an individual, or group of
individuals, to modify the conduct of other individuals or groups in
the manner, which he desires." From the above definitions power
can be understood as having the ability to get one's wishes carried
out, despite opposition and resistance as the relationship between
holders of authority and followers of authority. It is participation in
decision making.
3.7 CITIZENSHIP
The purpose finds its fulfilment in the enjoyment of the conditions

necessary for the human personality. In a society where the people at
large have an organised society entails a purpose. The purpose of the
development and of no opportunity for the realisation of personality
good, life becomes impossible. Some minimum opportunities are thus, a
31
necessary condition to the realisation of man's personality. For instance
in the absence of opportunity for the free expression of opinion, a man
cannot realise his best self of citizenship, rights and duties. Hence,
arises various theories.
What is Citizenship? The word 'citizen' literally means a resident of a city
who enjoys certain privileges of such residence. The word is derived
from the Latin word 'Civics'. In civics the word has a wider meaning. By
a, „citizen‟ we mean a member of the State who enjoys all the rights and
privileges, civil, as well as political, granted by it and in return discharged
his duties or obligations towards the State and other associations within
it. According to Laski “Citizenship is the contribution of one's instructed
judgment to the common good."
The notion of citizenship was much narrow in the ancient times and its
meaning has changed in the course of time. Aristotle considered
residence and enjoyment of the legal privileges as the essential
characteristics of citizenship. He did not include the majority of toiling
masses in the category of citizens on the ground, that they did not have
the necessary ability and leisure to properly exercise the rights of
citizens. Aristotle's idea of citizenship was purely aristocratic. In days of
feudalism also, citizenship, was confined to the privileged few and
ignorant many, who formed the bulk of the population.
The advent of democracy, political rights which had formed the exclusive
possession of the privileged classes came to be shared by the majority
of the population. Democracy and citizenship now go together and the
latter is studied best in the context of democracy which alone duly
recognises the inherent worth of every human being. The ideal modern
citizenship is universal and its effectiveness is fully recognised in a truly
democratic society of free men. The success of democracy depends on
good citizenship. Democracy advocates the essential equality of the
human beings and the absence of such equality which often results in
the oppression of the poor and the ignorant is opposed to the true spirit
of citizenship. A totalitarian or dictatorial State demands from its citizen
unquestioning submission suppressing thereby the freedom of thought
speech and action of its citizen. Citizenship is a misnomer in a
totalitarian State.
Two important elements in the idea of modern citizenship are liberty and
membership of the State. A good citizen is a free citizen. He enjoys
certain rights and liberties which are sometimes fundamental and which
are highly cherished by the individuals and at the same time respected
by the State.
32
The right of the membership of the State includes the right to share in
the government, formulate laws pay taxes etc. There is no distinction
between the ruler and the ruled today. The same citizen is both a subject
and a ruler. Thus, modern citizenship is very broad comprehensive and
all inclusive. It includes within its ambit, not only to men, but also
women, not only city dwellers but also villagers and does not tolerate
any principle, which subjects any class of people to slavery or serfdom.
It includes all‟s those who permanently reside in a country and owe
permanent allegiance to the State regardless of their political function.
3.7.1 LEGAL AND MORAL ASPECTS OF CITIZENSHIP
Legally a citizen is a person who owes allegiance to the State

and receives in return the protection of the State both at home and
abroad. He has a status in the eyes of law and he is provided with the
opportunities of the legitimate enjoyment of his freedom property and
political rights like the right of voting at the local and general elections,
and the right of contesting in such elections, the right of holding public
offices etc. The legal aspect of citizenship is very easy to define, but, it is
difficult to give a definite account of its moral aspect.
Citizenship implies a sense of responsibility in the citizen to fulfil
all his obligations to the State and to the various social groups of which
he is a member. It recognises the value of self discipline and self control.
A citizen should not be too selfish and his personal motives should not
stand in the way of the common good. He is not only a member of the
family a member of the village or town in which he lives or a member of
the occupation which gives him bread but also a member of the country
and above all a member of humanity at large. His function is to give and
take. He must receive all that is necessary to equip himself as a citizen
and give back to the community all that promotes general happiness and
common well being. In short citizenship has three main characteristics
viz. Allegiance to the State.
3.8 NATIONAL AND NATIONALITY
The term “national" is used both as a noun and as an adjective.

In the former sense, the term is used in international relations to denote
a citizen (or sometimes an alien, too) who is entitled to the protection of
the state. As an adjective the term refers to the status of a person or
thing possessing the nationality of a particular state. So, we speak of
"national" heroes "national" disasters etc. The meaning of the word
"nation" is not very clear. Some writers use it in the sense of nationality;
others would like to identify it with the "state".
33
Burgess, for instance, defines a nation, as "a population of an
ethnic unity inhabiting a territory of a geographic unity". Leacock also
puts emphasis on the common descent and common language. Such a
conception, of course, conforms to etymology, but not to the present day
usage. Since the First World War, the term "nation" has come to
possess a distinctively political connotation. Today by nation that we
mean "nation” is „the state plus nationality'. A state need not always be a
nation. For instance, before the war of 1914-18 Austria – Hungary was a
state but, not a nation because the heterogeneous peoples did not form
a culturally homogeneous social group.
Thus, the precondition of a nation is what Barnes calls the unity
of psychic life and expression. It is as Laski who says, "A genuinely
instinctive is an expression of kinship with a chosen group that is
deliberately exclusive in temper". Besides having cultural and spiritual
bonds a nation must also be politically organised. Thus, a nation to
quote Lord Bryce is "a nationality which has organised itself into a
political body either independent or desiring to be independent". The
modern tendency in theory and practice is therefore to associate
statehood with nationhood.
The terms "nationality" and "nation" are etymologically synonymous. For
both are derived from the Latin word nation which connotes the idea of
birth and race. Still in scientific discussions the terms are not used as
synonyms. The difference between the two is one of political
organisation. A nationality is a culturally and spiritually unified
aggregation, but a nation in addition to these characteristics must be
politically organised or desiring to be so organised.
"The idea of nationality" to quote Laski is not easy to define for there is
no measurable factor to which it can be traced". As it is a spiritual
conception a subjective idea, it is well nigh impossible to find out any
common quality or definite interest which is everywhere associated with
nationality. We can at the best enumerate a number of objective factors
which are not indispensable and still without some of which any
nationality can truly exist.
Purity of Race: Some writers like Zimmer, put emphasis on the racial
purity as a factor helping the formation and strengthening of the idea of
nationality. Race is a physical phenomenon, which depends on
distinctions of skull stature, hair complexion etc. Hence, a certain degree
of racial homogeneity acts as a cementing bond among the members of
a group. The claim of racial purity should not, however, be stretched too
far.
34
Some of the most distinct nationalities of today have in fact been formed
by a fusion of other races. The English and French offer such instances
of fusion. In fact, "race is a physical phenomenon, whereas nationality is
a complex phenomenon into which spiritual elements enter. To identify
the race and nation has been well said, to subordinate moral conscience
to organic life and to make the animalism which is in man the whole of
humanity."
Community of Language: Language is the medium of discussion. The
members of a group speaking the same language naturally imbibe; a
common language enables that people to express their culture and
ideals in a common literature. So, writers like Joseph and Ramsay Muir
consider community of language to be the most significant factor in the
moulding of nationality. It should, however, be admitted that language is
important but, not indispensable. For example, the Swiss people have
developed a feeling of oneness.
Geographic Unity: A naturally defined territory is an immense aid to the
formation of a nationality. Human beings like, other animals have a love
of their habitat. A fixed territory occupied by people exerts natural
influence on their body and mind. Also they are bound together by
invisible chords of sympathy that can develop more easily within
naturally marked geographical boundaries. Still, geographic unity is not
an indispensable factor. There are examples of nationalities composed f
people scattered over far-flung non-contiguous territories. For instance,
before the creation of their national home in Palestine, the Jews were
scattered over many parts of the world and even then, they constituted
one nationality.
Community of Religion: In the past, religion played an important part in
the national consolidation. Today however, the spirit of religious
toleration has led to the secularisation of politics. Community of religion
is no longer considered to be a factor of much significance.
Common Political Aspiration: The will to be a nation' is regarded by
some as the principal element of nationality. If the population is
sufficiently numerous and capable of maintaining a separate state, they
might aspire after an independent political union. Such a union, again,
tends to mould heterogeneous elements into a common nationality. At
the Peace Conference of Paris in 1917, the representatives of different
nationalities expressed their desire to be nations. It resulted in the
acceptance of the principle of "self-determination" of nationalities. Every
nationality, was recognised, and had the natural right to determine its
own political destiny.
35
None of these factors, however, is either indispensable or adequate.
For, nationality is essentially a matter of sentiment. "Nations", to quote
Spengler, "are neither linguistic nor political nor biological, but spiritual
unities." The feeling of nationality is the product of a community of
interests and ideals. It comes into being when social consciousness cuts
across the different social subdivisions. Thus, within a group it applies to
all men, rich or poor, high or low. Moreover, nationality is never fixed;
rather, it is constantly evolving. As the subjective element is of
paramount importance, it is futile to seek for any common quality or
definite interest which is everywhere associated with nationality. It
should, however, be noted in this connection that nationality is not
altogether a natural phenomenon, although some of its component
elements such as language and common descent are natural. It is "a
product of the growth of social and intellectual factors at a certain stage
of history."
3.9 GLOBAL ORDER
Global order is a term that means different things to different
people. It appears everywhere and is almost taken for granted. For this
purpose we may start with a definition of globalisation with emphasis on
its economic dimensions. Globalisation is a process of
transnationalization of production and capital and standardisation of
consumer tastes and their legitimisation with the help of international
institutions like World Bank International Monetary Fund (IMF) and
World Trade Organisation (WTO). Obviously the process is a move
towards a borderless regime of free trade and transactions based on
competition. The four countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America which
sought to undo the colonial past; this meant a series of economic
reforms towards liberalisation as all of them had resorted to a controlled
regime in order to have an autonomous development of their own.
Globalization is a source of debate almost everywhere. It is the name of
a new industrial revolution driven by powerful new information and
communication technologies which has barely begun. Because, of its
newness it taxes our linguistic and political resources for understanding
and managing it. To the United States and in other wealthiest countries
of the world, globalization is certainly a positive buzzword for corporate
elites and their political allies. But, for the migrant‟s people of colour and
other marginal areas the so called 'South' in the „North‟ is a source that
disturbs the elites.
36
In the remaining countries of the world the under developed and the truly
destitute ones, there is a double anxiety: fear of inclusion on the
draconian terms and the fear of exclusion from History itself and that is
the recourse to history. We can do our best to see globalization as just a
new phase and the face of capitalism or imperialism or neo colonialism
or modernization or development fields. And there is some force to this
which is a hunt for the analogy that will let us tame the beast of
globalization in the prison house of language. But, this historicizing
worries about inclusion jobs and deeper marginalization. And the worry
of the marginal as always in human history whether we are in the North
or the South globalization also challenges our strongest tool for
managing the newness in accounting for the part of globalization, that is
subtly unsettling in its newness. The end of the 20th century has
ushered in an unprecedented and a largely unanticipated change
especially in the context of rapidity and decisiveness.
The changes of content and direction are of global, social, economic and
political relations. The World Bank jubilantly declared in its World
Development Report 1995, these are revolutionary times in the global
economy. The embrace of the market based development by many
developing and former centrally planned economies, the open capital
and ideas flowing around the world are bringing new opportunities as
well as risk to billions of people. Politically, however, the dynamics and
demands of globalization have contributed to the political liberalization
processes in Africa.
One major feature of the new globalization is the increasing
powerlessness of the state, at least as far as regulating the movement of
information, ideas, capital, even skills is concerned. As the World Bank
admits, 'Governments are increasingly seeking to improve the
international competitiveness of their economies, rather than shield them
behind protective walls.' The implication is that governments are taking
steps to grow more autonomy to private initiatives and to cede some
political grounds to the powerful corporations. Rapid changes in
information technology have greatly impacted on the autonomy,
capabilities and spheres of action open to the nation state. Boutros
Boutros Ghali has observed that, the times of absolute and exclusive
sovereignty have passed and states must "find a balance between the
needs of internal governance and the requirements of an ever more
independent world'.
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3.9.1 IMPACT OF GLOBAL ORDER ON POLITICAL AND
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Globalization can best be thought of as a political project that has to be

understood in the context of the historical setting. Leading the process
as the product of a particular historical and political moment helps
understand for whom the discourse of globalization works and had. It
also drops our attention to the social forms, that promote a benefit from
globalization and serves to delineate transformation possibilities
globalization may have certain corrosion effects on the sovereignty of
states, but this does not necessarily render them politically disable in the
way many accounts suggest.
The economic changes associated with globalization in many but not all
cases have been produced and continue to be produced by state
actions. The important point is that some parts of the state have
internationalised more than others and are relatively more subject to the
discipline of global markets. While this has been the case for some time
with regard to ministries of trade and commerce for example new
challenges are created where the traditional welfare functions of the
state are subject to the global scrutiny and challenge. Structural
adjustment programmes, debt relief initiatives and global accords such
as the WTO-GATS agreement (General Agreement on Trade in
Services) create the conditions for such surveillance. There is both a
North-South element and a clear class dimension to globalization.
LET US SUM UP
Throughout the years of colonization, the days of Liberation has been

reflected in Democracy in many countries. In this Unit, we have read
about the meaning and characteristics of sovereignty. We have also
learnt about the various kinds of sovereignty. At the same hive, the unit
has also loped to understand the monistic and pluralistic way of
sovereignty. In the unit, we have also learnt about the concept of power,
state and nation, and global order. This unit bestows the values of
Sovereignty through society, state, power of citizenship and its
significance in uplifting a Nation‟s development on the global perspective
and it would connect from individual to the international form for social
development.
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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. A common _____________________________ enables a people to

express their culture and ideals in a common literature.
2. Power is the capacity of an individual, or group of individuals, to
____________________________ the conduct of other individuals
or groups in the manner, which he desires."
3. The aim of society is to promote ________________________
happiness.
4. The State is a politically organised people of a definite
_______________."
GLOSSARY
Superanus : Supreme
De Jure : Legal sovereign
De facto : Actual sovereign
Natio : Birth or Race or Place of Origin
Global order : Development relates to the process of
Globalization
1. Citizen
2. Power of Political
3. Nation and State
4. Globalisation
MODEL QUESTION
1. Describe the meaning of Sovereignty.
2. Distinguish between de-facto and de-jure sovereignty.

3. Critically examine the Austin‟s theory of sovereignty.
4. Analyse the difference between State and nation.
5. Discuss the concept of Global order.
39
SUGGESTED READINGS

4. Avineri,S. (1979), Social and Political Thought of Karl Marx,
S.Chand & Co, New Delhi.
5. Hobhouse,L.T, (1964), Liberalism, Oxford University Press: London.
40
Block II
Organisation and Functions of State
Unit - 4 Origin of the State - Essential Elements of the

State - Functions of the State
Unit - 5 Separation of Powers
Unit - 6 Constitution
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UNIT - 4
ORIGIN OF THE STATE –

ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF THE STATE –
FUNCTIONS OF THE STATE
STRUCTURE
Overview
Learning Objectives
4.1 The Origin of State

4.2 Elements of State
4.2.1 Population
4.2.2 Territory
4.2.3 Government
4.2.4 Sovereignty
4.3 Functions of the Modern State
4.4 Voluntary functions of the State
Let us sum up
Check Your Progress

Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested reading
OVERVIEW
Among the various definitions have been given regarding state but there
is no universally accepted definition of State. The Idealist theory of state
has different views compared to Marxist and Liberal Theory of State.
Therefore, the definitions and nature of state have been changing in
response to the need of the time. The generally accepted theory of the
origin of the State is that various factors like religion, financial and
Political Consciences were behind the growth of the State. There are six
major theories of how state originates are Divine Theory, Force Theory,
Patriarchal and Matriarchal Theory, Social contact Theory, Evolutionary
Theory are briefly explained in this unit along with the four elements of
state as population, territory, government and sovereignty.
42
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to

 Analyse the origin and the theory of State.
 Understand the Important elements of State.
 Know the functions of modern State.
4.1 THE ORIGIN OF STATE
The origin of state has been the concern of political philosophers

from ancient times. It is an issue of speculation and imagination. 'How'
the state came into existence is a subject of great controversial
discussion. Prof. R.N. Gilchrist writes, "Of the circumstances
surrounding the dawn of political consciousness, we know little or
nothing from history. Where history fails, we must resort to speculation”.
Various theories have been propounded by political and historical writers
regarding the origin of state as follows:
(1) The Divine Origin Theory.
(2) The Social Contract Theory.
(3) The Force Theory.
(4) The Patriarchal and Matriarchal Theories.
(5) The Historical or Evolutionary Theory.
4.2 ELEMENTS OF STATE
An investigation of the above definitions uncover that the modern
state is established of four constituent components, specifically,
Population, Territory, Government and Sovereignty. Of these, the initial
two are actual components, the third is political and the last one is
spiritual. The four constituent components of the state are talked about
underneath:
4.2.1 POPULATION
There can be no state without individuals or human residence. While the

need of populace as a fundamental component of state is perceived,
there is no unanimity concerning its size. Plato was of the view that an
optimal state ought to have a populace of 5040. Aristotle believed that
the number of inhabitants in a state ought to be sufficiently enormous to
act naturally getting the job done and little enough to be very much
represented. The perspective on Rousseau was that 10,000 was an
optimal number.
43
In this day and age, we have states with huge populaces like India and
China from one viewpoint and those with little populaces like Monaco
and San Marino. While thinking about the number of inhabitants in a
state, we need to contemplate the number as well as the nature of
individuals possessing the state. As indicated by Aristotle, a productive
member of society makes a decent state and a terrible resident, an awful
state. Again the number of inhabitants in a state might be
heterogeneous and need not have a place with a solitary race, religion,
language or culture. Appropriately, while the size of the number of
inhabitants in a state can't be fixed, it is significant that individuals are
independent to meet all their vital prerequisites dependent on the
legitimate usage of assets.
4.2.2 TERRITORY
The second fundamental constituent of a state is an area. In the event

that individuals keep on moving starting with one spot then onto the next
without having any positive region for their home, there can be no state.
The vagabonds and travelers who travel starting with one spot then onto
the next, can't be said to comprise a state. The regional purview of a
state expands over the land as well as over waterways, lakes,
mountains, minimal ocean, dirt and airborne space above it.
Notwithstanding, it is hard to choose the size of an optimal state. The
territory of San Marino has a space of 38 Sq. miles as it were. The
Vatican City under the Pope covers 108 sections of land in particular.
Then again, states like the United States of America and China have
enormous domains. Note that more than the size, it is the legitimate use
of the assets in the state which prompts its success and improvement.
4.2.3 GOVERNMENT
The third fundamental constituent of the state is the government.

Populace and region alone can't frame a state. Except if individuals of a
domain are dependent upon the control of a coordinated government, a
region can't be known as a state essentially in light of the fact that it is
occupied. The public authority is the political apparatus or association
through which the group will of the state is planned, communicated and
executed. Actually, the state works through the administrative hardware.
It is the office through which society is politically coordinated, normal
arrangements are resolved and by which normal undertakings are
managed and normal interests are advanced.
Consequently, the public authority is answerable for the upkeep of
peace and lawfulness and for the arrangement of normal administrations
44
like guard, issue of money, unfamiliar relations, streets, extensions,
transport and correspondences, water, power, wellbeing and schooling,
and so on No specific kind of government can be suggested as
fundamental. It shifts in kind and intricacy from one country to another.
4.2.4 SOVEREIGNTY
Sovereignty is the main attribute of the state. It is the thing that

recognizes a state from the different types of human association. There
can be no state without sovereignty. Extensively talking, sovereignty
implies incomparability of the state. Sovereignty is of two types-internal
sovereignty and external sovereignty. Internal sovereignty implies that
the state is incomparable in all inward matters. It practices its
incomparability over every one of the organizations and individuals of
the state and the last need to submit to its orders. Outer sovereignty
infers that a state should be liberated from unfamiliar control.
In the event that a state is constrained by another express, the previous
will at this point don't be viewed as a sovereign state and it will end up
being a piece of the state which activities power over it. This is the
motivation behind why India before August 15, 1947, couldn't be viewed
as a state, as the nation which was heavily influenced by Great Britain.
4.3 FUNCTIONS OF THE MODERN STATE
The functions of a state are as comprehensive as its rights. Among them
some functions are compulsory while others are voluntary. The major ones
in the compulsory category are:
1. Defense against foreign attack: The most urgent function of a state is
defense of the country against foreign attack. It must make adequate
preparations in the form of weapons and land, sea, and air forces. It
must take special notice of things which can create the danger of attack
from other countries.
2. Internal peace and security: The policy of a state at home is quite as
important as is its foreign policy. It is the prime duty of the state to
maintain internal peace and security. An increase in communal riots,
thefts, cases of dacoity and rebellion can endanger the existence of the
state itself. The state maintains peace and order through police and
army.
3. Protection of the rights of citizens: In every state the citizens
possess certain rights like rights of life, property, freedom of thought etc.
It is incumbent upon the state to protect these rights, or which it must
formulate essential laws, arrange for proper administration, and
organise justice.
45
4. Justice: In this way justice is a compulsory function of the state. This
provides for obedience of laws in the state, maintains order and protects
the rights of everyone.
4.4 VOLUNTARY FUNCTIONS OF THE STATE
Besides these compulsory functions of state, the following are its voluntary
functions:
1. Education: In the modern age, all states consider it their duty to make
adequate arrangement for the education of their citizens. A state of
uneducated citizens can never progress. Thus, the state decides for
primary schools and colleges and universities so that higher education
in sciences agriculture and the humanities may become possible.
Arrangements are made for adjoining research centres, libraries, zoos,
store houses and art classes etc. Efforts are made to provide free
primary education. Capable students are awarded scholarships by the
state. But the state should avoid unnecessary interference in
educational centres.
2. Health: Along with education, modern states try to provide for the
protection of health. Provision is made for sanitation, hospitals, free
medicine, vaccination, and essential energizing foods for the poor.
Medical colleges are opened to end the dearth of capable doctors.
Government research centres and training schools for nurses are
opened.
3. Protection of the old, poor, and invalid: Modern states have also
begun deciding for the old, impecunious unemployed and invalid
citizens. They are given financial aid. The old people are given pension.
The facility of insurance insures the security of everyone. Orphanages
and homes for destitute are created.
4. Arrangement of Public Welfare services: The state organizes the
railways, postal and telegraphic facilities, wireless, etc. it is the duty of
the state to plan for means of transportation such as buses, railways,
airplanes, and ships etc.
5. Social and Economic improvement: Another of the state‟s duties is
affecting social and economic improvement. The state lays down laws
against harmful customs and makes necessary arrangements for their
enforcement.
6. Encouraging trade and industry: It is also the duty of the state to
encourage trade and industry and to develop it as well. Almost
everywhere in the world, it is the state which controls economic system
and the mint. It is the state which standardizes the standards of
measurement and weighing. The country cannot benefit by international
46
trade if it does not make the proper law for import and export. The state
should establish factories of the key industries to implement and initiate
other industries in the country. The state should also encourage cottage
industries.
7. Organization of labour: The state should direct its efforts to the
improvement of conditions of labourers and lay down rules to obviate
the probability of their exploitation. It is the responsibility of the state to
make efforts towards labour welfare.
8. Proper use of natural resources of the country: A country can
become powerful by land, forests, rivers, minerals, and agricultural
products. Maximum benefit should be extracted from them. On this
subject, the state should direct the necessary precautionary measures,
research and search for new mineral products and lay down laws for
the utilization of forests, mines, land etc.
9. Arrangement of recreation: To maintain the novelty and excitement in
the life of the public the state should provide means for recreation. For
this film industry, dramatic societies, etc. ought to be encouraged.
Actually, the function of a modern state is not merely administration but an
integral welfare and development of its subjects. Thus, its functions have
been aggrandized. The turbulence of local situations does make an
appreciable though slight alteration in them, while different political schools
of thought have recognized different functions of the state. Thus, nothing
final can be said upon this subject. The only theory which can be
universally acceptable is that the state should functioning a manner
calculated to add to public welfare, but the scholars differ in their opinions
about that in which lies this public welfare. It is here that the guidance of
ethics is needed. Ethics is to determine the supreme and ultimate objective
of the individual. The state shall collect the means to the attainment of this
ideal. As an example, the supreme ideal of an individual is self-realization
or an integral development. Thus, it is for the state to utilize the means to
his physical, mental, and spiritual development.
LET US SUM UP
In this Unit, we explained the origin of State. The Political writers

have propounded various theories concerning the prehistoric origin of
the State. The theories are: The divine origin Theory, force Theory,
patriarchal and matriarchal Theory, Social contract Theory, and
Evolutionary Theory. The State has four essential elements. These are
population, territory, government, sovereignty. The first Two elements
constitute the physical or material basis of the state while the last two
form its political and spiritual basis.
47
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. According to Plato, the Population of the State should be about

______________
2. What are the four elements of State?
___________________________________________________
3. Which one of the following is the oldest theory regardip the origin
of State.
a) Force Theory b) Patriarchal Theory
c) Social contract Theory d) Divine origin Theory.
GLOSSARY
State : Territorial Society.

Government : Agency through which state Functions
Separation of powers : Three branches of government are separated.
1. 5040
2. population, territory, Government and sovereignty
3. Divine origin Theory
MODEL QUESTION
1. Discuss the origin of the State.

2. Describe the elements of the State.
3. Explain the functions of the State.
SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Agarwal, R.C. (2006), Political Theory, S. Chand & Company Ltd.,
New Delhi.
2. Kapur, A.C. (2006), Principles of Political Science, S. Chand
&Company Ltd, New Delhi.
3. Mahajan, V.D. (2006), Political Theory,S.Chand & Company Ltd,
New Delhi.
48
UNIT- 5
SEPARATION OF POWERS
STRUCTURE
Overview
Learning Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Theory of Separation of Powers
5.3 A Doctrine of Freedom

5.4 Political Dynamics and Separation of Powers
5.5 Montesquieu Theory of Separation of Powers
5.6 The Constitution of United States of America and the

Doctrine of Separation of Powers
5.7 Arguments against the Theory of Separation of Powers
5.8 Value of the Theory of Separation of Powers
Let us sum up
Check Your Progress
Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested readings
OVERVIEW
Division of Power implies there is no connection between any

organs of the public authority. Each organ like authoritative, chief and
Judiciary has its own force and they can partake in their force
uninhibitedly. Then again Division of Power implies circulation of force
among the different organ of the public authority like Central to State,
State to region, and region to town. In this cycle everybody can partake
in a certain level of force. In this unit, we will deal about the theory of
separation of power, arguments against the theory and values added to
strengthening of the theory.
49
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 Understand the Montesquieu‟s theory of separation of powers.
 Know the Doctrine of separation of powers in the U.S.A.
 Examine the Value of the Theory of Separation of Powers.
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Substantive restraints within a community can endure only when

effective procedural restraints are embodied in the constitution. Such
procedural restraints involve some kind of division of powers which in
turn may take two forms; "the functional division such as that into
legislative executive and judicial, and the spatial (territorial) division of
federalism." The former commonly known as the theory of separation of
powers is familiarly associated with the name of the famous French
philosopher, Montesquieu.
5.2 THEORY OF SEPARATION OF POWERS
The theory of separation of powers deals with the functional

division of powers between the three organs of the government, division
the legislature, the executive and the judiciary. Though, the theory of
separation of powers is associated with the French philosopher,
Montesquieu, the need for division of governmental authority was
recognized by early political thinkers such as Aristotle and Cicero.
Aristotle in his famous treatise 'Politics' divided the powers of the
government into deliberate (legislature), magisterial (executive), and,
judicial. Jean Bodin and John Locke also emphasized on the separation
of powers to prevent the abuse of power. It was Montesquieu who gave
a well-knit theory with the central theme of separation of powers in "The
Spirit of Laws' published in 1748.
The theory of separation of powers seeks to make a distinction in the

functions of the government and to limit each department to its own
sphere so that each department has maximum autonomy within its
allotted jurisdiction. Each department is entrusted to a separate body of
persons. The main objective of this theory is to preserve political liberty
by preventing the abuse of power. Montesquieu observed that,
"Constant experience shows us that every man invested with power is
apt to abuse it and to carry his authority until he is confronted with
limits." Amal Ray writes, "Montesquieu's theory is based on an intelligent
evaluation of man's power psychology."
50
The theory of separation of powers recognizes the equality of powers of
all the three departments of government-executive, legislative and
judicial. Montesquieu was of the view that separation of powers of the
different organs of the government resulted in stability and efficiency in
any country.
It is, however, interesting to note that Montesquieu cited the cabinet
system in England as an example of separation of powers. In this
Montesquieu was not correct. In the cabinet system, the legislature and
executive are closely related. The members of a executive are also
members of the legislature. Moreover, there was no separation of
powers in England at that time.
5.3 A DOCTRINE OF FREEDOM
The purpose of this theory is the preservation of political liberty

by preventing the abuse of power. According to Montesquieu, "Political
liberty is to be found only in moderate governments. It is there only when
there is no abuse of power." The theory of separation of powers seeks to
differentiate the functions of government and to limit each department to
its own sphere of action so that each enjoys complete autonomy within
its allotted jurisdiction. Each department is entrusted to a separate body
of persons. No one department will have ruling influence over the other.
It naturally involves the principle of 'checks and balances'. In the words
of Montesquieu, "from the very nature of things power should be a check
to power." This is best achieved when each organ of government is so
separated that each acts as a check on the other.
The theory is thus based on, as an implicit recognition of equality
of powers of all the three departments of government-executive,
legislative and judicial. The application of the theory, its advocates and
believes that it, will prevent the overgrowth of a particular department
which spells a danger for the political liberty. Moreover, "a secondary but
essential use of all the separation of power is that it imposes upon each
power the need to explain itself." This need for accounting helps an
authority in exploring flaws and errors in its attitude or operation and
develops in it an awareness of the necessity for fresh thinking.
Evaluation: The application of absolute separation of powers is an
impossible political adventure. Government is an organic unity and its
various departments are closely related to each other. In every modern
government the executive for instance is entrusted with the task of filling
in the gaps in the statutes. This rule making, as Finer observes is no
more or less than secondary or subordinate legislation. The legislature in
51
almost every country has to perform some judicial functions such as the
trying of impeachments.
Barker, who views the separation of powers as a 'distinction of modes of
action', aptly remarks that "we may find none of the organs so absolutely
specialised in its mode of action, or so entirely in its province, that it
cannot also act in the mode and enter the province of the others." The
rigid application of the theory of separation of powers is highly
undesirable. Under this system there is, as MacIver observes, isolation
and disharmony. Every department suffers from the vice of
exclusiveness, and the spirit of cooperation and harmony between
departments is lost. In consequence, the efficiency of the government
suffers. MacIver rightly observes, "What is needed, in fact, is not the
separation of functions but their proper articulation; only thus can hold
responsibility be wedded to efficiency."
The principle of equality of powers, which the theory of "checks and
balances' implies, is not tenable. In a democratic form of government the
legislature, which expresses and articulates the will of the people, is the
most powerful organ. As Laski says, generally "the powers of both the
executive and judiciary find their limits in the declared will of the
legislative organ." Moreover, it is not possible to agree with the view that
all the organs mutually check each other.
Montesquieu, in his epic search for an institutional antidote, to abuse
power, was considerably influenced by the English political institutions;
but, as a matter of fact, he failed to comprehend the implications of the
cabinet system in England. The cabinet system, which is a hyphen
linking the executive to the legislature, is just the reverse of what the
separation of powers implies. The British political genius has not
depended on a mechanical device like the separation of powers for the
maintenance of liberty. Unity of power, have totally discarded the theory
of separation of powers.
5.4 POLITICAL DYNAMICS AND SEPARATION OF POWERS
The exponents of separation of powers like Locke, Montesquieu

and Madison essayed their ideas in a society where the economy was
comparatively simple and the functions of government were few and far
in that society the system of checks and balances with three coordinate
organs that could function well. But, with the emergence of new
problem-situations, "the moulds have broken in which the thoughts of
Locke, Montesquieu, and Madison were cast and their contents have
spilled together."
52
In the wake of the industrial revolution, technological
reorientation led to a complete transformation of the economy. To settle
the unsettled economy the state was called upon, to expand its activities
enormously. The objective situation coupled with the organised pressure
of the electorate impelled the inauguration of the social legislation, and
the state had necessarily shifted its programme from maintenance of
order to promotion of welfare. Even today this trend has not run its
course, and every state incessantly caters to various social services.
All these factors have multiplied the functions of government and
the executive, which has borne the brunt of the altered situation, has
immensely expanded both in depth and width. As Barker observes, it is
the peculiarity of the twentieth century that the executive organ, in the
consequence of the extension of rights and the corresponding extension
of services which mostly fall to the lot of the executive, has developed
into what may be called a multi-functioning organ. As the authorities
admit, "An economy as complex as that, of most of the modern states
cannot be regulated effectively by a government constructed on the
theory of separation of powers."
Traditional thinking, as is evident in Locke, Montesquieu and Madison,
can hardly solve it. The notion of separation of powers, reflects the 18th
century idea that government, which is an evil thing, should be limited
and weak. Thus, deliberately contrived deadlocks were preferred to
action, and disability of the government was equated with the liberty of
the people. Contrarily, the tasks of a modern democratic state are so
varied and numerous powers.
The problem in contemporary society is that deliberately created
stalemates among governmental agencies are sure to endanger the
operation of the state. Fusion of powers rather than their separation is
the crying need of the day. The remedies against the threat of tyranny,
which this fusion of powers involves, are to be sought in new directions.
In the contemporary democratic states the rule of law, the independent
judiciary and the plurality of organised parties "in a permanent state of
tension mutually restraining one another", are the well-known
institutional checks.
5.5 MONTESQUIEU THEORY OF SEPARATION OF POWERS
Montesquieu‟s theory of separation of powers is best explained in his

own words: "When the legislative and executive powers are united in the
same person, or in the same body of magistrate there can be no liberty,
because apprehensions may arise lest the same monarch or senate
should enact tyrannical laws, and execute them in tyrannical manner.
53
Again, there is no liberty if the judiciary power be not separate from the
legislative and executive. Were it joined with the legislative, the life and
liberty of the subject would be exposed to arbitrary control for the judge
would then he the legislator. Were it joined to the executive power, the
judge might behave with violence and oppression. There would be an
end of everything, were the same man or the same body. To exercise
those three powers, that of enacting laws, that of executing the public
relations, and of trying the cases of individuals.
Later Blackstone in his „Commentaries on the Laws of England' wrote,
"In all tyrannical governments, the supreme magistracy or the right both
of making laws and of enforcing them, is vested in one and the same
man, or one and the same body of men; and wherever these two powers
are united together there can be no public liberty." The English jurist
wrote again in 1788 "The accumulation of all powers, legislative,
executive and judicial, in the same hands, whether of a few or many,
may justly be pronounced the very definition of Tyranny."
The principle of partition of forces has three ramifications. Right off the
bat, that similar individual or people ought not hold at least two various
types of forces Secondly, that one organ of the public authority ought not
meddle or control another organ, and, thirdly that one organ should
practice just a single sort of force. Montesquieu believed that the rule of
law could only be achieved through the separation of governmental
powers. It was the most effective device to limit political power. The
theory of separation of powers has been supported as a doctrine of
freedom.
5.6 THE CONSTITUTION OF UNITED STATES OF AMERICA AND
THE DOCTRINE OF SEPARATION OF POWERS
There is profound influence of the doctrine of separation of powers on

the American Constitution. According to Finer, "The American
Constitution was consciously and elaborately made an essay in the
separation of powers and is today the most important policy in the world
which operates upon that principle."
The connection among executive and the legislative as set up by the
constitution of the United States of America shows particular use of the
convention of division of forces. The executive forces are vested in the
President. He isn't an individual from the Congress. He doesn't go to the
meeting of the Congress. He can't break up the Congress before the
expiry of its term. The President cannot initiate legislation.
54
The tenure and or the vice conditions of the judges are beyond the
jurisdiction of the executive. The Congress can't pose inquiries from the
individuals from the executive. The Congress cannot pass a vote of no-
confidence and vote the executive out of office. The President completes
his term. He can only be removed by impeachment.
The founding fathers of the American constitution knew that it was
impractical to apply an absolute separation of powers. Hence, they
introduced modifications in the doctrine of separation of powers by
setting up a system of 'checks and balances. This system empowers the
President to veto any legislation passed by the Congress. He can also
participate in the legislative procedure by sending messages to the
Congress. On the other hand, the Congress can carry out impeachment
proceedings against the President by two-thirds majority. The Senate
can ratify or refuse treaties and appointments made by the President.
The Supreme Court through its power of judicial review also participates
in the legislative functions.
It is important to note that most scholars are of the view that
Montesquieu stood for a limited separation of powers. G.H. Sabine
explains Montesquieu's doctrine in these words, "Montesquieu did not
really contemplate an absolute separation of the three powers; the
legislature ought to meet at the call of the executive; the executive
retains a veto on the legislation: the legislature ought to exercise extra-
ordinary judicial powers."
5.7 ARGUMENTS AGAINST THE THEORY OF SEPARATION OF
POWERS
The use of outright detachment of forces isn't attainable. The public
authority is a natural solidarity. Its different organs are firmly identified
with one another: The organs of the public authority, in particular, the
chiefs, council and legal executive can't be totally isolated from one
another. Rigid application of separation of powers among the organs of
the government is neither feasible nor desirable. It creates isolation and
disharmony. The spirit of co-operation between departments is lost.
J.S. Mill is of the opinion that complete separation would lead to
deadlocks in the system. This would result in articulation and
inefficiency. MacIver rightly remarks, "What is needed is not the
separation of the functions, but, their proper articulation; only thus can
the responsibility be wedded to efficiency.”The doctrine of separation of
powers is based on the equality of powers of all organs of government.
Most scholars do not agree with this contention. Professor MacIver holds
that the legislative function is supreme.
55
Laski says, "the powers both of executive and judiciary find their limits in
the declared will of the legislative organ”. Separation of powers among
government may also result in confusion, jealousy and suspicion,
jealousy and suspicion.
The raison d'etre for separation of powers is safeguard of individual
liberty. Experience, however, shows otherwise. The people of England,
under a cabinet system, enjoyed more liberty than the Americans
between the two World Wars. Hence, it cannot be maintained that liberty
depends on the device of separation of powers. The growth of political
parties has rendered the doctrine of separation of powers meaningless.
The political party which is in power controls the executive and the
legislature as well.
Dr. Finer regards separation of power as confusion of power. "There is

no co-ordination. Responsibility cannot be fixed at one place."The
communists and the fascists have discarded the theory of separation of
powers. They insist on the unity of power. They regard the theory as a
bourgeois principle which is unnecessary in a homogeneous state.
5.8 VALUE OF THE THEORY OF SEPARATION OF POWERS
It makes the judiciary independent of the executive. The separation of

the judiciary from the executive is the most significant contribution of the
doctrine of separation of powers. The liberty of the individuals is assured
by an independent and impartial judiciary. The citizens of United States
of America are assured of their freedom because of an independent and
impartial judiciary rather than because of separation of powers between
the Congress and the President. The theory of separation of powers
increases with the administrative efficiency of the government. When
each department works in its own specific field, each one achieves
competence and specialization.
LET US SUM UP
In this unit, we explained the separation of powers and Division of

powers. Separation of power is most closely associated with the political
systems, in which the legislative, executive, and individual powers of
government are nested in separate bodies. Division of power is first split
between the public and the state and the neighborhood government
under a framework known as federalism. At the administrative level, the
constitution again splits power between the three significant parts of our
central government the authoritative, the leader and the legal.
56
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. The concept of „Separation of Powers‟ was given by

A) Montesquieu B) Machiavelli C) Bentham D) None of these
2. The Spirit of laws written by
A) Laski B) J.S.Mill C)Hume D) Montesquieu
3. What is an example of division of powers?
A) USA B) Germany C) Srilanka D) Israel
GLOSSARY
Federation : In a country where one central

government and number of state
governments.
Separation of Powers : Separation of three branches of
government.
Clead look : Unable to solve the problem.
1. Montesquieu
2. Montesquieu
3. USA
MODEL QUESTION
1. What is meant by separation of powers?
2. Analyse theory of Separation of Powers.
3. What is the division of power in a Government?
SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Agarwal, R.C. (2006), Political Theory, S.Chand & Company ltd,

New Delhi.
2. Kapur, A.C. (2006), Principals of Political Science, S.Chand
&Company ltd, New Delhi.
3. Mahajan, V.D. (2006) Political Theory, S.Chand & Company ltd,
New Delhi.
57
UNIT - 6
CONSTITUTION
STRUCTURE
Overview
Learning Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Meaning of the constitution
6.3 Definitions of the constitution

6.4 Necessary of a constitution
6.5 Kinds of constitutions
6.5.1 Enacted Constitution

6.5.2 Evolved Constitution
6.5.3 The Written Constitution
6.5.4 The Unwritten Constitution
6.5.5 Flexible Constitutions
6.5.6 Rigid Constitutions
6.6 Essentials of a Good Constitution

6.6.1 Clarity or Definiteness
6.6.2 Brevity
6.6.3 Comprehensiveness
6.6.4 Flexibility
6.6.5 Declaration of Rights
6.6.6 Independence of Judiciary

6.6.7 Directive Principles of State Policy
Let us sum up
Check Your Progress

Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested readings
58
OVERVIEW
Each state should have a constitution. Without a constitution, it is

hard to oversee a state. History tells that since the beginning of the state
there had been a few sorts of rules and guidelines in some structure to
keep everything under control and congruity in the state. In each state
be it a majority rule or tyrannical it is fundamental that such standards
should be acknowledged which would choose the job and association of
political foundations to save the general public from insurgency. In this
unit, we will discuss about the constitution, need for constitution and
essentials for good constitution.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 Learn the meaning of constitution and its need.

 Understand the various definitions of a constitution.
 Describe the essentials of a Good Constitution.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
A modern state has grown from simplicity to complexity and is
still becoming more and more complex. The people living in it are not
only members of the state but also of other associations. But, the state
has a physical force behind it and as such it is essential that, it should
administer force with caution. Force and authority of the state should
only be used in accordance with the rules and those who feel that the
administration of force on them is unjustified should be given an
opportunity to prove their innocence. This is the reason that even the
most despotic states develop a code of administration which is called the
Constitution.
6.2 MEANING OF THE CONSTITUTION
The word Constitution is taken from Latin „Constitute‟

which implies „to establish‟. The constitution is that the fundamental
document of a country. It is the basic law of a state that regulates the
distribution of powers within different wings of government. In normal
terms, the constitution of a state is also outlined as a body of rules and
regulations, written and unwritten, by virtue of what government is setup
and it operations. It is an additional matter that in order to fulfill the
necessities of a democratic order, a constitution incorporates some more
principles specifying relationship between the people and their state
within the variety of a particular charter of their fundamental rights and
obligations.
59
Hence, a constitution “may be aforementioned to be a set of
principles in step with which the powers of the government, the rights of
the governed, and the connection between the two are adjusted.” In
alternative words, it is going to be delineated as a frame of political
society setup through and by law, in which law has established
permanent institutions with recognised functions and definite rights.”
By all means, it is a legal document known by different names like,
• Regulation of the state,
• Tool of government
• Basic law of the territory

• Basic statute of the polity
• Foundation of the nation-state
The constitution of a state, in brief, gives all basic principles on
which the state is to be governed leaving the details for the governments
to work out. In other words, the constitution of a State provides the
skeleton of the body politic whereas flesh and blood are provided by the
subsequent laws. The English word Constitution' means the physical
structure of a person. In political science, the term constitution means
the structure and the organization of the State or government. The
constitution contains the fundamental principles of the government.
6.3 DEFINITIONS OF THE CONSTITUTION
Cooley: "The Constitution is the fundamental law of the State,
containing the principles on which the government is founded."
Bryce: "A constitution is a set of established rules embodying and
directing the practice of government."
Finer: "The Constitution is a system of fundamental political
institutions."
Dicey: "All rules which directly or indirectly affect the distribution or the
exercise of sovereign power in the State make up the constitution of the
state."
Woolsey: "It is the collection of principles according to which the powers
of the government, the rights of the governed and relations between the
two are adjusted."
Borgeaud: "A constitution may be a written instrument, a precise text or
series of texts enacted at a given time by a sovereign power"
60
Aristotle: "A constitution is the way in which citizens who are
component parts of a state are arranged in relation to one another."
Gettell: "The fundamental principles that determine the form of a state
are called its constitution. These include the method by which the state
is organized, the distribution of its sovereign powers among the various
organs of government, the scope and manner of exercise of
governmental functions and the relation of government to the people
over whom authority is exercised."
Lewis: "The term Constitution signifies the arrangement and distribution
of the sovereign power in the community or form of Government."
Leacock: "Constitution is the form of Government." Austin: "The
Constitution fixed the structure of Supreme Government".
Jellinek: "Constitution is a body of rules or laws, which determine the
supreme organs of the states, prescribe their mode of creation, their
mutual relation, their sphere of action and finally the fundamental place
of each of them in relation to State",
The basis of any system of government, democratic or otherwise, is its
constitution. In a democracy, however, the constitution has a special
significance. Still, writers differ as to the precise meaning of the term
constitution. Its general nature may be understood by examining some
of the authoritative statements of eminent writers.
For instance, Lord Bryce defined a constitution as "a frame of political
society, organized through and by law, that is to say, one in which law
has established permanent institutions with recognized functions and
definite rights."
According to Dicey, “it includes (among other things) all the rules which
define the members of the sovereign power, all rules which regulate the
relation of such members to each other, or which determine the mode in
which the sovereign power, or the members thereof exercise their
authority." It follows, that a constitution signifies the total complex of
effective rules relating to the fundamental concerns of government.
Modern writers view the constitution as a scheme for the arrangement of
power-relationship inside a community. The basis of a constitution lies in
a belief in the limited government. Its purpose is to design the
institutional fabric of a state by means of which power relationships may
be so organized, that it would lead to an effectively restrained
governmental action. Sometimes constitutions are classified as written
and unwritten, rigid and flexible.
61
A written constitution is supposed to mean a document or a collection of
documents, in which the rules regulating the main institutions of
government are written down. In this sense there are written
constitutions in India, the United States, and France etc. An unwritten
constitution, on the other hand, stands for the whole body of customs,
conventions and usages which have not been systematically
documented and yet which are as important as regulating rules as those
in a so-called written constitution. In this sense Great Britain is said to
have an unwritten constitution.
6.4 NECESSARY OF A CONSTITUTION
During the period before the American Revolution, the idea of a

constitution as a necessary and fundamental document was very much
to the forefront. As the nineteenth century wore on, the idea became
firmly rooted that, every state must have a constitution and that it must
rest on the approval of the people. Today constitutionalism has become
the bedrock of democracy. A constitution is desired for a variety of
reasons:
(i) To curb the powers of government by a fundamental law.
(ii) To restrain the government on behalf of the individual.
(iii) To limit the vagaries of present and future generations.
John Adams, James Madison, and a long succession of the Supreme
Court Justices of the U.S.A emphasized this view point In contrast to it;
Jefferson preferred to set a limit to the duration of any particular
constitution. Today most scholars will agree with Schulze when he says
"every community entitled to the name, of state must have a constitution
i.e., collection of norms by which the legal-relations between the
government and its subjects are determined and in accordance with
which the power of the state is exercised; a state without a constitution is
unthinkable."
6.5 KINDS OF CONSTITUTIONS
It is helpful to bear in mind the range of possible classifications which

can be applied to any constitution. Professor KC Wheare identifies the
following classification as
 Written and unwritten

 Rigid and flexible
 Supreme and subordinate
 Federal and unitary
 Separated powers and fused powers; and republican and
monarchical.
62
6.5.1 ENACTED CONSTITUTION
Enacted constitution is that, Constitution which is framed by a

constituent assembly. Such a constitution is enforced on some fixed
date, For example, the Indian constitution is an enacted constitution. It
was framed by a Constituent Assembly and it was enforced on 26th
January 1950.
6.5.2 EVOLVED CONSTITUTION
Evolved constitution is that constitution, which is neither created by any

assembly nor enforced on some fixed date. It is the result of evolution
and growth. It takes hundreds of years to grow. For example, the British
constitution is an evolved constitution.
6.5.3 THE WRITTEN CONSTITUTION
The American constitution heralds the era of constitutionalism. The

American example has been followed by several other nations.
Constitutionalism provides for a philosophy of change which is
rationalized legally as well as morally and socially. A written constitution
is one in which most of the provisions are embodied in a single formal
written instrument or instruments. "It is a work of conscious art and the
result of a deliberate effort to lay down a body of fundamental principles
under which the government shall be organized and conducted".
A written constitution may be composed within a single document
bearing a single date such as the constitutions of the U.S.A.. India, and
Burma or may be written in a series of documents such as those of
France and Austria. In states having written constitutions there are
generally two bodies of law, one constitutional and paramount, and the
other statutory and subordinate. This distinction, however, is not always
found in states with the written constitutions.
6.5.4 THE UNWRITTEN CONSTITUTION
An unwritten constitution is that in which most of the prescriptions have

never been reduced to writing and formally embodied in a document or
collection of documents. It consists mainly of customs. Usages and
judicial decisions together with a smaller body of legislative enactments
of a fundamental nature created on different dates. The constitutions
coming under this category cannot be struck off at once by a constituent
assembly or any other body. The British constitution is the best example
of such a constitution. Nobody has the legal authority to declare an Act
of Parliament or of the executive unconstitutional.
63
Even Britain has certain written documents such as the Magna Carat,
the Petition of Rights, the Bill of Rights, the Act of Settlement, the
Franchise Acts, and the Parliament Act of 1911. But, the most important
part of the British constitution is contained in "conventions'' or
"understandings". As Finer puts it, "they are taken for granted but not
formulated".
6.5.5 FLEXIBLE CONSTITUTIONS
All those constitutions which possess no higher legal authority than

ordinary laws and which can be changed or amended by the same
procedure as ordinary laws, whether they are enshrined in a single
document or in a large number of conventions; are classified as flexible
or elastic constitutions. Such constitutions, though written, possess
flexibility and can be altered at will as easily as an ordinary law. The
constitutions of Great Britain, to some extent, has influenced and
brought it that of India, come under this category.
6.5.6 RIGID CONSTITUTIONS
Those constitutions which are enacted by a different body which have a
higher status than ordinary laws and which can be altered only by
special procedure, are classified as rigid, stationary or inelastic
constitutions. This fact is made clear, if the method of amending the
American, Australian or Swiss constitutions is carefully studied.
6.6 ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD CONSTITUTION
Regardless of whether a constitution is appropriate or
inappropriate for a specific nation depends up on the circumstance,
which prevail there. It is conceivable that a specific sort of constitution
might demonstrate valuable for a specific nation, yet for another country
it may not demonstrate helpful. For instance, a federal constitution is fit
for India, but it is not apt. for Nepal, Myanmar and Pakistan. It relies
upon the social and financial set up of the country. Each state has a
privilege to choose and outline its own constitution. A good constitution
should have the accompanying characteristics.
6.6.1 CLARITY OR DEFINITENESS
By readability and definiteness, we suggest that each clause of the

constitution need to be written this type of easy language, as need to
specific its that means clearly.
64
6.6.2 BREVITY
The constitution ought to now no longer be lengthy. It ought to

incorporate handiest vital matters and unimportant matters ought to be
left out.
6.6.3 COMPREHENSIVENESS
It implies that the constitution ought to be material to the entire nation or

other than the central government, tthere ought to be notice of the
construction and powers of state or provincial governments. Mention
must additionally be made approximately the crucial topics regarding the
rights and obligations of the authorities and the citizens.
6.6.4 FLEXIBILITY
One of the foremost vital characteristics of an honest constitution is its

ability to adjust to the ever-changing society. A honest constitution
should be versatile to some extent. It should always adapt to the social,
political, economic, technological and alternative changes that are
inevitable within the lifetime of a rustic for its growth and process. It
ought to be flexible and furthermore be generously deciphered to meet
the always evolving social, financial and political necessities of the
country. Where the constitution isn't adaptable, it will be hard for it to
address the issues of the residents in the midst of crisis.
This doesn't likewise imply that the constitution ought to be excessively
adaptable, as that will likewise take into account simple meddling with
the arrangements of the law. The constitution should make uncommon
circumstances where it tends to be corrected to meet certain
improvements in the general public. The constitution ought not be too
unbending to even consider obstructing the course of revision when
required.
6.6.5 DECLARATION OF RIGHTS
A good constitution should contain the fundamental rights of the citizens.

In the constitutions of nations like Soviet Union, China, France, India,
US, Japan and Italy such kinds of presentations have been made.
6.6.6 INDEPENDENCE OF JUDICIARY
Freedom of Judiciary is one more nature of a good constitution. The

judiciary ought not be heavily influenced by the executive and it should
operate independently and act as the defender of the Fundamental
Rights of the citizens without favor or dread.
65
6.6.7 DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY
In a good constitution notice should be made of the Directive Principles

of State Policy, since it helps in the foundation of a welfare state. These
principles additionally fill in as a reference point for the public authority.
However these principles have been referenced in a couple of
constitutions of the world, yet it is valuable and not unsafe to specify
them. These principles have been remembered for the Constitution of
India and Ireland.
LET US SUM UP
From the above, one will justly windup that the constitution is that
the extraordinary law of the land. It sets forth the desire of the folks that
it governs, forms the government, the rights and obligations of state on
the one hand, and also the rights and duties of a person on the opposite
hand and the provision of remedies for somebody performs an
unconstitutional action. Absolute Equality and Liberty is possible only
when there is involvement of constitution of the country. This unit
reviews the concept of the constitution, where all the organs of the State
can have a check on the other, thereby limiting power by the means of
constitution.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. The term Constitution is derived from___________ Language.
2. The federal constitution not suitable for ______, _______, and
______
3. ________ defines constitution as, “that it fixes the structure of
supreme government.”
GLOSSARY
Incorporate : Constitute as a legal corporation
Regulation : A rule made and maintained by an authority.

Brevity : Shortness or conciseness of expression.
Flexibility : The capacity to change, to twist, or to convince.
1. Latin
2. Nepal, Myanmar, and Pakistan
3. Austin
66
MODEL QUESTION
1. Define constitution.
2. Explain the various definitions of constitution.
3. What are the fundamentals of a good constitution?
4. What is flexibility in a constitution? How it is essential for a
constitution?
5. Elucidate the various essentials of constitution.
SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Barker, E. (1951), Principles of social and political Theory, Oxford

University Press: London.
67
Block III
Theories of State
Unit - 7 Theories of State: Divine Theory - Force Theory
Unit - 8 Patriarchal and Matriarchal Theory
Unit - 9 Social Contract Theory
Unit - 10 Evolutionary Theory
68
UNIT – 7
THEORIES OF STATE:
DIVINE THEORY – FORCE THEORY
STRUCTURE
Overview
Learning Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Theories of the State

7.3 The Divine Theory
7.4 Criticisms of the divine theory
7.5 The Force Theory

7.6 Criticisms of the force theory
Let us sum up
Check Your Progress
Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested readings
OVERVIEW
There are basically Six theories that describe the origin of State,
namely Divide theory, force Theory, Patriarchal and matriarchal theory,
Social contract Theory, Evolutionary theory. The most established
hypothesis about the beginning of the State is the separation beginning
hypothesis. It is otherwise called the hypothesis of the heavenly right of
lords. The lord who rules over the State is an offspring of God on earth.
For the hypothesis is the way toward building up another administration
or country using power. As stated in the previous chapters, this unit
explain the divine and the force theory, upon the need for the origin of
state and its cause for Human Civilization of the evolution. The theories
on how the state was created and its evolution of king and warrior
aspect in this dynamic world have been described.
69
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able

 Learn the theories of the state.
 Understand the Divine theory of State.
 Explain the force theory of State.
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The human life and behaviour in this society is very peculiar. The
belief and faith exercise based on the leader and guide or someone who
supports and fulfils all needs of the specific human. In this concern, it
would evolve through different theories like divine, force framework.
Beginning through crude, but, improving the form of manifestation
towards a perfect and universal organisation, is mankind." The origin of
the State is shrouded in mystery. The theories dealing with the origin of
the State are mostly speculative in this unit. The political scientists and
historians are not unanimous as to the exact origin of the State. How the
State came into existence is still an enigma. Political scientists and
historians only imagine the various factors which might have contributed
and the responsible for the origin of the State. The real origin of the
State is covered in mystery. Nowhere in the history has it been recorded
that when the State actually came into existence: The following five
theories have been advanced by various political thinkers in various
ages which deal with the origin of the State.
7.2 THEORIES OF THE STATE
Political thinkers and philosophers have tried and attempted to trace out
and explain the origin of the state in various methods, according to the
nature and the social condition prevailed at the time of their thinking.
However, there is no valid answer to “what is the origin of the state”?
There were many contradictions in the thesis on what the origin of
States. Nowhere in the history has it been recorded when the state
came into existence.
There were various beliefs regarding the origin of the state, some
believe that the origin of the state lies in the hands of God whereas
others believe that they are based on social contract and some trust on
single force, the family, or the process of evolution. The research
anthropology ethnology and comparative philosophy had tried to focus
on the origin of the state, but it was not adequate.
70
Prof. R.N.Gilchrist aptly mentioned that “of the circumstances
surrounding the dawn of the political consciousness, we know little or
nothing from history, where history fails, we must restore to speculation”.
Historical method and evolutionary course of action failed to prove when
mankind originally came under the control of state. It is only the
imagination of the political scientist and historical researchers that
various elements which might have made contribution for the origin of
the state. As such, there was no agreeable and acceptable conclusion
among the political thinkers regarding the fundamental question of origin
and establishment of state. As a result, there were various theories
concerning the primary or prehistorical origin of the state propounded by
the political scientists and historical researchers.
7.3 THE DIVINE THEORY
According to this theory, the State is the march of God on earth.It

is the oldest theory regarding the origin of state.The Jews were the chief
exponents of the Divine Origin Theory. According to the Jews, “The King
owes responsibility to God alone for his acts”. The State is created by
God himself. It is stated in Mahabharata, that, when anarchy prevailed in
the beginning of the world, the people prayed to God to come to their
rescue. The Greeks and the Romans regarded state as a divine
institution. The Old Testament and the Church fathers greatly influenced
the writers of the medieval ages who used this theory, sometimes to
assert the supremacy of the Church over the State, and sometimes to
establish the supremacy of the State over the Church.
The theory received great impetus by the Protestant Reformation. The
Hindu thinkers believed that the state was divine. Even the Muslim law
regarded the King as a shadow of God.It was believed by the supporters
of Divine Origin Theory that the king was given the power to control and
govern the people by the supreme power ie., God. In the Bible, it is
stated: "Let every soul be subject unto higher powers. For there is no
power but of God; the powers that be are ordained of God." The Divine
Origin Theory propagated non-resistance to the authority of the- ruler.
Gradually, this theory took the form of the Divine Right Kings, especially
in England during the sixteenth and seventeenth century. The first Stuart
King James I said "Even a King is wicked, it means God has sent him as
a punishment for people's sins and it is unlawful to shake off the burden
which God has laid upon them." Again "Kings are justly called Gods for
they exercise a manner of resemblance of divine power upon earth."
71
According to Gettel, "During a large part of human history, the State was
viewed as a direct divine creation and its government was theocratic in
nature." The Divine Origin theory upheld the following principles:
(a) The King is the embodiment of wisdom.
(b) The King is responsible only to God.
(c) The King is given his power by God.
(d) Kingship is hereditary.
(e) The people must surrender unconditionally to the authority of the
King.
(f) The people have no right to judge the King, for any of his acts.
The Divine Origin theory lost support among political thinkers by the end
of the eighteenth century. It was completely as rejected by Grotius,
Hobbes and Locke.
7.4 CRITICISM OF THE DIVINE THEORY
The following are the various criticisms on divine theory by different

scholars.
(i) The Divine Origin Theory does not appeal to reason and
commonsense.
(ii) It justified monarchy and despotic rule.
(iii) It supported unlimited power of the king and denied liberty to
individuals.
(iv) There is no historical evidence of divine origin of the state.
(v) The social contract theory which attributed political institutions to
the idea of consent was a blow to divine origin theory.
7.5 THE FORCE THEORY
The force theory of the origin of state, like the divine origin and
social contract theories, advocated the historical origin of state and also
its rational justification. According to this theory, state is the result of
aggression. Force is the basis of the state. War begot the state.' The
main profounder of this theory are Jenks, Bernhardi, Treitschke,
Oppenheimer etc. Treitschke maintained that “the state is the power of
all offence and defence, the first task of which is the making of war and
the administration of justice”. According to Bernhardi, "the supreme right
and the dispute as to what is right is decided by the arbitration of war”.
War gives a biologically decision, since its decision rests on the very
nature of thing Even Herbert Spencer advocated the principle of the
“survival or the fittest”.
72
The Force theory implies that the origin of state can be traced to the
capture and submission of man by man, or in other words, domination
acquired by superior physical force. According to Jenks, "all political
communities of the modern age owe their existence to successful
warfare." Again, "a state was founded when a great leader, with the help
of soldiers, was able establish his authority over a certain territory. Later
on, he extended his authority over the neighbouring areas. It was in this
way that a state came into existence." (History of Politics) Bluntchilli says
that, “force is an essential element in the organization of the state”.
According to the proponents of this theory there are various stages in
the development of state.Firstly there is a continued process of
aggression. The conquerors captured those who are defeated.Secondly,
the weaker are enslaved and exploited.In the third stage, there is co-
operation between the conquerors and conquered for mutual benefit.
Next stage is of unity and patriotism. A government is formed for the
settlement of disputes.And, lastly, state is established. The military
leaders become kings. They provide law and order, and continue the
process of expansion.
The force theory glorifies war. It maintains that it is during war that
discipline, patriotism and unity come to the fore.This hypothesis was
utilized by the German scholars to legitimize the position and power of
the state. It was supported by the Church during the middle age ages to
demonstrate that while the Church was the realm of God, state was the
aftereffect of power and carnage. The individualists utilized this
hypothesis to confine the exercises of the state to war and gained the
support of the rule of law.
7.6 CRITICISM OF THE FORCE THEORY
The following are the various criticisms on force theory by different

scholars.
(i) To regard the element of 'force' as the only factor responsible for
the evolution of state is not correct,
(ii) Force alone cannot account for the continuance of state, Might
without right can at best be only temporary. Abraham Lincoln
remarked, Victories by force are short-lived'.
(iii) Rights cannot be created by force. Rights like the state are
founded in the nature of man.
(iv) Will, not force, must be the basis of state. Kant says, population of
devils would find it to their advantage to establish a coercive state
by general consent."
73
(v) The theory does not give emphasis to the element of cooperation
in a society,
(vi) The theory glorifies war and justifies absolutism of state.
(vii) The theory of force is a blow to the international principles of
eliminating force and war.
LET US SUM UP
In this unit, we explained the Theories of State as Divine Theory

includes the claim that morality is ultimately based on the commands or
character of God, and that the normally right action is the one that God
commands or requires. According to force theory, the State is the result
of superior physical forces. It originates in the subjugation of the weaker
section by a stranger. Through this unit the learner would understand
about the origin of the state. The ideas would differ depending on area,
culture and behaviour of the people in different places. The state cannot
be run without a major spectrum.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. The Divine origin Theory of State holds
a) The State was created by a saint named Divine
b) State was created by God
c) State was created by majority vote
d) State was created by the people
2. In modern times the force theory found a strange advocate in
a) Lenin b) Hitler c) Winston Churchill
d) Mahatma Gandhi
3. The Kings are breathing _______________ of God upon earth.

4. According to _______________________ the State originated
and sustained by force.
GLOSSARY
Divine origin Theory : The state is created by God.

Force Theory : Domination acquired by physical force.
1. State was created by God

2. Hitler
3. Images
4. Force Theory
74
MODEL QUESTION
1. Explain the concept of Divine theory.

2. Describe the Force Theory‟s role in the origin of state.
3. Define kings‟ importance in the theory of state.
4. Write a Criticism of divine origin theory.
SUGGESTED READINGS

75
UNIT – 8
PATRIARCHAL AND
MATRIARCHAL THEORY
STRUCTURE
Overview
Learning Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Concept
8.3 Patriarchal Theory
8.4 Criticisms of the Patriarchal Theory
8.5 Matriarchal Theory

8.6 Criticisms of the Matriarchal Theory
Let us sum up
Check Your Progress
Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested readings
OVERVIEW
Patriarchal Theory is a Social organization where father is the authority.

In the family, that follows the matriarchal Theory is a social organization
where mother is the head of the family. The importance of family and
this unit emphasise the value of human behaviour in the ancient system
to get the involvement on the bases of patriarchal ideas upon the need
for the origin of state and its cause for the Human Civilization. The
theories on how the state was created and its evolutionary aspect in this
dynamic world which is related to Patriarchal and Matriarchal theory
have been described.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 Understand the various theories on state evolving by family.
 Know the Origin of the state on the Patriarchal Theory.

 Examine the matriarchal theory of state.
76
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Theories try to explain the origin of the State. The sum and
substance of the theories is that "the State is an expanded family". It is
also known as the Kinship Theory or as the Sociological Theory of the
origin of the State. It says that family or kinship is responsible for the
creation of the State. The State is nothing but an expanded family.
According to the advocates of this theory, family lies at the root of the
origin of the State. In ancient times, men were living first in the families.
Man is a social animal without parental care he cannot exist.
Thus, family is a natural institution. It is the oldest social

institution. Subsequently various families merged together and formed
Clans‟. Few clans were again merged together and formed the "Tribe'.
From the tribe the idea of the State finally emerged. Thus, this is the
process of the origin of the State and at the root of this process lays the
family. The concept of these theory can be traced to the Greeks.
Aristotle believed that the state owes its origin to the natural institution of
'family'. State is the family writ large.Sir Henry Maine is the chief
advocate of this theory. Published in 1861, his book Ancient Law' and in
1875 Early History of Institutions' propounded the theory that the state is
extension of the family.
8.2 CONCEPT
The Patriarchal and Matriarchal theory has been associate to the

family. In ancient times these two types of families were found in various
places. The patriarchal family is one where the father or the male
member is the leader of the family. In some families the father took the
headship of the family. The idea of the State came from the patriarchal
family. Authority was the symbol of the patriarchal family. All members in
the family obey the authority of the father. Likewise the citizens in the
State obey the authority of the State. Thus, the patriarchal family was
there in the beginning from which the idea of the State emerged. The
State is an expanded father.
Some other sociologists do not accept this point. They point out that the
Matriarchal family was there in the beginning. In ancient times mothers
took all the care to build up the family. When men were moving like
nomads, the mother was more careful in rearing children. Mother was
the symbol of authority in the family. Thus, the Matriarchal family was
the basis of the State. The State is an expanded mother. It cannot be
exactly said which family was there in the beginning. However, there is
no doubt that family is one of the factors or ideas from which the State
emerged. The State and family have some similarities.
77
The child learns to obey the State from the family. The idea of
cooperation, tolerance, sympathy, etc. is learnt from the family. These
are also virtues of a good citizen. Thus, family and the State have some
similarities. It may be concluded that the family lies at the root of the
origin of the State. This theory is a simple one, related to of the States.
Many of the civic virtues are learnt from the family. Like the family the
State is a natural institution. As men cannot live without family, so also
they cannot live without the State. Furthermore, the functions or aims of
the State are essentially different from, and even contradictory to, those
of the family. The patriarchal and matriarchal theories may thus be justly
characterised as a simple theory of the origin of the State.
8.3 PATRIARCHAL THEORY
In the forum of origin of the state, an attempt has been made to

utilize the knowledge of the primitive societies, which might have been
the seedbeds of more complex social forms of the later ages. As the
state is a form of group life which evolved through the ages, it perhaps
started in the most primitive of the human groups. In this sense, the
family which was the earliest social unit might have been the starting
point of the government. It contained the rudiments of the governmental
control. Within the family were practiced, defence organisation, family
worship, economy-management etc. Thus, in the evolution of the state
the family served as the simplest and the earliest link. It was Aristotle's
belief that the state came into being as a result of the 'natural expansion
of the family'. The Patriarchal Theory of the state seeks to explain that,
the state is the natural expansion of the original family unit in which
descent was traced through the males and the cities, male parents ruled
absolutely. The unit of the 'primitive society was the family.
Inside the family the eldest male parents possessed despotic power. He
had supreme authority over the children, the houses, and the slaves.
The first family broke up into more families, which were held together by
the head of the first family. The multiplication of families living under the
control of one head led to the origin of the tribe. When several tribes
belonging to the same kin-group acted together, the state came into
being. Thus 'patriarchal society' laid the foundation of the modern state.
The Patriarchal Theory of the state contains three essential features,
viz., male kinship, a system of permanent marriage and paternal
authority. The members of the patriarchal family traced their descent
through males. That implies the existence of a system of permanent
marriage as a social institution. Further, the authority of the chief or
patriarch over the members of the family was absolute.
78
8.4 CRITICISM OF THE PATRIARCHAL THEORY
The Patriarchal Theory has been criticized on many grounds. According

to modern researches in various disciplines it is held that patriarchal
families were not universal. The idea of a patriarchal family with a male
at its head has been rejected by McLennan and other exponents of the
matriarchal system. The critics thus seek to prove that the matriarchal
system was the original organisation and the patriarchal society was a
later development. It has further been argued that the theory is wrong as
the earliest unit of society was the tribe, rather than the family. The
assumption of the institution of permanent marriage in the primitive
societies is also held to be unrealistic. Still, however, it must be admitted
that the theory is not without significance, as it draws our attention to the
fact of kinship as an element in the shaping of the state. Jenks says that
the earliest and primary group was the tribe'. Then came the 'clan' and
finally the family. The patriarchal theory is more close to describing the
gradual origin of early society It does not deal adequately with the origin
of the state.
8.5 MATRIARCHAL THEORY

The exponents of the Matriarchal Theory of the state claim that
matriarchal rather than patriarchal family is the earliest form of social
organisation. Descent, in such societies, they maintain, was traced
through females. Evolving through a number of stages, the matriarchal
society ultimately shaped the state. The main exponents of the
matriarchal theory are McLennan, Morgan and Jenks. They reject the
idea of the patriarchal families as the earliest social unit.
According to them, the existence of monogamy or polygamy,
alone, could ensure descent from the male ancestor. But in primitive
societies such institutions of marriage could not be found. The system
currently in these societies was one of polyandry. Thus, one usual
husband-wife relation was non-existent. What existed instead were
loosely connected groups or 'hordes' within which promiscuous sexual
relations prevailed and descent was traced through females. Under such
a system, the children belong to the clan of their mother. Owing to the
prevalence of the custom of exogamy, the father usually belonged to a
separate clan. In these circumstances, maternity was a far more
conclusive guide than paternity. The primary group was the tribe which
broke into clans and later into households and families.
79
With the advent of the pastoral life with permanent houses and
domestic animals, the individual family came into existence. The gradual
prevalence of the monogamous or polygamous marriage system
ultimately laid the foundation of the patriarchal family.
The main features of this theory are,
a) In matriarchal society marriages were temporary,
b) Kinship was traced through females; and
c) Maternal authority was established over property and power.
J.J. Bachofen is of the view that women, in matriarchal societies, played
a dominant role in body politic.
8.6 CRITICISM OF THE MATRIARCHAL THEORY
Later, sociological research has conclusively proved that neither

patriarchal nor matriarchal family was universal in the primitive societies.
In some of the communities one or the other perhaps prevailed. But, to
say that only one type of family system could be found everywhere in the
early societies is a travesty of facts. Secondly, as Maclver observes, the
terms 'matriarchal' and 'matriarchate' implying some sort of 'mother-rule'
or 'woman-rule' are misleading. Under the conditions of primitive society
woman was "the agent of transmission, not the active wielder or even
the participant of power." Both the patriarchal and matriarchal theories
seek to treat the family as the original link in the evolution of the state
Thus in explaining the origin of the state, both these theories put
exclusive emphasis on the fact of Kinship. But, it has now been proved
that besides kinship, various other factors like religion, war etc.,
contributed to the origin of the state. Moreover to treat the state as the
enlargement of the family is to earn simplicity at the price of adequacy.
LET US SUM UP
Patriarchal Theory is a Social system in which men hold the

primary power and predominates in roles of political leadership, Noralaul
theory, social privilege and control of property. Matriarchal Theory is a
Social system in which female hold the primary power position in roles of
political leadership, moral authority, social privilege and control of
property. Through this unit, the learner would understand about the
origin of the state. The ideas would differ depending on the area, culture
and behavior of the people in different places. The state cannot run
without a major spectrum.
80
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. The patriarchal family is one where the ________________

member is the leader of the family.
2. According to the matriarchal theory the head of the family was
___________.
GLOSSARY
Patriarchal Theory : Rule of the Fathers.

Matriarchal Theory : A Society Politically led by females.
1. Eldest Male.
2. Eldest Female.
MODEL QUESTION
1. Discuss the theory of Patriarchal theory.

2. Explain the matriarchal role in origin of state.
3. Examine the difference between patriarchal and matriarchal society.
SUGGESTED READINGS

81
UNIT - 9
SOCIAL CONTACT THEORY
STRUCTURE
Overview
Learning Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 The Social Contract Theory

9.3 The Statement of the Theory
9.4 Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
9.5 John Locke (1632-1704)

9.6 Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
9.7 Decline of the Theory
Let us sum up
Check your Progress
Glossary

Model Questions
Suggested readings
OVERVIEW
The Social contract hypothesis is of the speculations of the beginning of
the State. This theory states that the Society or the State cares into
being by a contract that was made between the individual and the
Society or the contract that was made among the distinct individuals. In
this unit of Political theory, it covers the origin of state through social
contract theory. Some of the theories extend to prove the value of the
state. This theory elaborates some important things through the contract
and is historical evolution in the society, by the means of social contract.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 Understand the concept of social contract theory.
 Learn about the origin of State in the social contract theory.
82
9.1 INTRODUCTION
In the family of political science, the social contract and

evolutionary theories explain how the society functions and may initiate
to prove the state origin. In the evolution part, the history is explained by
periodically changing the system and also making the society on the
development of the modern political theory. Regarding the origin of the
state, the Social Contract Theory holds that the state is the outcome of a
contract, or an agreement made by people among themselves. This
theory considers the state of nature as the original condition of mankind.
In the state of nature, there was no organization or authority to

regulate human behaviour and their relationship with one another. To
escape from such a deregulated life, people felt the need of some sort of
authority or civil society where everyone could lead a life of stability and
peace. So, the people entered into a contract or agreement which was
deliberate and with this, the state came into existence. Thus, according
to the social contract theory, the state is a human institution and an
outcome of a contract among people.
9.2 THE SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY
This theory is an important theory of the origin of the State. It

dominated the European political thought in the eighteenth century and
has also played a very important part in the development of the modern
political theory. Of all the speculative theories, the Social Contract
Theory is based on a number of a priori assumptions. In short, the
theory says that the State is a product of contract. The idea of contract is
very old in political philosophy. In ancient times Plato in his book "The
Republic" and Kautilya in his book the "Arthasastra" hinted at the idea
that the government was a product of the contract. In the middle Ages,
Hooker, a noted political philosopher, also spoke of the idea of contract.
But, all these political philosophers said about the idea of the
governmental contract. The idea of the social contract in its modern
form, originated in the 17th and 18th centuries in the writings of Thomas
Hobbes, John Locke and Jean Jacques Rousseau. These three
celebrated political philosophers are the advocates of the Social
Contract Theory of the origin of the State. THOMAS HOBBES (1588-
1679) was the tutor to Charles II of England, published his famous book,
"The Leviathan '', in 1651. In this book he gave a lucid description of the
theory of Social Contract. His object was to defend absolute power of
the monarch and he used the theory of the Social Contract to support it.
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Hobbes was said to be the product of the civil war of 1642. He saw the
execution of King Charles I in 1649 and the chaotic conditions and
anarchy which were prevailing during the Civil War. Hence he stood for
the strong authority and absolute power.
9.3 THE STATEMENT OF THE THEORY
The Social Contract Theory explains not only the origin of the
State but also the nature of the State. The theory of social contract of the
origin of the State says that the State is a product of the agreement or
the contract. The State came into existence as a result of a voluntary
agreement among the primitive people. The Social Contract theory starts
with the assumption that, people were living in the initial stage in a "State
of Nature". All the three advocates of this theory accept the idea of a
"State of Nature." The state of nature was the original existence of
mankind when there was no State. It was without any political authority.
Neither law nor right was found in the State of nature. There was only
"natural law" and "natural rights".
People were guided by the law of the nature and they were living very
simple lives. The three advocates of this theory described the state of
nature in different ways. However, all of them agreed that, as the state of
nature was either inconvenient or dangerous, people decided to leave
the state of nature. They entered into the present society through the
contract. Contract is the medium through which man escaped from the
state of nature to the present society. The State is, therefore, a product
of the contract or a voluntary agreement among the primitive people.
The Social Contract theory was very popular in the 17th and 18th
centuries.
Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and Jean Jacques Rousseau developed
this theory in a systematic and logical manner. The ideas of these three
famous philosophers are explained below:-
9.4 THOMAS HOBBES (1588-1679)
In his book “Leviathan” (1651), Thomas Hobbes, an English political

philosopher, discussed the origin of the state through the theory of social
contract. According to him, prior to the emergence of the state, people
lived in the state of nature. According to Thomas Hobbes, the state of
nature was both pre-social and pre-political. Thomas Hobbes depicted a
very negative picture of human beings living in the state of nature. In the
state of nature, human beings by nature were poor, nasty, brutal and
selfish. Human beings had no sense of what is right or what is wrong.
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Principles of law, justice and tolerance were absent and fraud and force
were the basic principles in the state of nature. Everyone was an enemy
of everyone else and people lived in the fear of constant war. However,
with the passage of time, to get rid of such type of miserable life in the
state of nature, people themselves entered into a contract to form a civil
government.
Under this contract, people surrendered their natural rights, except the
right to self preservation, to a person or a group of persons who
remained as sovereign. The sovereign was not a party to the contract.
He was not subject to any conditions and possessed unlimited power.
The sovereign was responsible for the protection of the lives and rights
of the people. And since the people had voluntarily entered into the
contract, they had no right to break the terms of the contract. People had
no right to revolt against the sovereign. The sovereign was the only
source of law and his commands were considered as laws.
According to Hobbes, “power and authority of the sovereign under this
social contract was absolute, inalienable, indivisible and unlimited”.
Thus, Hobbes was of the view that a contract among people led to the
establishment of a state and sovereign authority.
9.5 JOHN LOCKE (1632-1704)
John Locke, another English political philosopher, supported the

cause of limited monarchy in England. His theory was, in fact, a
justification of the Glorious Revolution of 1688. The theory of John Locke
is found in his "Two Treatises on Civil Government', published in 1690,
wherein he upheld the ultimate right of the people to dethrone the
monarch from his authority, if he ever deprived them of their "liberties
and properties." Locke spoke of the limited government and he had
sympathy for the constitutional monarchy. He refuted the theory of the
absolute monarchy upheld by Filmer and Hobbes. He was said to be an
apologist of the Glorious Revolution of 1688. Locke gave a different
description of the state of nature and the contract.
According to him, the state of nature was not a stage of war and
strife, but of peace and good-will. Locke's State of Nature was only pre-
political and not pre-social. It was not a gloomy state of affairs like
Hobbes. "Peace, reason, and good-will" were found among the people in
the State of Nature. "Natural Law" and "Natural Rights" helped to govern
the relationship of people in the state of nature. Locke was the first
political philosopher who described the rights to life, liberty and property
as natural rights. These rights are sacred and cannot be taken away
from the people, even in the modern State.
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To conclude with Locke, the state of nature was one of "peace,
goodwill, mutual assistance and preservation." It was a state of liberty,
but not of licence. Because of certain "inconveniences' ' like absence of
the legislature to make law, the executive to carry out law and the
judiciary to interpret law and punish the law-breaker, people decided to
leave the state of nature. They formed the civil society through contracts.
They only surrendered some of their rights to the State. The natural
rights were well-kept by the people and no State or Government can
take them away from the people. Locke made the Government a party to
the contract. A Government is bound by the terms and conditions of the
contract. Locke advocates limited Government and constitutional
monarchy.
9.6 JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU (1712-1778)
Jean Jacques Rousseau, the great French Philosopher of the

eighteenth century, elaborated his theory in his famous book, "The
Social Contract," published in 1762. Rousseau, unlike Hobbes and
Locke, was not the product of any Revolution. His aim was "to find a
form of association which will defend and protect with the whole
common force, the person and goods of each associate, and in which
each, while uniting himself with all, may still obey himself alone, and
remain free as before." He wanted to give a lucid and logical explanation
of the nature of the civil society and justify the popular sovereignty. He
was an admirer of the individual's simplicity in the state of nature and
strongly condemned the corruption and the degradation in civilised the
society. His writings inspired the French Revolution of 1789.
Rousseau, the celebrated philosopher of the 18th century, gave
a classic exposition to the theory of "Social Contract". In his political
philosophy, he seems to have combined the views of Hobbes and
Locke. So far as the state of nature is concerned, Rousseau began with
Hobbes and ended with Locke.
According to him the state of nature was the happiest period in

the history of mankind. Man, in the state of nature, was a "noble
savage". He was leading a simple, happy and carefree life in the
beginning stage of the state of nature. But gradually the "State of Nature
''degenerated into a vicious circle. Growth of population, existence of
private property and rise of the so-called "civilisation" made individual life
complicated and insecure. Jealousy and competition were seen among
the people in the last stage of the "state of nature".
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Thus, the last stage of the "state of nature" became bad and
intolerable. People decided to leave the state of nature and formed the
State through contract. According to Rousseau people surrendered all
their natural rights to the sovereign body. The sovereign body is based
on the will of the people. Rousseau called it the "General-will''. It is
sovereign and nobody can oppose it. The "General- will'' is supreme and
all powerful in the State. Rousseau said, "The voice of the people is the
voice of God ''. This is otherwise known as popular sovereignty, because
of the doctrine of popular sovereignty and it is one of his outstanding
contributions to political theory.
The Glorious Revolution (1688) was on monarchy. Rousseau's idea of
the popular sovereignty, gave sufficient food for thought in France, and
became a strong factor for the French Revolution. Nobody bothered
whether the State and is reality originated in a contract but millions were
powerfully stirred by the idea that the people are the ultimate sovereign
and the State is an expression of the popular will.
Value of Liberty: The theory preaches the idea that "will, not force is the
basis of the State." The element of consent which lies behind this theory
is of immense importance, the solution of democratic government. The
theory served as constitutional for the principles of England.
Value of Right: Lastly, the theory proclaims that right, not might, is the
basis of the political society. The civil society is to be based on justice
and justice can prevail through a system of rights which individuals enjoy
in society.
9.7 DECLINE OF THE THEORY
The Social Contract Theory declined due to the following reasons :-
(i) New Attitude of Writers: The attitude changed and they adopted
the historical method in the eighteenth century. The approach of
the philosophers like Montesquieu and Burke adversely affected
the Social Contract Theory. Montesquieu‟s book, The Spirit of the
Laws (1748), indicated the beginning of the new historical and
positive attitude of writers. Speculative attitude gave place to
pragmatic attitude. of thinkers
(ii) The Theory of Evolution: Darwin's Theory of Evolution influenced
the different branches of study, and political science was no
exception to it. The study of the State and government was
analysed in the light of the principle of evolution.
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(iii) Rise of New Theories: The rise of new theories led to the decline
of the Social Contract Theory. While the defects in the theory were
criticised, the same ideas of the theory were given place in new
theories. The theory of political sovereignty as developed in the
modern times was nothing but the elaboration of the idea of Locke.
The modern form of referendum is merely a modified version of
Rousseau's conception of popular sovereignty.
LET US SUM UP
Social contract theory says that individuals live respectively in

their community. Society is understanding with an arrangement that sets
up upright and political principles of conduct. A few group accept that on
the off chance that we live as indicated by a social contract, we can live
regularly by over own decision and of in light of the fact that a heavenly
being requires it. The concept of social and evolutionary theories has
been reviewed in the political system. It emphasizes the value of theory
for social changes. It forecasted for the development on long fear of
planning the system. The Evolutionary Theory of origin of the State and
the Marxian Theory of the nature of the State sounded the final death-
knell of the Social Contract Theory.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. The Social contract theory deals with _________________.

2. The Three most prominent exponents of social contract theory
were ___________________.
3. The Social contract theory is based on ________________.
GLOSSARY
Social contract Theory : Contract among the people.

General will : Will of the people.
1. The origin of State

2. Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau
3. Contract
MODEL QUESTION
1. Explain Social Contract Theory of Hobbes.

2. Examine the Social Contract Theory of John Locke.
3. What is Rousseau‟s Social Contract theory?
4. Analyse the criticisms of Social Contract Theory.
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SUGGESTED READINGS

89
UNIT - 10
EVOLUTIONARY THEORY
STRUCTURE
Overview
Learning Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Evolutionary Theory
10.3 Traces of origin of State

10.4 Factors of Evolution of State
10.4.1 Kinship
10.4.2 Religion
10.4.3 Economic Activities
10.4.4 Force
10.4.5 Political Consciousness
Let us sum up
Check your Progress
Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested readings
OVERVIEW
The theory which explains and is now accepted as a convincing origin of

the state, is the Historical or Evolutionary theory. It explains the state is
the product of growth, a slow and steady evolution extending over a long
period of time and ultimately shaping itself into the complex structure of
a modern state. This theory is more scientific. Evolutionary Theory
clarifies the State is the result of grown, a gradual assessment clarified
over a significant stretch of lire and at last molding itself into the
perplexing construction of a cutting edge state. This unit will explain the
value of evolution on the basis of experience and uncertain incidents to
the development of the country. The state, originated through the
evolution on every day basis of human life.
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 Understand the need for evolution for the Humans.
 Learn the various necessary aspects in order to lead a secured
and peaceful life.
 Know the need for evolutionary theory in origin of state.
10.1 INTRODUCTION
The Evolutionary Theory of the origin of the State says that, the
State is the result of the longest process of growth. This theory is
otherwise known as the Historical Theory. It simply states that "The
State is a growth, not a make." As Garner writes, "The State is neither a
handiwork of God, nor the result of superior force, nor the creation of the
resolution or convention, nor a mere expansion of the family."
Various theories have been developed to explain the origin of the
State. Some philosophers assert that the State is the result of social
contract or an agreement among the people. There are others who
suggest that, it is the direct result of force. All these theories seem to be
fallacious and have little truth in them. According to Leacock, "the State
is a growth, an evolution, the result of a gradual process running
throughout all the known history of man and receding into remote and
unknown past."
10.2 EVOLUTIONARY THEORY
The origin of the social institutions is shrouded in obscurity.
Theories concerning their origin are approximations to what might have
taken place in the past. This is certainly true of theories concerning the
origin and evolution of the state. In Spite of a number of important
theories of the state origin, no single discussion seems to be adequate.
In fact, modern sociologists have made it clear that social

phenomena cannot be explained by reference to any single factor as
one of the multifarious agencies of social control, the state, in history,
has passed through different stages of development. It is the product of
a steady evolutionary process, in which more than one factor had
participated. The generally accepted theory of state origin, known as the
evolutionary theory, is thus based on a 'pluralistic' explanation of the
political phenomena. Today, however, writers like Lowie do not
subscribe to the theory of linear evolution of the state.
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10.3 TRACES OF ORIGIN OF STATE
The historical evolutionary theory holds the view that the state
has originated through a gradual evolutionary process. It treats the state
as a product of historical development like any other human institution.
We can identify the following stages through which the state has evolved
over the years.
Tribal state: Roaming tribes generally settled down in regions where
nature was bountiful and responsive to the needs of man. These states
were essentially power and property states, built on wealth and military
force. Each tried to expand and dominate others. Wars and instability
was the order of the day.
The City state: The next stage in evolution of state took place with the
birth of city states in Ancient Greece around 1000BC. When Greeks
settled in Europe they got organised in local communities.
The Roman Empire: By the close of the first century B.C., the Greek
system of government came to be replaced by the Roman Empire and
the entire western world got united under a single political regime.
Feudal state: Upon the disintegration of Roman Empire, its territories
fell into the hands of powerful nobles and big land owners. Land tenure
came to be accepted as the basis of man‟s status in the society.
The Church vs. the state: By the time Roman Empire got disintegrated,
the church had got itself established as a potent authority. When the
Empire fell to pieces, it was in a position to step into give Europe peace
and order. The church asserted its supremacy over the temporal kings.
This led to the emergence of conflict between the church and the king.
Renaissance and Reformation: Renaissance was the period in Europe
between the 14th and 16th century. Renaissance implied the revival of
the classical learning and involved the transitional movement in Europe
which changed the medieval outlook into a modern one. The coming of
reformation, which can be described as an indirect result of renaissance
further gave strength to the spirit and forces of nationalism.
Birth of the Nation-State: politically the modern age dawned with the
emergence of Absolute Monarch in various states of Europe which now
came to be nation states and which had over thrown the feudal states.
The rise of nation-state in England, the American Revolution of 1776
and French revolution of 1789, gave strength to the concept of nation-
state fortified with the spirit and philosophy of nationalism. The
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unification of Germany (1864-71) gave further strength to the concept of
nationalism as the hall mark of the state
10.4 FACTORS OF EVOLUTION OF STATE
Gradually, society became politically organized and it led to the evolution

of the state. In this way the social nature of man helped in the evolution
of the state. The key factors which played a part in the evolution of the
state are Natural and Social Instinct
a) Kinship
b) Religion
c) Economic activities
d) Force and
e) Political consciousness
10.4.1 KINSHIP
Maclver says: "Kinship creates society and society at length

creates the state”. The role of kinship is an important factor in the
evolution of the state. The primary social unit is the family. The primitive
family took various forms, ranging from a condition approaching
promiscuity to restricted groups within which intermarriage was
forbidden." The extension of the thread of the blood-relationship extends
and subdivides the kin further.
10.4.2 RELIGION
In course of time, they came to worship these forces, imagining

the hands of the unseen agents behind them. "This primitive form of
religion, called animism, was accompanied by fetishism, a superstitious
belief in the effectiveness of the material objects, and later took the form
of nature worship, often developing into a beautiful mythology." Also, the
cult of worship of the deceased ancestors was a general feature of the
primitive communities. Primitive religion, in fact, provided the sanction
for law and the government s ensured the unity and obligation of the
group.
10.4.3 ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES
The economic activities of primitive peoples contributed greatly to

the origin of the state. The emergence of the idea of the private property
and the social distinctions based on wealth necessitated the adoption of
the new rules to cope with the changing situation. According to Maclver,
the interaction of the forces of sex and property is highly significant in
the building of the social structure. Wealth came to be unequally
distributed and class distinctions arose. For the regulation and protection
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of the property rights and the settlement of property disputes and new
laws were created. Thus the economic activities of the early peoples led
to the rise of the government.
10.4.4 FORCE
The role of force in state building has been stressed by a number

of eminent writers. For instance, Marx viewed the state, as a creation of
the dominant economic class' that uses it as a means of exploiting the
masses. The origin and evolution of the state were similarly made
possible by the interaction of the antagonistic forces, In Spite of
exaggerated references to the role of force by some sociologists,
historically speaking, struggle and warfare proved an important element
in the state formation. The purpose of defence aggression, the members
of a group had to work concertedly under the authority of a recognised
leader.
10.4.5 POLITICAL CONSCIOUSNESS
The evolution of the state has greatly been helped by political

consciousness. Consciousness of common ends has always been
present in human beings. Thus, customary laws began to take roots
almost imperceptibly. When Aristotle characterized man as a political
animal, he merely pointed out this spontaneous acquiescence of men in
the imperative codes of social coordination. The evolutionary theory, it is
said, highlights the evolution and not the origin of the state. This theory
is to systematize the diverse forces and factors that contributed to the
origin and evolution of the states in general. The operation of all the
factors might not have been uniform or necessary in the particular cases
of state building. The state is a moving phenomenon that knows no
finality; the political scientist can at best hazard a guesswork. The
evolutionary theory does something more than that. It clearly shows that
the state is neither the gift of God nor the deliberate work of man.
LET US SUM UP
The concept of evolutionary theories reviewed in the political

system. It emphasizes the value of theory for the social changes It
follows that many factors helped the growth of the state. No single factor
alone was responsible for its origin. Sometimes all and sometimes many
of them help the process by which uncivilized society was transformed
into a state. Of all the theories which seek to explain the origin of the
states, the evolutionary theory is the most satisfactory. It should be
noted that no theory pin-points the time at which the state originated as
a consequence of many factors working in union at different times.
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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. The Evolutionary theory holds that

a) The State was created during the early periods of Humanhistory.
b) State was created by revolution.
c) State was created in the fourteenth century.
d) State is the result of slow process of growth.
2. The unification of Germany (1864-71) gave further strength to the
concept of __________________.
3. The Greek system of government came to be replaced by the
_________________.
GLOSSARY
Evolutionary nature : Slow process of growth.
Kinship : A sharing of characteristics or Blood

relationship
1. State is the result of slow process of growth

2. Nationalism
3. Roman Empire
MODEL QUESTION
1. Explain the evolutionary theory.
2. Discuss the Traces of the origin of state.
3. Critically analyse the evolutionary theory of origin of State.
SUGGESTED READINGS


95
Block IV
Political Ideas
Unit- 11 Rights
Unit- 12 Liberty
Unit-13 Equality
Unit-14 Justice- Rule of Law- Civil Society- Revolution -

Democratic Participation
Unit-15 Political Obligation
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UNIT - 11
RIGHTS
STRUCTURE
Overview
Learning Objectives
11.1 Rights
11.2 Definition
11.3 Characteristics of Rights

11.4 Classification of Rights
11.4.1 Legal Rights
11.4.2 Civil Rights

11.4.3 Political Rights
11.4.4 Economic Rights
11.4.5 Moral Rights
11.4.6 Human Rights
Let Us Sum Up
Check Your Progress

Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested readings
OVERVIEW
Rights are lawful, Social or moral standards of opportunity.

Rights are the Fundamental regulating rules about what is charmed of
individuals or owed to individuals as indicated by the same overall set of
laws, Social transformation or the moral theory. Rights, liberty and
equality are three inter-associatedsubjects. Ownership and satisfaction
in rights with no differentiation makes liberty and equality interconnected.
To live, man should have a few rights. Comparably, as a citizen or the
express a man should act in a manner which is useful for all and which
is useful in advancing the government assistance of society. This unit
covers Rights and its characteristics.
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After learning this unit, you will be able to

 Know the meaning of Rights.
 Understand the characteristics of rights.
 Discuss the classification of Rights
11.1 RIGHTS
The rights are fundamental for the sufficient improvement of the

human character and for human bliss. Rights are the fundamental
conditions for the individual, social, monetary, political, mental and moral
advancement of people. Rights are the social prerequisite of a social
man for the improvement of his character and society on the loose. Laski
defined rights as "those conditions of social life without which he cannot
seek, in general, to be himself at his best and every state is known by
the right if maintains ".
11.2 DEFINITION
1. “Rights are nothing more an nothing less than those social

condition which are necessary or favourable to the development of
personality” - Dr.Beniprasad
2. “Right is a power claimed and recognised as contributory to
common good” - T.H. Green
3. “Rights are those condition of social life without which no man can
be his best self” - Pro. Laski
4. Rights as "the external conditions necessary for the greatest
possible development of the capacities of the personality" - Prof.
Barker
5. "One's natural rights are one's natural power"-Hobbes
11.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF RIGHTS
The following are the characteristics of the rights:

 Rights are social in their application: exclusively by living in a
general public a man can fulfill his requirements and
acknowledged what is best in him. The topic of rights there for
emerge just in the public arena. A forlorn man in a desolate island
has no rights on the grounds that there is nobody to assault him or
to infringe his distinction.
 Rights are identified with human necessities: they are those
condition or openings without which we can't foster our force or
inert freedoms.
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 Rights are not supreme: if conditions request certain limitation can
be put on the happiness regarding rights so as to get the bigger
interest of society.
 Rights are not lasting: The substance of rights is changing as
indicated by the changing necessities and goals of s society. For
instance before the creation of print machine opportunity of
articulation was not viewed as vital.
 Rights are general in character: Rights are general in sense that
chances for self improvements ought to be similarly accessible to
all. There can't be any segregation to the extent the utilization of
rights.
 Rights suggest obligations: Every right has a relating obligation.
On the off chance that I have a right, the happiness regarding my
rights suggests an obligation on piece of others. Rights are
genuine just to degree to which they have been excepted by
others as a commitment.
 Rights are relative with capacities: The quantity of rights moved by
an individual should compare to the commitment makes to society.
The leader of a nation appreciates a larger number of rights than
his peon since his commitment is unquestionably more prominent
than the peon.
11.4 CLASSIFICATION OF RIGHTS
Rights are four classifications: they are Natural Rights, Legal
Rights, Moral Rights and Human Rights. Legitimate Rights additionally
partitioned into three groups i.e., Civil Rights, Political Rights and
Economic Rights.
By natural rights we mean those rights which are appreciated by
individuals even before the beginning of state. As indicated by scholars
like Hobbes and Locke, natural rights were those rights which are
appreciated by the people in the condition of nature. As per Rousseau
natural rights were those optimal rights which are appreciated by the
people before the beginning of the gaze. The old view with respect to
nature rights isn't acknowledged today. The lone sense in which the
hypothesis of natural rights acknowledged is that these rights are viewed
as natural and fundamental for the individual if they are really perceived.
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KINDS OF RIGHTS
Moral Rights Natural Rights Human Rights Legal Rights
Civil Rights Political Rights Economic Rights
Rights to Life Rights to Vote Rights to Work
Rights to Contest Rights to leisure and

Rights to Freedom
Elections Rest
Rights to hold Public Rights to Form Trade

Personal Security
Meetings union
Rights to adequate
Rights to Property Rights to hold public
wages
Rights against Speech

Rights to criticize and Free Press &
Rights to Expression
government disobey its unjust laws
exploitation
Freedom of Assembly Rights to petition Rights to social security
Rights to equal and

Freedom to form
Rights to public office Associations pay for
Unions
equal work
11.4.1 LEGAL RIGHTS
Legal rights are those rights which are gotten by the state and
ensured through its laws. Legal rights might be characterized as the
cases perceived by the state. These rights are authorized by the state
through its police and courts. Legal rights are typified in the constitution.
Legal rights are additionally partitioned into three classes, to be specific
social equality, political rights, and the monetary rights.
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Right to Equality: It means the absence of legal discrimination against
any individual, group, class or race. All admitted in any educational
institution situated in the country is equal in the eyes of law and all
should get equal protection of law. The State should not discriminate
against any citizen on the grounds of religion, race, language, caste or
sex, Right to equality is a fundamental right in the Indian Constitution.
11.4.2 CIVIL RIGHTS
They are those rights without which no enlightened life is

conceivable. Edified life is outlandish under the dread of being harmed,
assaulted, killed or our property seized. Social liberties are viewed as
essential as and more imperative than the other two. The significant
social equality are insurance of life and property, right to training, right to
family, right to the right to speak freely of discourse and articulation.
Right to Life: It is the most fundamental of all civil rights. Man must live
first before he can do anything. The State must make adequate
provision for the personal safety of its citizens. This right also implies the
right to self-defence and the prevention of suicide.
Right to Liberty: This right implies free movement. Every citizen has
complete freedom to move within the State. None can be detained
arbitrarily without trial and there must be provision for redressal for
wrongful arrest by the government, he must be ordinarily put before the
nearest magistrate within 24 hours of his arrest.
Right to Property: Property in democracy is regarded as a sacred
institution. It creates a sense of possession and an incentive and proper
remuneration to work. It is a reward for one's ability and is essential In
India, if anybody is for the realisation of the moral end of man.
Machiavelli correctly once said that, man may forget the murder of his
father but he will never forget the loss of his property. The communists,
of course, advocate the abolition of property. But, all democratic States
guarantee this right to their citizens.
Right to Contract: The right to contract means that every citizen can
live, work, earn and freely contract on the basis of equality with other
citizens. This contract is the essential basis of society.
Right to Protection: While staying abroad, this right is again enjoyed
by the citizens alone. Every citizen, while staying abroad, can seek
protection from the home State, if he is in difficulty. If an Indian staying in
America suffers injuries from an American and the American State does
not redress his grievances, the Indian Government may intervene on
behalf of its citizen.
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11.4.3 POLITICAL RIGHTS
They are those rights which empower individuals to have an offer

in the organization of the country. By practicing the political rights, the
individual partakes in the issues identifying with the organization of the
country. The significant political rights given to the residents are overall
correct to cast a ballot, the option to remain as contender for the
decisions, the option to hold government office and the option to censure
the government.
Right to vote: It is an important political right in a democracy. It implies
that every adult citizen has the right to express his opinion by casting a
vote at the time of election. However, the present tendency is towards
universal adult suffrage.
Right to be elected: This implies that law should not forbid any citizen
from holding any of the public offices. One can contest in any part of the
country and represent himself in the government. Of course, the State
can prescribe certain minimum qualifications for the representatives.
This is done for the sake of efficiency and ability of the representatives.
Right to Public Offices: No citizen should be prohibited to hold any
public office under the State on the grounds of religion, caste, race, sex
or language or any of them. All are equally eligible for the highest office.
This is a gift of democracy which gives equal rights to all citizens.
Right to Petition: Every citizen has the right to send petitions, either
individually or collectively to the competent authority, executive or
legislative for the redressal of grievances. In a democracy the rulers
cannot ignore the legitimate grievances of the people. The legislative
chamber in the democracy serves as a forum for ventilation of public
grievances.
Right to criticise the government: Democracy is often a government
by discussion and criticism. The right of criticizing the government
should not be restricted. There should be free and frank criticism of the
policies of the government and its administrations. This criticism often
brings the government to the proper oath. This is what is meant by the
saying that "eternal vigilance is the price of liberty".
11.4.4 ECONOMIC RIGHTS
They are those rights which empower individuals to have an offer

in the organization of the country. By practicing the political rights, the
individual partakes in the issues identifying with the organization of the
country. The significant political rights given to the residents are overall
102
correct to cast a ballot, the option to remain as contender for the
decisions, the option to hold government office and the option to censure
the government.
Right to Freedom of Speech: Right to freedom of speech is a primary
necessity of man. Unless its members are free to express their opinion
and exchange their right to freely criticise the policies of the authorities.
Freedom of Press: This right is closely associated with the right to
freedom of speech. It means the right to publish what a man can lawfully
speak. The opinions of the citizens can be published in newspapers or in
pamphlets. Newspapers are the most powerful organs in the modern
democracy to mould public opinion. The citizens have, therefore, the
free success of democracy.
11.4.5 MORAL RIGHTS
Moral rights depend on our morality, equity, or soul and they are
not ensured by any legitimate power. Moral rights are to a great extent
dependent on the strict conviction and the moral originations of the
individuals in any public. In this way, they contrast from one society to
another. They emerge out of man's moral sense. Ritchie characterizes
moral rights as" the case of a person on others perceived by the general
public regardless of its acknowledgment by the state".
Right of Association: Man lives in a group and forms associations. He
has different aspects of life and each aspect may be represented in an
association. This is what is called the "split" personality of man. But, it is
not the only association in the society. There are other associations like
cultural, educational, philanthropic, and religious associations in a
society.
Right to Religion and Conscience: Religion is deep rooted in the
nature of man. An individual should be free to follow any religion he
likes. He should have complete liberty of belief and worship. The State
should have nothing to do with the religion of citizens. Many of the
modern States are, therefore, secular States.
Right to Culture and Language: Every citizen will follow and develop
his own culture and language. The minorities in a democracy should be
allowed to protect their rights and privileges. In the Indian Constitution
there is provision for educational and cultural rights. A citizen in India is
allowed and also frees to preserve his language, script and culture.
103
Right to Family: The family system brings some social virtues in man. It
is often called the "cradle of civic virtues". The right to family is therefore,
one of the elementary rights and it provides for the right to marriage, the
right to maintain the purity of such marriage, the right to custody and the
control of children and the right of inheritance. These are some of the
important Civil Rights of a citizen in a modern State. These rights are not
absolute. They can be restricted for the interest of the State. Even the
rights to life, Liberty and property are restricted by the State during the
war and emergency. During times of war and emergency, it is the duty of
all the citizens to protect and uphold the sovereignty of the State, even if
they have to sacrifice their lives.
Right of Residence: A citizen is free to live in any part of the country,
provided, it does not endanger the safety of the State. This right is
regarded as a political right because of the fact that it is exclusively
reserved for the citizens and denied to (other people) who have no
access to political rights whereas citizens have it in full. Permanent
membership of the State, therefore, depends on the permanent
residence.
11.4.6 HUMAN RIGHTS
Human rights will be rights inborn to all human creatures with no
segregation on the grounds of identity, locale, language, beginning, and
so on These rights are regularly communicated and ensured by law,
which is as arrangements, standard global law and such other general
standards.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR-December 10, 1948)
comprises for the main exertion toward assurance, protection, and
advancement of human rights in the global circle. The UHRD has been
termed “as an historic event of the profound significance and one of the
greatest achievements of the United Nations”.
LET US SUM UP
In this Unit, we explained the rights and classification of Rights. A right is

something an individual has which individuals think ought not to be
removed. It is standard about what an individual is permitted to do or
have. Rights may be placed into laws, so they have lawful insurance.
These four divisions are the typical rights, Manual Rights, Human Rights
and legitimate rights.
104
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Civil Rights are given to the individual by

a) Church b) God c) The State d) The people
2. Right to franchise is a
a) Legal right b) Political right c) Moral right d) Cultural right
3. Who said Rights are those conditions of social life without which no
man canseek to be himself at his best?
a) Austin b) Green c) Laski d) Hobbes
GLOSSARY
Political Rights : Empower individual to have an offer in the

organisation of the country.
Moral Rights : Rights based on Justice.
Human Rights :Rights endowed by Birth.
Rights to meet : As a citizen of a country, you have rights to meet
in public areas.
1. The State
2. Political right
3. Laski
MODEL QUESTION
1. Explain the meaning of Rights.
2. Describe the characteristics of rights.
3. Discuss the Various categories of rights.
SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Agarwal, R.C. (2006) , Political Theory, S.Chand & Company ltd,

New Delhi.
2. Kapur, A.C. (2006) , Political Theory,S.Chand & Company ltd, New
Delhi.
3. Sharma, R.K. (2011), Modern Political Science, DPS Publication,
New Delhi.
105
UNIT - 12
LIBERTY
STRUCTURE
Overview
Learning Objectives
12.1 Liberty
12.2 Definitions
12.3 Nature of Liberty

12.4 Positive Concepts of Liberty
12.5 Kinds of Liberty
12.5.1 Natural Liberty

12.5.2 Civil Liberty
12.5.3 Political Liberty
12.5.4 Economic Liberty
12.5.5 Moral Liberty
12.5.6 National Liberty
12.6 Safeguards of Liberty

Let us sum up
Check Your Progress
Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested readings
OVERVIEW
In modern politics, liberty is the state of being free within society

from control or oppressive restrictions imposed by authority on one's
way of life, behaviour, or political views. Thus liberty entails the
responsible use of freedom under the rule of law without depriving
anyone else of their freedom. In present day Politics, Liberty is the State
of being free inside society from control or severe limitations imposed by
expert in transit of life, conduct of political perspectives. In this unit, we
will discuss elaborately about the liberty and its features.
106
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studing this unit, you will be able to

 Understand the concept of liberty.
 Describe the nature of liberty.
 Discuss the different types of liberty.
12.1 LIBERTY
Liberty functions in the country by the control of law. In the

democractic government system, everyone can enjoy, the but should
follow the country's legal system for liberty might maintain each other in
the same country. Liberty or freedom is a very precious condition in a
Stata without which an individual cannot develop his personality. It is an
abstract concept and as such it is difficult to give precise meaning of
liberty.
According to R.N. Gilchrist writes, "Everyone has a notion of
liberty of some kind and a desire for it, but among ten people using the
word. Perhaps no two people will be able to say exactly what they mean,
or, if they do say it, will agree with each other in their definitions."
The word liberty initiated its origin to the Latin word "Liber" which means
freedom. Thus, liberty means freedom from restraints. It implies
complete freedom to do anything one desire to do. There must not be
any limitations on the individual actions. Political scientists do not accept
such a view of liberty. No civilized society can afford to grant such liberty
to its members. This is why such a view of liberty is considered as a
negative concept as it means the absence of restraints, but, modern
Liberty has a positive aspect.
Laski defines liberty as "the eagle maintenance of that atmosphere in
which men have the opportunity to be their best selves". Not only
negative, but, also positive. His idea of liberty means an atmosphere
where every individual is accorded an opportunity to develop his
personality. Thus it is quite different from the old idea of liberty as the
mere absence of restraints. Laski's view of liberty also fits into the
socialistic theories of modern times. To sum up, "Liberty" in modern
times means that an individual should be free to avail opportunities to
develop his personality.
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12.2 DEFINITIONS
1. G.D.H Cole defines liberty “as the freedom of every individual to

express without external hindrance in his personality.”
2. Prof. Seeley defines liberty “as the absence of restraints or the
opposite of over government.”
3. Herbert Spencer “Liberty is the freedom to do whatever one likes
provided it does not injure the feelings of others.”
4. Gandhi - "Liberty does not mean the absence restraint but it lies in
development of Liberty."
5. 'Liberty' According to Burns, “means liberty to grow to one's natural

height, to develop one's abilities".
6. Harold Laski maintains, "without rights there cannot be liberty
because, without rights, men are the subjects of law unrelated the
needs of personality".
12.3 NATURE OF LIBERTY
Berlin characterizes Negative Liberty as an independence from

others. It implies non-attendance of irrational restrictions. Just bad liberty
implies, the shortfall of intimidation by people or establishments over
impedance into the private circle of a person. It guarantees division
between two spaces of movement, the space of public power and space
of private life. How wider or narrow are the two particular regions
involves conversation and dictated by friendly and monetary conditions.
Liberty is more extensive and movement is likewise more extensive if
impedance from others is insignificant.
Liberty alone can empower an individual to foster his character. The

state should ensure just non-impedance by one with the other. So
particularly far as the decision of the individual is concerned, he should
be his own lord. The independent way of thinking was the primary ally of
negative idea of liberty.The major exponents of negative concept of
liberty are J.S.Mill, Herbert Spencer, Bentham, Smith etc.
12.4 POSITIVE CONCEPTS OF LIBERTY
Positive concept of liberty implies that the state makes positive

conditions for a decent life. It requests conditions which are fundamental
for self-improvement of the people. Everyone should partake in the
advantage of public activity. In the expressions of Laski, "liberty implies
the excited support of that environment where men can have the chance
to be their best selves".
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Accordingly sure concept of liberty implies the expulsion of
deterrents from the method of good life and the making of equivalent
freedoms for all. Every one of the cutting-edge majority rule states have
pretty much acknowledged this positive concept of liberty. Positive
concept of liberty was advocated by Laski, T.H. Green, Kant, and Hegel.
12.5 KINDS OF LIBERTY
The liberty is classified into six types as follows.

12.5.1 NATURAL LIBERTY
Natural liberty is generally identified with unlimited and unrestricted

freedom. Natural liberty according to Hobbes, “is the absolute right of
man in the state of nature to all things including the right to kill other
man. In the social life no man enjoys natural liberty since he is subject to
regulations and rules named by the government and moral pressures of
society”.The supporters of natural liberty hold that man is free essentially
and that it is development, which is answerable for his subjugation.
Rousseau deals with the main type of the concept of natural liberty, and
natural liberty existed in that state of nature. He says men lost his
natural liberty with arise of the state or civil society.
12.5.2 CIVIL LIBERTY
Civil liberty suggests opportunity appreciated by individuals in
civil society. Civil liberty is made by the civil rights ensured by the state.
The more the civil rights are the more the civil liberty. As indicated by
Gettle, "Civil liberty consists of the rights and privileges which the state
creates and protects for its subjects". It is showed in substantial terms in
rights like the right of opportunity, the right of life, the right to speak
freely of discourse and articulation, property, affiliation, training and so
forth
12.5.3 POLITICAL LIBERTY
Political liberties depend on the political rights of an individual

and are the opportunity to take part in the political life and undertakings
of the state. Political liberty is basically connected with vote based
system and it makes a state into a vote based one. Without political
liberty neither the state can be popularity based nor the individual can
appreciate full civil liberties. The two fundamental conditions important
for the presence of political liberties are training and free press. It
comprises of the option to cast a ballot, right to represent political
decision, right to hold public office and the option to reprimand the public
authority.
109
12.5.4 ECONOMIC LIBERTY
Economic liberty infers that the fundamental necessities of life

ought to be guaranteed to everyone. It implies nonattendance of
economic incongruities, abuse, frailty, joblessness, and starvation.
Economic liberty is supposed to be the mother of any remaining
freedoms. Civil and political freedoms become inane without economic
liberty. In his book ' Grammar of Politics', Prof: Laski characterizes, "by
economic liberty, I mean security and the chances to discover sensible
importance in the acquiring of one's day by day bread".
12.5.5 MORAL LIBERTY
Moral liberty infers to the right of a person to act as indicated by

his heart. It implies the opportunity of a person to go about as
reasonable being. It is offered a chance to communicate and foster his
character. It is conceivable in a majority rule state and not in an
extremist state. In authoritarian state individuals are required to act as
per the sets of the public authority and not as indicated by their inward
soul.
12.5.6 NATIONAL LIBERTY
National liberty suggests the liberty of the country or the country.

It exists where the country or the local area is free and sovereign. It
implies that, a country which is totally liberated from unfamiliar control.
Each country has an inheritance to manage its national life as it enjoys.
In the event that a country is heavily influenced by others, no social,
social, economic and political improvements are conceivable.
12.6 SAFEGUARDS OF LIBERTY
A democratic form of government is the best safeguard of liberty.

Despotic or dictatorial governments are not conducive to the enjoyment
of liberty. Even in the democratic states liberty may be crushed by the
bureaucracy or the party in power. Hence various checks should be
provided. This is why it is customary these days to have a set of
Fundamental Rights in all the democratic constitutions.
The "Separation of Powers” ensures liberty. It implies the separation of
the three branches of government, e.g. Executive, Legislative and
Judiciary. Such a separation means each branch would check the power
of the other from encroaching upon liberty. Fourthly, a vigilant public
opinion and an effective opposition can be a safeguard of liberty in a
democratic state. Both should be highly critical about the action of the
government, when it endangers liberty.
110
LET US SUM UP
In this unit, we are explained the liberty and kinds of liberty.

Liberty implies the condition wherein an individual can act following his
and her own will and mindfully, accomplish their political, inside the
setting of different words like political opportunity. They contend that
liberty without fairness and this implies the masteries of the most
remarkable. Of all the rights which are considered fundamental for the
development of the personality of the individual, the right to liberty or
freedom happens to be most respected and valued. In fact without
liberty, i.e. without the freedom to enjoy one‟s rights, there can be no
real right available to the people. Liberty, as such, is the most cherished
and loved right of the people.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. The term „liberty‟ is taken from „liber‟ of ___________ language

a) Latin language b) Greek language c) English language
d) French languages
2. Liber means
A) Free B) So Freedom C) Linked Freedom
D) None of These
3. Positive liberty means
A) Liberty to do anything B) Liberty with Restraints
C) Only restraints D) None of These.
GLOSSARY
Starvation : Suffering because there is not enough food.
Cruelty : Cruel Behaviour.

National liberty : Liberty of the nation.
1. Latin language
2. Free
3. Liberty to do anything
MODEL QUESTION
1. Explain the meaning of liberty.

2. Discuss the nature of liberty.
3. Describe the different types of liberty.
111
SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Kapur, A.C. (2006), Principles of political science, S.Chand &

Company ltd, New Delhi.
2. Agarwal, R.C. (2006), Political Theory, S.Chand & Company Ltd,
New Delhi.
New Delhi.
112
UNIT - 13
EQUALITY
STRUCTURE
Overview
Learning Objectives
13.1 Equality
13.2 Definitions
13.3 Types of equality

13.3.1 Social Equality
13.3.2 Political Equality
13.3.3 Economic Equality

13.3.4 Legal Equality
Let Us Sum Up
Check Your Progress
Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested readings
OVERVIEW
Equality is tied in with guaranteeing that each individual has

equivalent freedoms to benefit as much as possible from their lives and
abilities. It is likewise the conviction that nobody ought to have helpless
life chance that had happened to the manner in which they were
conceived, where they come from, what they accept and whether they
have a disability. A law for equality is inadequate and opposed where
pluralistic pattern of society has become the order of the day. Equality
determines how rights are to be distributed amongst the individuals as
citizens and groups, both whether equally or unequally. In this unit, we
will discuss about the equality and different types of equality.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through his unit, you will be able to
 Explain the meaning and definitions of equality.

 Describe the different kinds of equality.
113
13.1 EQUALITY
Equality, like liberty is one of the fundamental pillars of

democracy. The American Declaration of Independence in 1776
proclaims that" We hold these truths to be self–evident that all men are
created equal". The French Declaration of Rights of Man (1789) also
emphasizes "Men are born, and always continue, free and equal in
respect of their rights".The Charter of United Nations also recognizes
equality in international sphere when it says:"The organization is based
on the principles of sovereign equality of all its members".
Equality implies that all men are equivalent and ought to be entitled
equivalent, opportunity and treatment. It was the development of
independence that is answerable for the new interest in the issue of
equality. Initially, the focal point of consideration was equality by birth for
example regular equality and equality under the steady gaze of law for
example legal equality. In the eighteenth century radicalism that prompts
socio-legal equality and in the nineteenth century monetary and political
equality, acquired momentum.
13.2 DEFINITIONS
1. "Equality does not mean the identity of treatment or the sameness

of reward. If a brick - layer gets the same reward as a
mathematician or a scientist, the purpose of society will be
defeated. Equality, therefore, means first of all absence of social
privileges. In the second place it means that adequate
opportunities are laid open to all" – Laski.
2. "Equality is derived from the supreme value of the development of
in each like and equally, but each along its own different time and
its own separate motion". – Barker
13.3 TYPES OF EQUALITY
After considering what kind of social differences are

unacceptable, we need to ask what are the different dimensions of
equality that we may pursue or seek to achieve in society. While
identifying different kinds of inequalities that exist in society, various
thinkers and ideologies have highlighted four main dimensions of
equality namely, political, social, legal, and economic. It is only by
addressing each of these three different dimensions of equality can we
move towards a more just and equal society. The following are the
various types of equalities.
114
13.3.1 SOCIAL EQUALITY
Social equality implies that all the residents are qualified to

appreciate equivalent status in the public eye and nobody is qualified for
an extraordinary advantages. There might be sane differentiation in the
general public concerning occupation and callings, however the
sensation of inadequacy and prevalence ought not be joined over these.
It represents all ought to be dealt with similarly according to law, no
segregation on grounds of shading, position, doctrine, sex, religion and
so forth, evacuation of social marks of disgrace like untouchablity. On
the tenth December, 1948, U.N.O. announced the contract of Human
Rights which laid weight on social equality.
13.3.2 POLITICAL EQUALITY
Political Equality infers that everybody has equivalent admittance

to the roads of force. All residents anything that might be their disparities
in status, education and wealth ought to have an equivalent voice in the
administration of public issues and in holding public workplaces. General
grown-up establishment is the statement of political equality. All just
nations are based on the rule of "one man, one vote, one value" that is
reliably embraced. Equality of chance in getting chosen and in holding
public workplaces, opportunity of articulation and affiliation and rights to
look for the redressal of public complaints are the significant mainstays
of political equality.
13.3.3 ECONOMIC EQUALITY
Economic equality includes a specific degree of pay and
evacuation of gross disparities of wealth. Economic equality is the
essential for the presence and delight in political, social and legal
equality. It doesn't mean equivalent dispersion of wealth, which isn't
commonsense, yet forestall the grouping of wealth in a couple of hands.
Economic state of an individual basically impacts his political condition.
13.3.4 LEGAL EQUALITY
Legal equality or equality before law is fundamental to legal

justice. Legal equality suggests that all are the same in the eye of law
and that are qualified for its equivalent security. The rich and poor, the
high and low should all be dealt with the same. No differentiation ought
to be made among man and man on the ground of social status, strict
confidence or political assessment. So, Legal equality or equality under
the watchful eye of law suggests nonappearance of segregation. The
Rule of Law is practiced in the Great Britain and numerous different
nations of the world.
115
LET US SUM UP
In this unit, we have studied about the meaning and various

definitions of equality and various rights of equality such as social,
political, economic, and legal. When we talk of equality, we imply
different meanings at different times. In liberal perspective, legal and
political equality may be emphasized more than economic equality. On
the other hand, in a socialist and Marxian framework emphasis is more
on economic equality. A feminist would argue that gender equality is vital
while in a caste divided society like India, it could be argued that social
equality is more essential, if other dimensions are to be meaningful.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. The American Declaration of independence was proclaimed in the

year ______________
a) 1776 b) 1789 c) 1679 d) 1579
2. The charter of united nation also recognises ________in
internetigual sphere.
3. Equality mean the identity of _________
GLOSSARY
Legal Equality : Equality before Law

Social Equality : Equal Treatment in the Society
Political Equality : Equal Rights to participate in the governmental Affairs
1. 1776
2. Equality
3. Treatment
MODEL QUESTION
1. What is equality?
2. Explain the various rights of equality.
3. Bringout two important definions of equality.
SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Agarwal, R.C. (2006) , Political Theory, S.Chand & Company ltd,

New Delhi.
2. Kapur, A.C. (2006) , Political Theory, S.Chand & Company ltd,
New Delhi.
New Delhi.
116
UNIT - 14
JUSTICE – RULE OF LAW – CIVIL SOCIETY – REVOLUTION

– DEMOCRATIC PARTICIPATION
STRUCTURE
Overview
Learning Objectives
14.1 Justice
14.2 Definitions
14.3 Kinds of Justice
14.4 Rule of Law
14.5 Civil Society

14.6 Revolution
14.7 Definitions of Revolution
14.8 Different Perspectives of Revolution
14.8.1 First Schools of Thought
14.8.2 Second Schools of Thought
14.8.3 Third Schools of Thought

14.9 List of Revolutions
14.10 Major Types of Revolutions
14.11 Democratic Participation

14.12 Definitions of Participation
14.13 Types of Democratic Participation
Let Us Sum Up
Check Your Progress
Glossary

Model Questions
Suggested readings
117
OVERVIEW
Justice is an idea on ethics and law that implies that individuals

act in a manner that is reasonable, equivalent and adjusted for
everybody. Law and order is intended to forestall tyranny and to ensure
the privileges of individuals. Civil society alludes to the space for
aggregate activity around shared interests, purposes and qualities, for
the most part area from government and business for benefit
entertainers. A revolution is a fruitful endeavor by an enormous
gathering of individuals to change the political arrangement of their
country forcibly. Majority rule cooperation is basically worried about
guaranteeing that residents are managed the cost of a chance to take
part or in any case be engaged with dynamic on issue that influence
their preferences. In this unit, we will study in detail about the concept
rule of law, justice, civil society and democratic participation.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 Understand the concept of Justice and Rule of law.
 Examine the concept of civil society and revolution.
 Discuss the concept of Democratic participation.

14.1 JUSTICE
The word 'justice' is gotten from the Latin word "justicia" which
means joining or fitting or of bound or tie. The idea of justice has been
broke down and characterized diversely by rationalists, political
masterminds, financial specialists, sociologists and strict pioneers. It has
been changing now and again, contingent on the conditions and
conditions winning in each age. It needs to facilitate and draw an
agreeable harmony among rights and obligations of individuals living in
the society. It is associated with the ethical, social, monetary, political,
and lawful relations of a person with others.
In the view of John Rawls, "Our justice of the social scheme
depends eventually on how fundamental rights and duties are assigned
and the economic opportunities and social conditions in the various
sections of society". In this way, the theory of justice has the importance
to be more extensive and significant and a lesser significant. In the more
extensive significance, there are two perspectives (a) justice is an
interminable or total idea and (b) relative idea - contrasts from one
society to another.
118
In the thin significance of justice is related with a legal framework
and legal interaction in a society. In this sense, it is identified with the
settlement of questions through legal bodies.
14.2 DEFINITIONS
1. "Justice consists of a system of understanding and procedures

through which each in accorded what is agreed upon as fair"-
Charls Marriam.
2. “Justice is the reconciler and the synthesis of political values; it is
their union in an adjusted and integrated whole” - Barker.
3. "From each according to his capacity, to each according to his
need”. -Saint Simon.
4. "All social primary goods - liberty and opportunities, income and
wealth and the basis of self respect - are to be distributed equally
unless an unequal distribution of any or all of these goods is to be
advantage of least favoured"-John Rawls.
14.3 KINDS OF JUSTICE
14.3.1 LEGAL JUSTICE
This is the limited idea of justice and is related with the legal
framework and the legal technique existing in the society. The
courtrooms decipher the law and apply the law in the wake of hearing
and the gatherings engaged with a question. Here, justice is the thing
that is administrated by the courtroom and the translation of the Judge is
considered as an encapsulation of justice. Justice in the legal sense
requires the accompanying conditions. Just and sensible non-
discriminatory laws. The organization of justice by free and autonomous
courts, Inexpensive legal cycle, Court technique ought to be rearranged
and keep away from delay in justice and there ought to be a Rule of Law
in the country.
14.3.2 POLITICAL JUSTICE
Political Justice represents a free and reasonable support of

individuals in the political circle. General grown-up establishment is the
outflow of Political Justice. All liberal vote based nations are based the
standard of "small time, one vote, one worth" is reliably received.
Political foundations ought to be delegate in character. Correspondence
of chance in getting chosen and in holding public workplaces,
opportunity of articulation and affiliation and rights to look for redressal of
public complaints are the significant mainstays of political justice.
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14.3.3 SOCIAL JUSTICE
The idea of Social Justice depends on the conviction that all

individual are equivalent and that no separation ought to be made on the
ground of race, religion, standing, sex, or spot of birth. It has three
ramifications: (a) equivalent social freedoms (b) exceptional
thoughtfulness regarding more vulnerable areas. (c) expulsion of social
indecencies.
14.3.4 ECONOMIC JUSTICE
Economic justice infers non-segregation among man and man

based on economic suitability. It represents by guaranteeing sufficient
method for vocation to all, by making arrangements for satisfactory
working conditions, for equivalent compensation for equivalent work,
reasonable dispersion of assets, equivalent economic freedoms to all
individuals and so forth. The idea of economic justice was underlined by
the socialistic masterminds.
14.3.5 NATURAL JUSTICE
Natural justice has come from the idea of natural law. Natural instinct is
which compels him to stay with others. His dealings with others should
be just. He should do to others what he expects from others.
14.4 RULE OF LAW
The origins of the Rule of Law theory can be traced back to the
Ancient Romans during the formation of the first republic. It has since
been championed by several medieval thinkers in Europe such as
Hobbs, Locke and Rousseau through the social contract theory. Indian
philosophers such as Chanakya have also espoused the rule of law
theory in their own way, by maintain that the King should be governed by
the word of law. The concept of Rule of Law is that the state is
governed, not by the ruler or the nominated representatives of the
people but by the law. The expression 'Rule of Law' has been derived
from the French phrase 'laprinciple de legalite', i.e. a Government based
on the principles of law. The concept of justice has four-fold aspects as
legal, political, social and economic. It will be attractive to manage these
elements of Justice in certain subtitles.
According to Edward Coke , “Rule of Law means:

A) Absence of arbitrary power on the part of the Government.
B) No man is punishable or can be made to suffer in body or good
except for a distinct breach of law established in the ordinary legal
manner before the ordinary courts of the land.
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According to Prof. Dicey, rules of law contains three principles or it has
three meanings as stated below:
1. Supremacy of Law : The First meaning of the Rule of Law is that no
man is punishable or can lawfully be made to suffer in body orgoods
except for a distinct breach of law established in theordinary legal
manner before the ordinary courts of the land.
2. Equality before Law : The Second meaning of the Rule of Law is no
man is above law
3. Predominance of Legal Spirit: The third meaning of the Rule of Law is
the general principles of the constitution are the result of juridical
decisions determining file rights of private persons in particular cases
brought before the Court.
Implications:
1. "No man is punishable or can be lawfully made to gut in body or

goods except for a distinct breach of lo established in the ordinary
legal manner before the ordinary courts of the land." This means
that no man can be punished unless it is proved in a trial before the
court of law that, he has violated the law of the country. It also
indicates that no imprisoned man can be arbitrarily punished.
2. "No man is above law but that every man, whatever his rank or
condition, is subject to the ordinary law and amenable to the
jurisdiction of ordinary tribunal" It suggests that the order
established by the state must be without exceptions. Rule of law,
therefore, strictly implies 'legal equality. All persons are under the
same law and same courts.
3. "The general principles of the Constitution are result of judicial
decisions determining the rights private persons in particular cases
brought before the courts." This means that the rights of the people
are prior to the Constitution. They are rooted in the law of the land.
Rights cannot be suspended and liberties of the individuals cannot
be destroyed without a revolution in the institutions and as per the
traditions of the nation.
4. Dicey's Rule of Law checked the arbitrary tendencies of the
government. It became the hall-mark of the constitution of England.
It also safeguarded the liberties of the individuals. Dicey's analysis
was deeply rooted in his firm belief that the British Constitution was
essentially based on an individualist rule of law. Dicey's concept of
'Rule of Law' suffers from certain limitations.
5. Dicey's theory does not apply to the concept of a welfare state
which gives immense powers to the administrative organs.
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6. Dicey was an individualist who believed that the state ought to
perform only police functions. The dynamics of social situations
have since then changed considerably. Jennings observes, "The
growth of the new functions of the state has made much of his
(Dicey) analysis irrelevant."
7. The growth of delegated legislation has made the administrative
departments free from the control of the courts of law.
8. The 'Administrative Tribunals' negate the concept of legal equality
which is the basis of the Rule of Law."
9. Diplomats and ambassadors from foreign countries enjoy immunity
before courts of law. They cannot be tried even if they violate the
laws of the country.
14.5 CIVIL SOCIETY
Lately the idea civil society has acquired academic consideration

around the world. It has discovered various promoters in the West as
well as in the Third World and the recent communist nations. Today,
researchers with various philosophical influence had arrived at an
agreement over the idea. The disappointment of socialist and Keynesian
models, the declining nature of the political factions and in particular the
development of the majority rules system as the expression of the time
added to the prevalence of the idea.
Civil society started to be considered as the essential pre
condition for liberal popular government. Along these lines, the main
defenders of civil society are the propagators of neo-radicalism and its
benefactor organizations. They pushed the supplanting of state with civil
society and carried civil society with the obligations of social
reproduction and change.The hypothetical beginning of civil society is
identified with the adjustment of the direction of political theory from a
model pushing on the significance of state to a model dependent on
independence particularly with the development of normal law custom.
The beginning of civil society can be truly situated in a period

which saw the battle for insurance of individual rights and freedoms from
the subjective impedance of the state. In short civil society can be
considered as the scholarly posterity of western liberal custom. Perhaps
the main researchers who added to the improvement of the thought was
John Locke. For Locke, civil society was that society which was
established with the assent of individuals to ensure and protecting
private property. He considered civil society as an area of rights which
have a known and settled arrangement of laws and an apathetic
appointed authority to rebuff offenses.
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Researchers of the Scottish illumination had related the word civil
society with civility or civilization. Adam Ferguson had stood out civil
society from savage, crude, discourteous or aggressive society and
compared it with civilized society. The main commitment of the Scottish
edification was that it likened civil society with business society. To
Adam Smith, civil society is the space for economic and social
communication and it is the support of individual and aggregate energies
and life. As far as he might be concerned, the qualities of civil society
incorporate expanded needs, division of work, development of
expressions and science, self-controlled balance, soundness, freedom,
delicate and refined habits and regard for law, all of which accept to be
empowered by and intently restricted with improvement of trade.
The liberal practice commonly viewed as civil society as a space for the
verbalization of political interest of individual against the authority of the
state. This view was reprimanded by numerous researchers including
Rousseau, Hegel, Marx and different Marxists. Rousseau condemned
civil society for its incivilities. Civil society which was shaped after the
agreement, as he would like to think, had legitimized every one of the
disparities of the society. It gave legal status to imbalances initially
dependent on power.
Hegel denoted a significant stage in the talk on civil society. For Hegel,
civil society addresses general selfishness. He contended that it was
made due to the commonality of human requirements. In any case, he
scrutinized it for its incivilities and for its inner drive towards annihilation.
Hegel requested the subduing of civil society by a predominant local
area, the state. To Marx, civil society was a result of common unrest and
its subsequent entrepreneur method of creation. Marx recognized the
civil society in comparison to business and modern life. It is a circle
where the deal and acquisition of work power occurred.
Marx characterized it as a site of realism of current property relations of
the battle of each against all and of pride. Marx thought about civil
society as a space of abuse. It is where the assignment of excess
happens. Civil society is the source and area of oppression of regular
daily existence and it prompts estrangement, concealment, war and
enslavement. Hence, Marx announced a conflict on civil society as a
way to human liberation.
The current use of the term draws intensely on the Tocquevillian

discernment which considers the civil society as an energetic circle
inhabited by a wide range of affiliations, chapels, libraries, scholarly
bodies, public gatherings, town boards, and other independent public
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associations. Michel Walzer defines “civil society as an arena of
coercion-free collective action around shared interests, purposes and
values. In theory, its institutional forms are distinct from those of the
state, family and market though in practice, the boundaries between
state, civil society, family and market are often complex, blurred and
negotiated”.
Cohen and Aratto consider “civil society as a third realm differentiated
from the market and the state”. When they argue that civil society is
different from the state and the market they mean that civil society is free
from the competition, a characteristic of market and also free from
conflict that is related to politics.
The World Bank utilizes the term civil society to allude to a wide cluster
of non-legislative and not revenue driven associations that have a
presence in open life, communicating the premium and upsides of their
individuals or others dependent on ethical, social, political, logical, strict
or humanitarian contemplations. Civil society associations, in this way,
allude to a wide exhibit of associations, local gatherings, NGOs, trade
guilds, native gatherings, beneficent associations, religious associations,
proficient affiliations and establishments, instructive foundations, and
well known developments.
From the above conversation we can recognize the normal qualities of
civil society as voluntarism and associationalism. The utilization of this
idea in a post pilgrim setting brings up numerous issues as
associationalism in such social orders are to a great extent dictated by
early stage factors.
14.6 REVOLUTION
In the field of social sciences revolution has come to mean a sudden,

fundamental and major transformation in the existing social, economic
and cultural life of the people. In the political field the revolution means a
'challenge to the established political order and the eventual
establishment of a new order radically different from the proceeding one.
The term revolution is often used loosely to describe all the far reaching
changes both peaceful and violent.
14.7 DEFINITIONS OF REVOLUTION
Jack Goldstone, revolution is "an effort to transform the political

institutions and the justifications for political authority in society,
accompanied by formal or informal mass mobilization and non-
institutionalized actions that undermine the authorities."
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Mounier, “by revolution we mean a combination of rather for- reaching
changes intended virtually to erase the real illness of society that has
reached an impasse, rapid enough to prevent those terminal illness from
spreading their poisonous decay throughout the national body, yet slow
enough to allow for the growth of whatever require time to mature”.
Moore, “revolution is a type of change which is violent and that engages
a considerable portion of the population and results in change in the
structure of the government”.
Neuman, “revolution is a sweeping fundamental change in the
predominant myth of a social order”.
H. Arendt, “revolution inextricably bound up with the notion that the
course of history suddenly begins a new, that an entirely new story
never known or told before is about to unfold”.
Jeff Goodwin, “revolution is "any and all instances in which a state or a
political regime is over- thrown and thereby transformed by a popular
movement in an irregular, extra constitutional and/ or violent fashion"
and a narrow one, in which "revolutions entail not only mass mobilization
and regime change but also more or less rapid and fundamental social,
economic and/or cultural change, during or soon after the struggle for
state power”.
14.8 DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES OF REVOLUTION
There are three schools of thought to analyse and study the revolution.
14.8.1 FIRST SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT
The first school of thought sought to develop detailed theories of why
and when revolutions arise.This school grounded the more complex
social behaviour perspectives of revolution.They divided it into three
different modes of approaches.The approaches are mainly on
psychological, sociological and political.The main exponents of this
school are-Ted R. Gurr, Ivo K. Feierbrand, Rosalind L. Feierbrand,
James A. Geschwender, David C. Schwartz and Denton E. Morrison.
14.8.2 SECOND SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT
The second school of thought put more emphasis on political and

cultural aspects of revolution.This school of thought saw that society as
a framework in harmony between different assets, requests and
subsystems. As in the mental school, they contrasted in their meanings
of what causes disequilibrium, however concurred that it is a condition of
an extreme disequilibrium that is answerable for upsets.The school was
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developed by the socio-political scientists like Talcott Parsons and the
supporter‟s structural-functionalist theory in sociology
14.8.3 THIRD SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT
The third school of thought is closely associated with the group

perspectives and conflict analysis of the society.The vision of this school
is to see events as outcomes of a power struggle between competing
interest groups.This School also observed that in such a model,
revolution happen when two or more groups cannot come to terms
within a normal decision making process under a given political system
and simultaneously possess enough resources to employ force in
pursuing their goals.The exponents of this school are: Charles Tilly,
Samuel P. Huntington.
14.9 LIST OF REVOLUTIONS
 1688: The Glorious Revolution in England resulted in the overthrow of
King James II and establishment of a Whig-dominated Protestant
constitutional monarchy.
 1774-1783: The American Revolution brought about the autonomy of
the thirteen North American settlements from Great Britain, making
the republic of the United States of America. It is a conflict of freedom
as it made one country from another. It was likewise a transformation
in that it ousted a current cultural and legislative request: the Colonial
government in the Colonies. The American Revolution vigorously
affected the French. Upset followed it and prompted the formation of
a Constitutional type of government. George Washington was a
leader in the American Revolution.
 1789: Regarded as one of the most influential of all socio- political
revolutions, the French Revolution is associated with the rise of the
bourgeoisie and the downfall of the aristocracy. Rousseau,
Montesquieu and Voltaire were the philosophical fathers of French
revolution, which raised the slogans of 'liberty', "equality' and
'fraternity'.
 1917: October Revolution in Russia-Bolshevik seizure of power in
Russia and the establishment of the Soviet Union. Vladimir Lenin was
a leader in the Bolshevik Revolution of1917.
 1918: The Third Russian Revolution of 1918, or the July Revolution is
a term describing a series of rebellions and uprisings against both the
Bolsheviks and the White movement, which started on 6 July, 1918
and were most prominent for the remainder of that month, but
continued up to 30 December, 1922.
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14.10 MAJOR TYPES OF REVOLUTIONS
Failed or abortive revolutions: These failed to secure power after
temporary victories or large-scale mobilization.Non-violent revolutions
(popularly known as color revolutions in the post-Cold War period)
relatively recent phenomena where revolutionary political change is
combined with very low level of violence.
Great revolutions: These were the revolutions that transform
economic and social structures as well as political institutions, such as
the French Revolution of 1789 or Russian.
Communist Revolution: In this type of revolution the Communist Party
overthrows the established regime and establishes dictatorship of the
proletariat with a view to eliminate the bourgeois order and usher in
classless society. The Russian Revolution of 1917 and the Chinese
Revolution of 1949 are the best example of the Communist Revolution
Similar revolutions also took place in a number of other socialist
countries like Vietnam, Korea etc.
Negative Revolution: A revolution can either be negative or positive.
The negative revolution usually leads to political decay, even though it
may be viewed for the time being as move towards progress. Thus the
rise of Fascism in Italy in 1922 and Nazism in Germany in 1933 were
described as revolution even though they gave a serious setback to the
liberal democratic institutions. These are called negative revolutions.
14.11 DEMOCRATIC PARTICIPATION
The term democratic participation refers to active involvement of
the people in the decision making process.It alludes to that the
individuals from the society can partake in the choice of rulers and
straightforwardly or in a roundabout way in the development of public
approach. The center spaces of majority rule interest are: holding
political office, making choice, speaking with the lawmakers, and so forth
Spread of instruction is the absolute most significant factor in delivering
a serious level of interest. In spite of the fact that citizen turnout has
diminished in the course of recent years, appears to be that different
types of interest, like composing letters to public authorities and taking
part in showings, have expanded.There are numerous manners by
which Americans can partake in the governmental issues going from
casting a ballot, which a larger part do with some regularity, to having a
place with a political club or an association, which a couple do.
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14.12 DEFINITIONS OF PARTICIPATION
Aronstein, Citizen Participation is "the redistribution of power that

enables the have not citizens, presently excluded from the political and
economic processes, to be deliberately included in the future". Weidman
and Books, "Public Participation in Management Making: Analysis and
Management of Conflicts" (1993) "Public in Femers Waste Decision
Involvement Government Decision Making: Choosing the Right Model”.
Investment in political science is an umbrella term including various
means for the general population to straightforwardly partake in political,
economic or management choices. The term is likewise utilized in the
management theory to mean a style of management that requires a
significant degree of interest of laborers and directors in choices that
influence their work. For an educated interest to happen, some variant of
straight forwardness is essential. For example radical transparency, is
vital however not adequate.
14.13 TYPES OF DEMOCRATIC PARTICIPATION
Participation and Non-Participation: Sherry Aronstein discusses types
of participation and "nonparticipation" in 'A Ladder of Citizen
Participation' (1969). She grades levels of participation from
Manipulation (least citizen participation) to Citizen Control (most citizen
participation).
Degrees of Citizen Power:
 Citizen Control
 Delegated Power
 Partnership
Non-participation:
 Therapy Manipulation
LET US SUM UP
In this Unit, We explained the concept of Justice, rule of Law,

Civil Society, Revolution and Democratic Participation. Justice is quite
possibly the main virtues in the circles of law and governmental issues,
legal and political frameworks that keep law and control are depict, yet
they can't achieve either except if they likewise accomplish Justice. Law
and order, abandoned by a free Judiciary, plays an essential approval by
guaranteeing that civil and political rights and civil freedoms are
protected and that the equity and dinging of all residents are not in
danger.
128
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. People get proper Justice in

a) Dictatorship b) Democracy c) Monarchy d) Totalitarian State
2. Who developed the concept of rule of Law?
a) Aushi b) A.V.Dicey c) Laski d) Mill
3. Fascism raised in Italy in the year _______:
a) 1923 b) 1939 c) 1935 d) 1940
4. The french Revolution started in
a) 1789 b) 1688 c) 1708 d) 1739
5. A citizen has the right and means to examine the process of

division-making. This is known as
a) Dictatorship b) Democratic participation
c) Transparency d) Monarchy Government
GLOSSARY
Rule of law : All are equal before law.

Civil society : An organization sounded to promote the
interests of a local community.
Democratic : Supporting equal rights for all people.
1. Democracy
2. A.V.Dicey
3. 1923
4. 1789
5. Democratic participation
MODEL QUESTION
1. Explain the meaning and types of Justice.

2. Discuss the concept of the rule of law.
3. What is Civil society and why is it important?
4. Describe the different perspectives of revolution.
5. Write short note on democratic participation.
129
SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Agarwal ,R.C.(2006) Political Theory,S.Chand & Company Ltd,

New Delhi.
2. Kapur, A.C. (2006), Principles of Political science, S.Chand &
Company Ltd, New Delhi.
3. Mahajan, V.D. (2008), Political Theory, S.Chand & Company Ltd,
New Delhi.
130
UNIT - 15
POLITICAL OBLIGATION
STRUCTURE
Overview
Learning Objectives
15.1 Political Obligation
15.2 Characteristics of Political Obligation
15.3 Different theories of Political Obligations

15.3.1 Divine theory
15.3.2 Consent Theory
15.3.3 Traditional Theory

15.3.4 Idealistic Theory
15.3.5 Marxian Theory
Let Us Sum Up
Check Your Progress
Glossary

Model Questions
Suggested readings
OVERVIEW
The word obligation came from the Latin word “obligate” which means
“performance of duties”. Every one has to follow rules of behaviour in
society for his own good and good for others. In order for the state
mechanism to function smoothly a well organised system of the duties is
needed. Political obligation is very important concept in contemporary
world which deals with the duty of the individual towards the state. The
stability of the state is totally depends upon, why and how does the
individual obey the law given by the state authority. Political obligation is
a broad notion and covers many things. Some have said, for example,
that the citizen has an obligation or duty to vote. Others have claimed
that citizens may have a duty to serve their country and possibly even to
fight in its defence. In this unit, we will study about the foundations of
political obligation.
131
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 Understand the concept of political obligation.
 Examine the characteristics of political obligation.
 Know the various theories of Political obligations.
15.1 POLITICAL OBLIGATION
Political obligation is a complex issue. It has significant

contemplation in the realm of political philosophy primarily, the problem
of political obligation pertains to the dilemma' of how to reconcile the
extent of individual liberty with the scope of state authority. When, why
and to what extent an individual obliged to obey the 'men in authority
roles. The term obligation' originates from a Latin word 'obligate' which
means something that binds men to an engagement of performing that is
enjoined. In the context of politics, it implies that since man is a political
creature, he is bound to live under some authority. It becomes his
obligation to obey the commands of this authority, "When the authorizing
rule is a law, and the association a state, we call this political obligation."
An individual's political obligation is related to the performance of his
duties as a citizen, his political participation, giving compulsory services
to the state, payment of dues, taxes etc. The problem of political
obligation involves two aspects,
 To determine the basis of political obligation.
 To determine the limits of political obligation or under what
circumstances people have a legitimate claim to disobedience.
Political obligation implies obedience and hence it is connected to the

maintenance of 'order in a political community‟. Order cannot be
established if the commands of the 'people in authority, responsible for
maintaining peace and order are obeyed. Moreover, political obligation is
a matter of common necessity. It is necessary that men obey authority in
general. “We accept authority because most social enterprises would e
hopeless without it."
15.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF POLITICAL OBLIGATION
Political obligation pertains not only to issues that are political in

nature, but also to those of general good. It involves aspects of honesty,
sincerity and the spirit to serve humanity. The concept of political
obligation involves the issue of political legitimacy. The people must be
satisfied that the existing intuitions which command 'obedience and
132
obligation are legitimate. The people should also be satisfied in general,
that these institutions are most appropriate to serve the best interests of
the society. Political obligation is not only concerned with „obedience‟ to
authority. It is also concerned with the reasons for resisting and rejecting
authority in particular circumstances.
The whole issue of political obligation can be explained in the following
lines, "There are good grounds. for accepting authority in general, but,
there may be good grounds too for rejecting it in particular cases; if
authority derives from a constitution, there would generally be good
grounds for rejecting any exercise of it which was unconstitutional.
Again, if its legitimacy depends on the way it is used, an invasion of a
sphere where political authority is inappropriate might be grounds for
disobedience or, in extreme cases, for resistance."
15.3 DIFFERENT THEORIES OF POLITICAL OBLIGATIONS
obligationVarious theories have been enunciated on the subject of

political obligation. They can be broadly classified under three different
categories:
I. Theories which justify unlimited obligation
(i) The Force Theory

(ii) The Divine Theory
(iii) The Conservative Theory
II. Theories which favour limited obligation
(i) The Consent Theory
(ii) The Idealist Theory
III. Theories against Political obligation
(i) The Marxist Theory

(ii) The Anarchist View
15.3.1 Divine theory
Divine theory believes that the state wascreated by god and

governed by his agent.The agent of God was responsible for hisactions
to God alone.No one could limit or restrict his power.His word was law
and his actions were always just and kind.
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15.3.2 Consent Theory
The divine theory was replaced by the consenttheory.Consent

theory believes that the authority of the state is based on the consent of
the people.Sanction of political obligation is in the will ofthe
people.Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and J.J Rousseauare main
supporters of the Consent theory.
15.3.3 Traditional Theory
Traditional theory is also known conservativetheory.Political

authority is based on principle ofestablished customary right.The person
who obey customs also obey therules because the fact of obedience has
becomelike a well established convention.Political authority is legitimate,
if it isapproved by custom.
15.3.4 Idealistic theory
In Idealistic theory, Approval in the rationality of man and state

asa self-sufficient community.A person can pursue his best
possibleimprovement in society by obeying thecommand of the state.In
other words, political obligation in themoral nature of man.
15.3.5 Marxian Theory
In Marxian Theory, Proletariat is supressed by capitalist class.

Marxian view of the state as an instrument ofthe dominant class. The
working class have no obligation to theexisting bourgeois political order.
Working class must unite to overthrow such type of political system.
LET US SUM UP
Political obligation is very important concept in contemporary world
which deals with the duty of the individual towards the state. The stability
of the state is totally depends upon, why and how does the individual
obey the law given by the state authority. Political commitment along
these lines alludes to the ethical obligation of the residents to submit to
the laws of their State. In Cases where a demonstration or self control
that is legally necessary is ethically compulsory on free grounds, political
commitment basically gives the residents an extra treachery for
movement as needs be.
134
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. The „obligation‟ originated from _________ language

a) Latin b) English c) French d) Spanish
2. Why does an individual has to follow the rules?
a) Because rules exists b) Fear of punishment
c) For his good change
3. Who said “Political obligation is intended to include the obligation
of the subject towards the sovereign” ?
a) Bentham b) T.H.Green c) Hobbes d) marx
GLOSSARY
Obligation : Duty
Legitimate : Accepted by the Laws
Proletariat : Working class people especially those who do
not own any property.
1. Latin
2. Fear of punishment
3. T.H.Green
MODEL QUESTION
1. What is the meaning of Political obligation?
2. Examine critically Karl Marx‟s approach to the notion of political
obligation.
3. Explain the Characteristics of Political obligation.
SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Kapur, A.C. (2006), Principles of Political Science, S. Chand &

Company, New Delhi.
2. Agarwal,R.C.(2006), Political Theory, S.Chand & Company Ltd,
New Delhi.
3. Mahajan,V.D. (2008), Political Theory, S. Chand & Company Ltd,
New Delhi.
135
Block V
Political Ideologies
Unit - 16 Liberalism and Neo-Liberalism
Unit - 17 Marxism
Unit - 18 Socialism
Unit - 19 Fascism
Unit - 20 Gandhism
136
UNIT - 16
LIBERALISM AND NEO – LIBERALISM

STRUCTURE
Overview
Learning Objectives
16.1 Liberalism
16.2 Definitions of Liberalism
16.3 Basic Tenets of Liberalism

16.4 Principles of Liberalism
16.5 John Hollowell Concepts of the Classical Liberalism
16.6 State is a Necessary Evil

16.7 Classical and Modern Liberalism
16.8 Modern Liberalism
16.9 Major Features of Positive Liberalism
16.10 Tremendous Increase of the Functions of the State
16.11 Resurgence of Liberalism: Towards Neo- Liberalism
16.12 Principle of Individualism

16.13 Contemporary Sources of Communitarianism
16.14 Contemporary Debate on Liberalism
16.15 Criticisms
16.16 Issues before Modern Liberalism
16.17 Neo-Liberalism
16.18 Main Issues of Neo-Liberalism

Let Us Sum Up
Check Your Progress
Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested readings
137
OVERVIEW
Liberalism is a Political and economic convention that

accentuates singular self-sufficiency, correspondence of chance, and
the insurance of individual rights, initially against the State and later
against both the state and private economic elements, including
organizations. Neo liberalism is contemporarily used to allude to
advertise oriented change of the governmental issues, for example,
'eliminate the value controls, liberating capital business sectors, bringing
down exchange boundaries and diminishing, particularly through
privatization and gravity, state remember for the economy. This unit
covers concept of liberalism and neo liberalism.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit, you will be able to

 Explain the liberalism and the principles of liberalism.
 Describe the classical and modern liberalism.
 Understand the concept of Neo liberalism.
16.1 LIBERALISM
Liberalism is an expansive convention which incorporates some

fundamental highlights of independence and majority rules system inside
it. Early examples of liberalism incorporate John Locke, Adam Smith and
Bentham. Adam Smith is known as the dad of Economics. Locke is
known as the dad of liberalism. Every one of them shielded guideline of
free enterprise which suggests least impedance of the bar state in the
economic exercises of people.They are the organizers of traditional
liberalism which is called negative liberalism since it thinks about bad job
of the state. Liberalism might be viewed as a disposition as opposed to a
teaching which lays weight on man's decency and levelheadedness.It
has confidence in the worth of human character.
In political theory the ascent of liberalism is related to the improvement
of independence. It had impacted the Western for around four
civilizations for hundreds of years.A few journalists follow its starting
point to the seventeenth century. In the eighteenth and nineteenth
hundreds of years, it arrived at its most elevated structure and impacted
the Western Civilization by and large.
In the twentieth century it has become an undermined philosophy as
there is stamped decrease of liberal theory. Herbert Spencer an English
rationalist tried to reaffirm the negative liberalism through the use of the
standards of inherent science to sociology.
138
It was an endeavor to reward man of his character and independence.It
was a reaction against the authority of the feudal barons, the
government by aristocrats and the power of the clergy.It is a term of
many meanings, after carrying a high emotional content, referring to a
cluster of social, political and economic doctrines which have changed
radically since the word was apparently first used in Spain in 1811 to
refer to the group drawing up the liberal constitution of 1812. "Liberalism
is the theory and practice of individual liberty.
Gilbert Murray holds the opinion that “the Greeks were the first to evolve
the two principles of classical liberalism that is, freedom of thought and
political freedom”. But in Greece, these principles were available only to
citizens.
According to Maxey, "It was a peculiar destiny of the seventeenth and

eighteenth centuries". Religion-political controversies following in the
wake of the Protestant reform contributed directly or indirectly to the
formulation of the liberal principles. Spinoza, Locke, Harvey, Hobbes,
Liebnitz and others advocated the cause of religious freedom.
Liberal ideas were not merely the product of academic speculation.As a
movement the liberalism made itself felt in almost all the countries of the
Western Europe and America. Its most spectacular development took
place in England.
Davis and Good have rightly said, "We have been using the term,
liberalism which is rightly identified with the rise of a modern technical
society availing itself of democratic political forms and of capitalistic
economic institutions. This liberal society came in Britain, France and
America in opposition to the feudal aristocratic culture of the European
past." Liberalism in the broadest sense is synonymous with democracy.
16.2 DEFINITIONS OF LIBERALISM
Laski, “Liberalism is the expression of a creed than of a

temperament. It implies a passion for liberty and that the passion may be
compelling, it requires a power to be tolerant, even skeptical, about
opinions and tendencies you hold to be dangerous which one of the
rarest human qualities is”.
Sartori, “Liberalism is a theory and practice of individual liberty, juridical

defence and the constitutional state”.
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16.3 BASIC TENETS OF LIBERALISM
There is no fundamental logical inconsistency between a

person's personal responsibility and the normal interest. Man is supplied
with certain regular rights which can't be violated by any power. Civil
society and the state are counterfeit organizations made by people to
serve the normal interest. They are qualified for demand submission to
their orders from people on the state of satisfying this capacity.
Liberalism puts stock in the supremacy of technique over the result. It
implies if the methodology for showing up at a choice is correct, the
choice might be acknowledged to be correct. Liberal perspective on
opportunity, fairness justice and majority rule government are a quest for
right system in various circles of public activity. Liberalism advances civil
freedoms of the person. Liberalism maintains opportunity of agreement.
16.4 PRINCIPLES OF LIBERALISM
In his book 'Liberalism', Leonard Hobhouse discussed certain

basic principles those principles of liberalism. According to him were
evolved as a consequence of the struggle of the middle classes against
feudalism, the government by aristocrats and the power of the clergy.
These principles are as follows
Civil Liberty:
According to this principle government should be conducted not
by arbitrary will of any one individual or class but by law.This was
necessary to counteract the veil of oppression by kings or feudal lords
and churchmen.
Rousseau thought that all men were born free and equal in rights and
that rights of man could be limited only by law. It was the right of every
citizen to participate either in person or through a representative and that
the law must apply with precise equality to all.
Milton's liberatarian doctrines declared that all the human being are by
nature born free and endowed with reason and the right to realise their
own destiny and that rulers must exercise their authority under the
restraint of law. Jefferson's famous phrase in the „American Declaration
of Independence', 1776 that all men are endowed by their creator with
certain inalienable rights and to secure them governments are instituted',
appears substantially as an expression of the first principle of Liberalism.
In real sense it was England which first expounded the principle of civil
liberty.
140
Fiscal Liberty:
According to this principle there should be "no taxation without

representation."It was the slogan given by the middle classes who were
producers of all new wealth of the community and they naturally claimed
that they should be allowed to decide as to how and by whom their
money was to be spent. Both civil and fiscal liberty were related to
property rights of their owners.
Locke's doctrine to justify revolutions against arbitrary rule provided
Americans a completely satisfying basis for opposition to the new
colonial policy.Ideas of Sidney, Harrington, Milton and Locke found a
very fertile ground in America which was a new emerging nation.It was
felt by the middle classes that without fiscal and civil liberty they would
not be able to exist and be exploited by arbitrary rulers.
Personal Liberty:
The liberty of a man in the capacity of an individual person is his

personal liberty.This doctrine covered several rights and duties related to
private domain of the individual. The American Declaration of
Independence, the English Bill of Rights, the Habeas Corpus Act, and
the Petition of Rights all aimed to secure these freedoms. But rights are
relative.
Social Liberty:
This implies equality. It means that there should be no discrimination on

grounds of caste, colour, creed, sex, race and economic position. In
essence, social liberty means that all men are born equal and they must
have equal opportunities of progress.
Economic Liberty:
It means that the individuals should have the right to property and
contract. This frees the individual from economic restraints and also
enables him to form partnerships and associations. The inclusion of
these rights under the heading economic liberty by Hobhouse was not
the result of any logical doctrines but was the result of historical
experiences.
The middle classes were keen to get all the restarting imposed by feudal
lords removed and they wanted to curtails the sphere of state activity to
the minimum. Economic liberty for the early liberals was simply
acceptance of the policy of laissez-faire. The present concept of
economic liberty is altogether different from the early liberal concept.
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Modern concept has been explained by Laski thus: "By economic liberty
mean security and the opportunity to find reasonable significance in the
earning of one's daily bread. I must, that is, be free from the constant
fear of unemployment and insufficiency which perhaps more than other
inadequacies, is the whole strength of personality. I must be
safeguarded against the wants of tomorrow".
Domestic Freedom:
It covers equal right for women as regards to property and marriage and
rights for children. Children were to have rights even against their
parents. They need to be protected against maltreatment, cruelty and
exploitation. They were also to have the right to education.
Administrative, Geographical and Racial Liberty:
This concept implied administrative and local autonomy and the rights of
nations to self-determination. As the middle classes grew in power both
economically and politically they found themselves in conflict with
different social orders in those areas where they wanted to establish
themselves.Naturally then, they became strong defenders of the rights of
nations to self-determination. For instance the liberals in England
supported the cause of American colonists for self-determination and
administrative autonomy. They even defended racial equality where the
exploitation of an alien race involved the destruction of their own
economic order.
International Liberty:
This concept means peace and international cooperation and the
formation of world federation of states. Liberals were opposed to the use
of force as an instrument of national policy or militarism.Capitalism
needed peace and international cooperation for the free flow of goods
from one country to another and they all pleaded for the removal of all
political and other barriers which stood in the way of efficient
development of world trade.
Political Liberty and Popular Sovereignty:
An individual enjoys public or political liberty in the capacity of a Citizen.

In other words, as a member of the state, the individual has theright to
constitute and control the government. Universal adult suffrage is the
means through which the citizens constitute the government.It means
that all men should have rights and all must be enabled to enjoy equality
of opportunity in political sphere.
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These two concepts namely political liberty and popular sovereignty
were described by Hobhouse as the crown and glory of liberalism. The
doctrine of popular sovereignty was stressed by the Declaration of
Independence in America. It means that sovereignty lies with the people
and the supreme power of political decision and action vests in the
people.
16.5 JOHN HOLLOWELL CONCEPTS OF THE CLASSICAL
LIBERALISM
According of John Hollowell, the classical liberalism is based on the

following beliefs and assumptions as Absolute value of human
personality and spiritual equality of all individuals.
 Autonomy of individual will.
 Rationality and goodness of man.

 Existence of inalienable rights to life, liberty and property.
 State came into being by mutual consent.
 Law is superior as an instrument of social contract.
 Government has limited negative functions.
 Individual is free in all spheres of life.
16.6 STATE IS A NECESSARY EVIL
In Thomas Paine's word the state is a necessary evil.
 It is necessary in the sense that it establishes order and security
and contracts are ensures that enforced.
 It is evil in that it imposes a collective will upon society, thus limiting
the freedom and responsibilities of the individual.
 The central theme of classical liberalism is a commitment to an
extreme form of individualism.
 Human beings are seen as egoistic, self seeking and largely self
reliant creatures.
 In what C.B. Macpherson termed "Possessive Individualism", they
are taken to be the proprietors of their own persons and capacities,
owing nothing to society or to other individuals.
 This atomistic view of society is underpinned by a belief in negative
liberty meaning non interference, or the absence of external
constraints upon the individual.
 This implies a deeply unsympathetic attitude towards the state and
all forms of government intervention.
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16.7 CLASSICAL AND MODERN LIBERALISM
A line of demarcation is made between the classical liberalism and the

modern liberalism. Liberalism had originated in the 17th and 18th
centuries. It was also known as classical liberalism. The fundamental
feature of classical liberalism is liberty of the individual. It stands for
freedom of individuals in all spheres. It believes in innate goodness of
man and natural order in society. It also advocates various rights
including the natural rights.
These rights are made very sacred, so that the state cannot take them
away in any circumstances. The state is given a minor role to play in the
theory of classical liberalism. The state is viewed as a negative
institution having minimum functions and that state is said to be the best
which governs the least.The classical liberalism is negative in character.
The modern liberalism is positive in character. The tremendous growth
of the activities of the state in the 20th century had resulted in the
emergence of powerful state and positive liberalism.
16.8 MODERN LIBERALISM
Modern liberalism is described by a more thoughtful disposition towards

state intercession. This shift was conceived out of the acknowledgment
that modern private enterprise had simply produced new types of
injustice and left the mass of the populace subject to the ideas of the
market. The modern liberalism was affected by crafted by JS Mill, the
purported New Liberals like T.H. Green, L.T. Hobhouse and J.A.
Jacobson who advocated a more extensive positive perspective on
opportunity.
The new liberalism emphasized the positive or substantive aspect of
liberty. The Political rights and economic freedoms demanded earlier by
classical liberalism for the new middle class. This had also been
achieved by this time. The mounting pressure of the working class for a
better deal forced the capitalist state to revise its policies in the socio-
economic sphere.
Liberalism in its modern phase, tended to widen its base with a view to
include the positive measures for the amelioration of the lower classes
within its purview. This involved abandoning the policy of laissez-faire
and adopting the principle of the welfare state.
The Welfare state also undertook labour welfare legislation, such as
fixing hours of work and social security for old age, etc. It also undertook
nationalization of public utilities in order to obviate the scarcity of
essential supplies and services.
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16.9 MAJOR FEATURES OF POSITIVE LIBERALISM
It has firm faith in the rights and liberty of the individuals, enjoyed in a
free and open society. Liberty is positive in character and has a social
dimension.The state is viewed as positive in character. It is instrumental
in the development of the human personality through social reforms and
welfare measures.It believes in regulated and planned economy in the
overall interests of society. Liberty and equality are complementary to
each other. Democracy and socialism are viewed complementary to
each other. Modern liberals puts emphasis on groups rather than
onindividuals. Modern liberals believe in change which is gradual,
evolutionary, piecemeal and incremental, opposed to class struggle. It
has tremendous faith in constitutional, democratic and parliamentary
system of governments.
16.10 TREMENDOUS INCREASE OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE
STATE
The 20th century has marked some changes in liberalism. Due to the
impact of the tremendous increase of the functions of the state, the state
is no longer viewed as the silent spectator to social issues and
problems. Rapid industrialization has made labour a new force. The
complex nature of the modern state has given rise to functional
representations.
Different interest groups have to play important roles in society. The
emphasis has been shifted from an individual to a group. Modern
liberalism takes all these factors into consideration. It pleads for
maximum benefits to the labourers. It recognises trade unions and
advocates equal pay for equal work.
Modern liberalism does not accept non-interference by the state in the
sphere of individual activities. It argues that 'the ultimate aim of the
public policy is protection and promotion of equal opportunity to each
person to develop his personalities. Modern liberalism has changed in
conformity with the authoritarian tendencies of modern society.
The democratic socialism advocates change which should evolutionary
and not revolutionary. It stands for a world free from all exploitation and
tyranny. It aims at peaceful transition without interfering in the domain of
personal liberty. The supporters of modern liberalism cite the example of
the USA. The American liberalism is not opposed to the state
interference in certain spheres.
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16.11 RESURGENCE OF LIBERALISM: TOWARDS NEO-
LIBERALISM
Broadly speaking, the main principles of contemporary liberalism may be

identified as follows:Individualism, Utilitarianism, Libertarianism and
Communitarianism.
Berlin in his book "Two Concepts of Liberty" (1958) tried to project his
view point by giving a new turn to the distinction between negative
liberalism and positive liberalism. In both cases, liberalism implies the
absence of restraint. Berlin has confused two spheres of positive
liberalism namely the moral sphere and the material sphere.
Hayek on his book Constitution of Liberty' (1960) used the term 'liberty'
and 'freedom' interchangeably. He argued that “a man possess liberty or
freedom when he is not subject to coercion by the arbitrary will of
power”. Hayek particularly sought to contrast individual freedom with
three other means of freedom which represent political freedom, inner
freedom and freedom as power respectively.
Friedman in his 'Capitalism and Freedom' (1962) sought to identify
capitalism or a competitive market society as a necessary condition of
freedom which implies repudiation of equality for the sake of maintaining
freedom.
Nozick (Libertarianism) is another prominent liberal who seeks to
oppose the principle of equality in strong terms. In his 'Anarchy, State an
Utopia' (1974) he argues that individuals do have certain rights.
In his Anarchy, State and Utopia (1974) Nozick tries to determine
functions of the state on the basis of his theory of origin of the state.
Nozick asserts that individuals have certain rights in the state of nature.
Marxist concept of freedom is different from the liberal individualist view
of freedom. According to Marxist view, “capitalist system of production is
not at all conducive to condition of human freedom”.
Marx in his 'Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts' laid down an ethical
basis of socialism and humanist foundations of freedom.
Marcuse in his book Eros and Civilization (1966) has given a blue print
of society.To him where alienation will be removed, the freedom will be
restored.
Macpherson in his 'Democratic Theory', 'Essays in Retrieval' (1973)
argued that in the capitalist market society developmental power of the
poor sections is negligible, their extractive power is nill. He also argued
that the western democratic theory is characterized two basic principles
146
(a) maximization of utilities and (b) Maximization of powers. Essence of
freedom lies in fully realizing his creative faculties. Real freedom can be
exercised through developmental power, as distinguished from
extractive power.
16.12 PRINCIPLE OF INDIVIDUALISM
In the contemporary political thought, the principle of individualism has

been interpreted in several contexts which include
 Possessive individualism,(Machpherson)
 Methodological individualism, (Karl Popper)
 Moral Individualism (Immanuel Kant)

16.13 CONTEMPORARY SOURCES OF COMMUNITARIANISM
Communitarianism seeks to transform the conventional view of

liberalism. lt holds that the individual is the sole proprietor of his own
person or capacities for which he owes nothing to society. Contemporary
sources of communitarianism may be found in the view of Oakeshott
Arendt Macintyre Sandel (Liberalism and the Limits of Justice) Charles
Taylor (Sources of the Self) and Michael Walzer (Spheres of Justice).
16.14 CONTEMPORARY DEBATE ON LIBERALISM
The features of Contemporary debate of liberalism are Contemporary

liberalism emphasizes stability and equilibrium in the system, rather than
human values. Capitalist societies are being termed as "post-capitalist
societies" and liberal democracies are being called "post liberal
democracies." The contemporary liberal view with regard to democracy
is that people should not be given open participation in the complex
procedures of society. They should have the right to vote.Through social
regulations and reforms, capitalism will get humanized and socio-
economic political problems created by capitalism will then be solved
within the existing socio-economic order. It believes in a welfare
democracy.
16.15 CRITICISMS
Liberalism has failed to redeem mankind from its Predicament. It

has been criticized on two grounds. Liberalism retains its Bourgeois
character which is an actual imbalance of group interests.Liberalism
emerged for the security of the interests of the bourgeoise when political
force was used by primitive interests. R.H. Tawney in his Acquisitive
Society has noticed: The tale of the battle between humanitarian
guideline and the theory of property communicated from the eighteenth
147
century is recognizable. Nobody has failed to remember the resistance
offered for the sake of the right of property to manufacturing plant
enactment, to lodging change, to impedance with the contaminated of
products even to necessary sterilization of private houses. Such
contentions are presently not progressed. The socialist are very critical
of liberals. They strongly criticise the liberal belief of slow change and
compromise. Critics view liberalism as defeatist philosophy.
16.16 ISSUES BEFORE MODERN LIBERALISM
The 21st century has marked some changes in liberalism. Due to impact
of tremendous increase of the functions of the state, the state is no
longer viewed as the silent spectator to social issues and problems.
Rapid industrialization has made labour a new force.The complex nature
of the modern state has given rise to the functional representations.
Different interest groups have to play important roles in the society. The
emphasis has been shifted from an individual to a group the in modern
age. The concept of democratic socialism is partly a manifestation of
modern liberal thinking.
16.17 NEO-LIBERALISM
Neo-liberalism is an updated version of classical political

economy which is now revined developed in the writings of free market
economists such as Friedrich Hayek and Milton Friedman and
Philosophers such as Robert Nozick. The central pillars of neo-liberalism
are the market and the individual. The goal of neo-liberal is to roll back
the frontiers of the state in the belief that unregulated market capitalism
will deliver efficiency, growth and wide- spread prosperity.
16.18 MAIN ISSUES OF NEO-LIBERALISM
 Development, less, not more poverty of countries and people.

 Equity, Less, not more disparity between and within nations and
generations.
 Inclusion, less not more marginalization and exclusion of the people.
 Human security less, not more vulnerability of countries and the
people.
 Less Sustainability, not more depletion and degradation of the
environment.
 Globalization.
 Structural Adjustment.
 Regional Economic Integration.
 Human development.
 Ethics, not violation of human rights and disregard human values.
148
Neo-liberalism is sometimes referred to as 'neo-liberal institutionalism.
This term distinguishes neoliberalism from earlier varieties of liberalism
such as commercial liberalism. Theories which link free trade with peace
and resurgence of Libertarianism Doctrines
The empirical liberals like Schumpeter and Robert Dahl treat democracy
as a mechanism to bring about equilibrium in society. They are not
concerned with moral issues. For them democracy is essentially a
competition between two or more elite groups for power to govern
society. Some American Political Scientists even regard a low level of
citizen participation as essential for the maintenance of equilibrium. For
the 19th century theorists, democracy was a humanist aspiration.But for
the 20th century, it is essentially a market equilibrium system.
There has been some resurgence of libertarian doctrines in the name of

human dignity and individual autonomy recently. This is leading
liberalism on the one hand towards the 19th century individualism and
on the other to a new concept of justice. The later trend has become
significant.The early 20th century replaced liberty by equality. Now both
are being synthesized and transformed by a concept of justice in terms
of the Aristotelian ideal of character, self-knowledge and virtue. Society
is being viewed as a community of individuals.
LET US SUM UP
Liberalism is a Political and moral philosophy based on liberty,

consent of the rights and equality before the law. Liberalism also ended
mercantilist polities, royal maroplies and other barriers to trade, listed
promoting force trade and free markets. Liberalism is distinct from
liberalism advocated by laissez faire economic policy but instead it is
highly constructivist and advocates astate to bring about marketlife
reforms in every aspect of society.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Liberalism Stands for

a) Social liberty b) Political liberty c) Economic liberty
d) All the above
2. The term „liberalism‟ originated from the word „Liber‟ from ______.
a) Greek language b) Latin language c) French language
d) English language
3. Neo liberalism of the state started from _________.
a) 17th century b) 18th century c)19th century
d) 20th century
149
GLOSSARY
Liberalism : Free
Classical liberalism : It is a belief in economics and a political
Ideology.
Neo liberalism : Free market.
Modern Liberalism : More thoughful disposition towards state
intercession.
1. Social liberty
2. Latin language
3. 19th
MODEL QUESTION
1. Discuss the meaning of liberalism?

2. What is the difference between classical and modern liberalism?
3. What is Neoliberalism?
SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Mahajan,V.D.(2006), Political Theory, S.Chand & Company ltd,

New Delhi.
2. Agarwal,R.C. (2006), Political Theory, S.Chand & Company Ltd,
New Delhi.
3. Kapur, A.C. (2006), Principles of Political Science, S.Chand &
Company Ltd, New Delhi.
150
UNIT - 17
MARXISM
STRUCTURE
Overview
Learning Objectives
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Marxism
17.3 Classical Marxism
17.4 Historical Materialism
17.5 Communist Manifesto of Marx
17.6 Tenets of Marxism Dialectical Materialism
17.7 Stalin and Dialectical Materialism
17.8 Father of Communism
17.9 Materialistic Conception History
17.10 Surplus Value
17.11 Political Economy of Marx
17.12 Gotha Programme
17.13 Class Struggle
Let us sum up
Check your Progress
Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested readings
OVERVIEW
Marxism is a Social, Political and economic theory started by Karl

Marx, which centers around the battle among industrialists and the
common laborers. He accepted that this contention would eventually
prompt a revolution in which the middle class would oust the industrialist
class and hold onto control of the economy. This unit describes the
importance of Marx‟s theory and challenges. In the political system, the
civil society exercises the liberal support on all aspects. His
philosophy assisted with different dimensions of economic, inequality
and reform in the society of people.
151
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you will be able to

 Understand the concept of marxism and various other concepts of
marxism.
 Learn the importance of Marx‟s theory in social system.
 Know the Evolution about Marx‟s with community development of
Social framework.
17.1 INTRODUCTION
Marxian philosophy came into being as a reaction to the failings

of liberal ideology and the evils which were perpetuated by capitalism.
Marxism challenged the whole liberal system which was based on
private property, market model of society, unbridled individualism, and
the capitalist mode of production. Capitalism, its exploited socio-
economic system, private property, inequality and exploitation were
condemned by many socialist thinkers before Marx Voices against
exploitation of man by man have been heard from times immemorial.
Many theories emphatically pleaded for an equitable and just socio-
economic order. But, Marxism differed from all these because it provided
a scientific theory of revolutionary change.
17.2 MARXISM
The philosopher, social scientist, historian and revolutionary, Karl
Marx, is, without doubt, the most influential socialist thinker of 19th
century. Marxism has exerted tremendous influence on human thinking
and social movements from mid- nineteenth century onwards. Its main
tenets are found in the Communist Manifesto and Das Capital, the two
monumental works of Karl Marx (1818- 1883). Marxism describes the
society with his "Five Stages of History" as determined by economic
structures.
17.3 CLASSICAL MARXISM
 Classical Marxism refers to the body of theory directly expounded

by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.
 The term "Classical Marxism" is used to distinguish between
"Marxism" as it is broadly understood and "what Marx believed",
which is not necessarily the same thing.
 Classical Marxism can also refer to the second era of Marxism.
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17.4 HISTORICAL MATERIALISM
 The First Stage being Primitive Communism (hunters and

gatherers with private no merchant class property).
 The Second Stage is a Slave Society, where a few people "own"
all the land and everyone else has nothing; these people then
become slaves working for no money with no profit motives.
According to Marx, This leads to the class tensions in the society.
 The Third Stage is Feudalism, where the laborers are serfs, not
slaves. They bring in little cash so there is almost no benefit
thought process. In the long run creates since the serfs can't deal
with innovative change, however this new class doesn't fit in the
predominant economic design.
 The Fourth Stage is Capitalism. This will further develop the benefit
intention since individuals are working for compensation. Laws are
made to ensure abundance and the affluent. Yet, as indicated by
Marx, this will just work with Capitalism. He likewise accepted that
Capitalism consistently prompts imposing business models and
accordingly individuals into neediness; the better the unrestricted
economy works, the sooner it will obliterate itself.
 The Fifth Stage (and last) is Communism. At this point, the entire
cycle stops. This stage is portrayed by a raunchy and stateless
society. At last the government will shrink away and become
outdated. The economy would deal with the rule of from each as
per his ability and to each as indicated by his necessities.
 As per Marx, change starting with one phase then onto the next is
programmed and self-moved; as it is inborn in the economic
design, which comprises of relations of creations and method for
creation.
17.5 COMMUNIST MANIFESTO OF MARX
The Manifesto is divided into four parts.
 Its first part deals with the history of social evolution.

 The second part deals with the doctrines of the communist party
and their justification.
 The third part contains a criticism of the existing socialist.
 The fourth part contains a reactionary and bourgeois socialism.
 The fourth part also contains a summary of the position of the
communist and their tactics in the face of opposition.
 The teachings of Marx were put to practical test by Lenin in Soviet
Russia and Marxism was developed further by him.
153
17.6 TENETS OF MARXISM DIALECTICAL MATERIALISM
Dialectical materialism is the philosophical basis of Marxism. The

name, which was never used by the Marx himself, refers to the notion
that Marxism is a synthesis of philosophical dialectics and materialism. It
is seen as the complement of historical materialism or the "materialist
conception of history" which is the name given to Marx's methodology in
the study society, history. Dialectical materialism is also defined by the
reference to two claims by Marx: first that he put Hegel's dialectics back
on its feet and second, that his history of all hitherto existing society is
the history of class struggles.
Dialectical materialism is characterized by the belief that history is the
product of class struggle. Hegel's dialectics aims at explaining the
growth and development of the human history. Through the gradual
unfolding of idea or spirit in dialectical manner.
He considered that truth was the product of history and passed through
various moments, including the moment of error and negativity. Marx's
dialectical materialism goes against Hegel's idealism, that history is not
the product of the Spirit but the effect of material class struggle in
society. Theory has its roots in the materiality of social existence.
The Marxian dialectics holds that contrary forces are present in every
stage of society and constitute the moving force of history. The present
capitalistic stage is also faced with its antithesis, the proletariat. The
capitalists and the worker are in conflict with each other. The outcome of
this class struggle will be the establishment of a society where there
shall be no classes and therefore no class struggle.
Starting with the Hegelian dialectic, Marx developed three important
doctrines:The materialist conception of history,The doctrine of surplus
value andThe doctrine of class war.
17.7 STALIN AND DIALECTICAL MATERIALISM
Stalin indicated the following essentials of dialectical materialism
 All phenomena are organically connected and limited by each

other;
 All phenomenon should be considered from the stand point of their
movement, change, and development Internal contradictions are
inherent in future things, something which is still developing.
154
17.8 FATHER OF COMMUNISM
Marx is popularly called the father of communism. Marx is

famous for his analysis of history, summed up in the opening line of the
introduction to the Communist Manifesto (1848): "The history of all
hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles." Marx believed
that capitalism would be replaced by communism.
His notable ideas developed with Engels, include the alienation and
exploitation of the worker, The Communist Manifesto, Das Capital,
Historical materialism. Marx's philosophy was influenced by Kant, Hegel,
Feuerbach, Smith, Ricardo, Rousseau, Goethe, Fourier, and it
influenced the ideas of Luxemburg, Lenin, Trotsky, Mao, Georg Lukas,
Antonio Gramsci, Sartre and Frankfurt School.
17.9 MATERIALISTIC CONCEPTION HISTORY
The materialistic conception of history is the application of the

principles of dialectical materialism to the study of the development of
society. According to Marx all fundamental historical changes are
determined by the mode of production or the economic forces.
Any change in the mode of production brings a corresponding change in
social relations. In changing the mode of production mankind changes
all its social relation. Mode of production has two components: Forces of
production and relation of production. Forces of production cannot
remain static; they have an inherent tendency of development in the
direction of achieving the perfect society. The superstructure of society
is erected on the foundation of productive forces.
17.10 SURPLUS VALUE
Marx defined value as the 'crystallised labour and pointed about

that the value of a commodity is equal to the value of labour necessary
for its production. Of the four factors for productions as land, labour,
capital and organisation only labour is variable.While the other factors do
ne change value in the process a production, labour produces surplus
value over and above is Equivalent.
The award remuneration which the worker gets for his administrations is
considerably less than the worth he delivers. This distinction between
the wages paid to the work and the worth got by the capitalists is called
excess worth. The worth made well beyond what the work is paid for, is
appropriated by the capitalist which is straightforward abuse. The pace
of excess worth shows the level of abuse of work by the capitalist. The
substance of capitalist misuse is the creation of the excess esteem.
155
Capitalists are not interested in delivering fundamental and shopper
merchandise that are helpful and required by the society however in
removing as such excess worth as could be expected. The instrument of
production machinery, tools and materials upon which labour can be
performed are owned by the capitalists.
The labourer owns merely his ability to work, which is highly perishable.
The labourer must therefore sell his labour power for whatever wages he
is offered. The capitalist knows it and takes advantages of the worker's
disabilities. By paying him less, the capitalist earns more profits. To earn
more profits, he must pay less to the workers. The surplus value which is
created by labour power is appropriated by the capitalist. The theory of
surplus value is analysed by Marx in his book Das Capital.
17.11 POLITICAL ECONOMY OF MARX
Prior to capitalism, markets existed in Europe where producers

and merchants bought and sold commodities. Marx said that a capitalist
mode of production developed in Europe became labour itself when
commodity was passed to the peasants who became free to sell their
own labour power and needed to do so because they no longer
possessed their own land.
People sell their labour-power when they accept compensation in return
for whatever work they do in a given period of time. In return for selling
their labour they receive money, which allows them to survive. Those
who are bound to sell their labour power are called proletarians. The
person who buys the labour power, generally someone who does own
the land and technology to produce, is a "Capitalist" or "Bourgeoisie."
The proletarians inevitably outnumber the capitalists. Marx distinguished
the industrial capitalists from the merchant capitalists. Merchants buy
goods in one market and sell them in another. Since the laws of supply
and demand operate within given markets, there is often a difference
between the price of a commodity in one market and another.
According to Marx, capitalists, on the other hand, take advantage of the

difference between the labour market and the market value of whatever
commodity is produced by the capitalists. Marx called the difference
"surplus value" and argued that this surplus value had its source in
surplus labour, the difference between what it costs to keep workers
alive and what they can produce. The capitalist mode of production is
capable of tremendous growth because the capita list has an incentive
to reinvest profits in new technologies.
156
Marx considered that the capitalist has constantly revolutionized the
means of production. But Marx argued that capitalism was prone to
periodic crises. Marx suggested that over time, capitalists would invest
more and more in new technologies, and less and less in labour. Since,
Marx believed that surplus value appropriated from the labour is the
source of profits, he concluded that the rate of profit would fall even as
the economy grew. When the rate of profit falls below a certain point, the
result would be a recession or depression in which certain sectors of the
economy would collapse.
Marx understood that during such a crisis, the price of labour would also
fall and eventually make possible the investment in new technologies
and the growth of new sectors of the economy. Marx believed that this
cycle of growth and collapse would be punctuated severe by
increasingly crises. The long-term consequence of this process was
necessarily the enrichment and empowerment of the capitalist class and
the impoverishment of the proletariat. He believed that the proletariat
should seize the means of production, and encourage the establishment
of social relations that would benefit everyone equally and system of
production less vulnerable to periodic disaster. In general, Marx thought
that peaceful negotiation of this problem was not possible and a massive
well-organized and violent revolution would be required, because the
ruling class would not give up power without violence.
17.12 GOTHA PROGRAMME
Marx wrote in his "Critique of the Gotha Program", that "between
capitalist and communist society there lies the period of the revolutionary
transformation of the one into the other”. This is also a political transition
period in which the state can be nothing but the revolutionary
dictatorship of the proletariat. He was aware of the possibility that in
some countries, with strong democratic institutional structures (e.g.
Britain, the US and the Netherlands) this transformation could occur
through peaceful means, while in countries with a strong centralized
state-oriented tradition, like France and Germany, the upheaval will have
to be violent.
17.13 CLASS STRUGGLE
Marx views that the history is not a record of wars between

various peoples but as a succession of the struggle between the
oppressor and the oppressed classes. In every age, according to him,
society becomes divided into two major contending classes. The
privileged class which owns the means of production and the toiling
class which earns livelihood by working for other.
157
The privileged or the "haves" exploit the 'have-nots" to appropriate
surplus value for themselves. In a class-society, there have to be some
who exploit and other who are exploited. This is inherent in the system
and has nothing to do with the subjective feeling or desires of the
privileged class. The oppressors and the oppressed, carry on a struggle
which ends either in a reconstruction of society or in the ruin of both the
classes.
The modern capitalistic society has not done away with this class
antagonisms. It has only established new classes, new methods of
exploitation and new forms of struggle. The present day capitalist society
also consists of two classes whose interests are inherently hostile, viz..
the bourgeoise and the proletariat. In fact, the development of capitalism
has simplified these class struggles and now it is heading to its own
destruction, if we consider the working of the capitalistic system.
The capitalist owns the means of production whereas the worker has
only his labour power to sell. The capitalist wants to secure the labour
power of the worker at the lowest cost to be able to earn maximum
profit. The fact that labour power is perishable and cannot be preserved
for the next day, puts in the hands of the employer a great weapon of
aggression and exploitation and the capitalist takes full advantages of
this situation.
But as soon as workers become conscious of exploitation, they organize
themselves and raise their banner of revolt. The oppressive character of
the capitalistic system lies in the fact that it compels the worker to live on
the margin of subsistence. The capitalists not only control the institutions
to their own advantage they also identify 'social good' with their own
good.
They exclude the non-possessing class from a share in social benefits.

Hence a struggle is at present going on between the capitalists and the
proletariats. The shortcoming of the capitalist system and its lack of
social justice are not generally recognized. This had led to various
attempts at amelioration which do not however remove the inherent
defects of the system. According to Marx, the capitalism itself contains
the seeds of its own destruction.
LET US SUM UP
Marxism is a social, Political and economic philosophy named

after Karl Marx. It examines the effect of capitalism on labour,
productivity and economic development and argues for a worker
revolution to overturn. In this unit elaborated about the Marxist theory for
158
changing the society. In this social system empathising revived many, by
the means of changing the evolutionary process of the government. But
by Marx the exercise of the issues related to poverty and capitalism was
on the development point of view.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Which two philosophers developed the principal concept of

Marxism?
a) Marx and Engels b) Marx and Plato c) Plato and Mill
d) Marx and Austin
2. According to marx, the State is

a) The ethical Idea b) A necessary evil
c) an instrument of class exploitation d) A necessary good
GLOSSARY
Marxism : It is a Political and economic Theory where a
Society has no class separation.
Matter : Hence the real motivating factor in historical
change.
Capitalism : Private ownership
1. Marx and Engels
2. An instrument of class exploitation
MODEL QUESTION
1. Explain the Marxism Theory.

2. Describe the main ideas of Karl Marx?
3. Discuss the political economy of Marx.

SUGGESTED READINGS

2. Agarwal,R.C. (2006), Political Theory, S. Chand & Company ltd,
New Delhi.
3. Mahajan, V.D.(2006), Political Theory, S.Chand& Company ltd,
New Delhi.
159
UNIT - 18
SOCIALISM
STRUCTURE
Overview
Learning Objectives
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Socialism
18.3 Definition of Socialism
18.4 Development of Socialism
18.5 The Principles of Socialism
18.5.1 Emphasis on society
18.5.2 Promotion of social justice
18.5.3 Establishment of egalitarian social order
18.5.4 State ownership of means of production and
distribution
18.5.5 Abolition of private property
18.5.6 Economic and social reforms
18.5.7 Reaction against capitalism
18.6 Evolutionary and Revolutionary Socialism
18.7 Guild Socialism
Let us sum up
Check your Progress
Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested readings
OVERVIEW
Sociologists fight that common responsibility for battle arranging
give an ethical equivalent conveyance of labor and products and a more
impartial society. This unit emphasises about socialism to changing the
society. The people have been facing different issues and challenges,
for getting peaceful and comparable life in the world. In the political
system the civil society exercises with free movement to support on all
aspects. His philosophy assisted with the different dimensions of the
economic, inequality reforms the society of people.
160
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 Examine the concept of Socialism and their importance in
contemporary world.
 Analyse the Evolutionary and Revolutionary Socialism.
 Learn the importance of the Socialism theory in the social system.
 Know the Principles about socialism with the community
development of Social framework.
18.1 INTRODUCTION
There is another brand of socialism which is known as early

(evolutionary) socialism. Unlike scientific socialism, this idea is neither
clear nor definite. In this connection C.M. Joad said: "Socialism in short,
is like a hat that has lost its shape because everybody wears it". There
are different brands of this socialism that includes utopian socialism,
democratic socialism, parliamentary socialism, revisionism, Fabians,
social democracy and welfare socialism and all these are known by the
cover-term evolutionary socialism, because of the idea of evolutionary
change (and not revolutionary change) is common to all. This theory is
being integrated into the mainstream of contemporary theory of Welfare
State, and it is said that positive liberalism is a mixture of liberalism and
evolutionary socialism.
18.2 SOCIALISM
The expression "Socialism" was first utilized with regards to the
mid nineteenth century European social critics. In this period, socialism
rose up out of a different cluster of regulations and social investigations
related fundamentally with British and particularly Charles French
masterminds Robert Owen, Proudhon, Louis Fourier, Blanc, and Saint-
Simon. These social critics upheld the changes, for example, the
libertarian appropriation of the riches and the change of the society into
little networks in which private property was to be canceled.
Socialism alludes to another political request in society. It

imagines a financial framework wherein property and the appropriation
of abundance are dependent upon social control. This control might be
either immediate practiced through well known cooperatives like laborers
boards or aberrant practiced for individuals by the state. As an economic
framework, socialism is frequently portrayed by state or local area
responsibility for method for creation. The modern communist
development had its starting point to a great extent in the common
development of the late nineteenth century.
161
In this period, the expression "Socialism" was first utilized
regarding the European social critics who censured capitalism and
private property. For Karl Marx, socialism implies the abolition of money,
markets, capital, and labour as a commodity.
Since the 19th century, socialists have differed in their vision of socialism
as an economic organization. A few socialists have advocated the total
nationalization of the method for creation, while social liberals have
proposed specific nationalization of key enterprises inside the structure
of the blended economies. During the eighteenth century Enlightenment,
analysis of the possibility of private property showed up in crafted by
political scholars like Jean Jacques Rousseau in France.
Early socialists varied broadly about how socialism was to be
accomplished. They varied pointedly on major questions, for example,
concentrated versus decentralized control, the job of private property,
the level of libertarianism and the association of family and local area
life. Holy person Simon suggested that creation and conveyance would
be completed by the state. It would likewise be managed by logical and
mechanical specialists who might devise a logical division of work
prompting social concordance. Fourier and Owen supported the change
of the society into little, neighborhood aggregates with no intricate
frameworks of the social association.
18.3 DEFINITION OF SOCIALISM
Socialism is a modern political philosophy. The former regards
the State as a necessary evil, but it is very difficult to give an exact
definition of socialism. It emerged as a sharp reaction to individualism. It
is not only a political philosophy but also a political movement. Different
writers have used it in different ways. However, there is unanimity
regarding the basic features of socialism.
Bertrand Russell defines socialism as "the advocacy of communal
ownership of land and capital."
According to Bernard Shaw, "Socialism means equality of income and
nothing else."
Robert Blad, “Socialism is the common holding of the means of
production and exchange and the holding them for the equal benefit of
all”.
Gandhi says, "Socialism is a beautiful word, and so far as I am aware.
In socialism all the members of society are equal, none low, and none
high".
162
Emile observes, "Socialism means the organisation of workers for the
conquest of political power for the purpose of transforming capitalist
property into social property."
G D. H. Colo writes, "Socialism means four closely connected things a
human fellowship which denies and expels distinctions of class, a social
system in which no one is so much richer or poorer classic neighbors as
to be unable to mix with them on equal the common ownership and use
of all the vital instruments another according to their capacities."
According to Pandit Nehru, "Socialism is of many kinds. There is
general agreement, however, that it aims at the control of the State of
the means of production, that is land and mines and factories and the
like, and the means of distribution like railways, etc., and also banks and
similar institutions. The idea is that individuals should not be allowed to
exploit any of these methods or institutions, or the labour of others, to
their own personal advantage."
According to J. P. Narayan, "Socialism is a system in which the
individual is prepared voluntarily to subordinate his own interest to the
larger interest of society of production and an obligation upon all citizens
to serve one”.
Schaffer writes, "The Alpha and Omega of socialism is the
transformation of private and competing capitals into a united collective
capital."
Humphrey says, "Socialism is a system of society in which means of life
belong to the community as a whole and are developed and operated by
the community with the aims of promoting the general well-being.'
The above definitions of socialism hint at different aspects of its
philosophy. Socialism has become the most important socio political
movement in modern times.
18.4 DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIALISM
Socialist thought is as old as political philosophy. It was found in

almost all the religious scriptures. Plato, the celebrated Greek political
philosopher of the 5th century B. C., advocated a rigid type of socialism.
It was known as "Platonic Communism". Thomas More in his book
"Utopia" published in 1516 advocated Socialism State where the system
of private property would be abolished. But the word socialism before
the 19th century was only an ideal conception. It was also rarely used in
the political philosophy. It became popular only in the beginning of the
19th century.
163
The Industrial Revolution introduced a great change in the
society. Because of this Revolution rapid changes were seen in the
society. It helped the growth of new towns and now the industry
development of the big factories accompanied also the growth of big
slums.
Saint Simon (1760-1825), a French Socialist, published his book
entitled, "A Reorganization of European Society in 1814 where he
advocated various social reforms including the abolition of private
property. Proudhon (1809-1865), another French socialites‟ said that
"property is a theft". According to him, a man who possesses the
property deprives others of the same possession in the society and
hence, he should be regarded as a thief.
Robert Owen (1771-1858) was known as the father of British Socialism.

He advocated high wages to the labourers. He tried to practice socialism
in his capacity as the managing partner of a mill.
Charles Fourier's (1772-1873) writings also reflected socialist ideas of
the 19th contributed a lot to the development of socialistic thought. He
suggested reorganizing the workers into independent groups so as to
bring about efficiency, order and economy in the productive system. He
considered work as a source of pleasure and not as a source of profit.
John Gray is another socialist thinker who paved the way for the
development of the scientific theory of socialism. He defended the
labourers against the claims of the capitalists. He wrote, "The rich man
who, in point of fact, pays nothing, 'receives everything while the poor
man, who, in point of fact, pays everything and receives nothing."
18.5 THE PRINCIPLES OF SOCIALISM
The following are the main principles of socialism:

18.5.1 EMPHASIS ON SOCIETY
Socialism, as its name implies, lays emphasis on society, rather than on

individuals. Socialism developed as an opposite philosophy of
individualism. It lays emphasis on the theory of social good and social
welfare. In case of conflict between individuals and society, the interest
of the individual is to be sacrificed for the benefit of the society. Thus,
the position of the individual is made subservient to the State. Socialism
speaks for the welfare of all and not for the welfare of a few.
18.5.2 PROMOTION OF SOCIAL JUSTICE
Socialism wants to promote social justice. It pleads to abolish the

institution of property in favour of social justice. It is based on the
164
principle of each according to his ability, to each according to his needs."
Under Socialism it is the responsibility of the State to fulfill the needs of
the individuals.
18.5.3 ESTABLISHMENT OF EGALITARIAN SOCIAL ORDER
Equality is the main creed of socialism. Socialism is the outcome of the

French revolutionary thought which propounded the idea of equality.
Socialism aims at establishing an egalitarian society. No social and
economies discrimination is allowed under the banner of socialism.
There is social recognition of work. Work is worshipped and duty is
honored.
18.5.4 STATE OWNERSHIP OF MEANS OF PRODUCTION AND
DISTRIBUTION
Socialism is defined as "the collective ownership and control of the

means of production, distribution and exchange." Instruments of
production and distribution, as far as possible, will be owned by the
State as a whole. Socialists advocate the nationalization of the
industries. It will benefit the workers and provide them incentive to work.
It also restores the order and the discipline in the economy and brings
rapid progress.
18.5.5 ABOLITION OF PRIVATE PROPERTY
Socialism abolishes the private property and the private ownership of the
means of production. Property is considered to be "a theft".
18.5.6 ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL REFORMS
It advocates grammar for economic and social reforms. The needs of the
society receive higher attention under socialism. The means of
production which are nationalized are to be utilized for the benefit of the
society. It advocates the national minimum wages for the workers and
pleads for equal pay for the equal work. In short its aim is to achieve
social and economic equality.
18.5.7 REACTION AGAINST CAPITALISM
Socialism is the antidote to capitalism. It is the antidote of capitalism. It is

an eloquent protest against the miseries of capitalism and Laissez-Faire.
The evils of capitalism are highlighted by socialism, insecurity, inequality
of income, conflict highlighted by the socialists. Welfare of the poor is the
predominant character of socialism. The weaknesses of capitalism such
as unemployment, insecurity, inequality of income, conflict between
employment and the employee, wasteful competition and unplanned
economy are removed in the socialistic system.
165
18.6 EVOLUTIONARY AND REVOLUTIONARY SOCIALISM
Evolutionary socialism might be recognized from the

revolutionary socialism, which tries to present socialism in its entirety to
supplant capitalist framework by the communist framework.
Revolutionary socialism tried to change the social framework altogether
as opposed to tolerating little concessions for the under favored
segments. Evolutionary socialism concedes a demeanor of give and
take among capitalism and socialism.
Revolutionary socialism emphasizes the organization of the working
class to fight capitalism, overthrow the capitalist system through
revolution, and create socialism for the means of production and
distribution in its entirety. Revolutionary socialism renounces the theory
of balance or compromise between various interests in the society. It
looks to invert the situation of the prevailing and ward classes of
capitalist society and at last to annihilate the states of predominant itself
in order to get a tactless society.
18.7 GUILD SOCIALISM
In the first quarter of the 20th century, there was another socialist
movement in England, known as Guild Socialism. Guild socialism
originated as a trend in the British labour movement which enjoyed great
ideological success in the period from 1916 to 1926. It upheld for the
abolition of the wage system and demanded representation of the
workers in the industrial management. It sought to restructure the old
state which was an instrument of exploitation.
LET US SUM UP
Socialism is form of government in which most forms of property,

including at least the major means of production and normal repowers,
are owned or controlled by the State. In this unit the role of socialism
comprised much through the social freedom and reformation of
governance to demand bases of gross root system. Therefore the many
research and scholar expressed their views and on time bases.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. The term „Socialism‟ was first used in __________________.

2. During the 18th century Enlightenment, analysis of the possibility of
private property crafted by political scholar __________________.
3. Socialism means equality of income and nothing else was defined
by ___________________.
166
4. Thomas More in his book "___________" published in 1516
advocated Socialism State.
GLOSSARY
Communism : The Political system in which the State owns and

controls all services.
Socialism : An economic and Political system where the
workers own the means of production.
Welfare : Social effort designed to promote the basic
physical and material well-being of people in
need.
Social justice : The view that everyone deserves equal
economic, political, social rights and opportunities.
1. 19th century
2. Jean Jacques Rousseau
3. Bernard Shaw
4. Utopia
MODEL QUESTION
1. Define Socialism.
2. Explain the Principles of Socialism in the Social Challenges.
3. Brief the evolution of socialism.
4. Discuss the evolutionary and revolutionary socialism.
SUGGESTED READINGS


167
UNIT - 19
FASCISM
STRUCTURE
Overview
Learning Objectives
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Fascism
19.3 Definitions of Fascism
19.4 Origin of Fascism
19.5 The Features of Fascism
19.5.1 Emphasis on Irrationalism and Anti-
Intellectualism
19.5.2 Repudiation of Democratic Values
19.5.3 Racialism and Imperialism
19.5.4 Totalitarianism
19.5.5 Organic Concept of State
19.5.6 Corporate State
19.6 Principles of Fascism
19.7 Economic Ideology of Fascism
19.8 Merits of Fascism
19.9 Demerits of Fascism
Let us sum up
Check Your Progress
Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested readings
OVERVIEW
Fascism is a form of authoritarian characterized by dictatorial

power, forcible suppression of opposition, and strong regimentation of
society and of the economy, which came to prominence in early 20th
century, Europe. Fascism is a government structure where a dictator has
complete control of the entire country, State, or territory. Anyone who
168
opposes this dictator is suppressed and the individual rights are often
oppressed. This unit is about fascism, which is one of the social revival
systems of the specific areas.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 Understand the meaning and definitions of Fascism.
 Know the fascism idea of nation and Principles of Fascism.
 Analyse the merits and demerits of Fascism.
19.1 INTRODUCTION
Fascism came to the arena of political philosophy only in the

twentieth century as a reaction against western liberal democracy. The
term Fascism' has been derived from the Latin word Fasces' which
means a bundle of rods or sticks. In ancient Rome (now in Italy), a
bundle of rods with an axe was the symbol of authority and unity in
society. It is said that although all the rods in a bundle can be easily
broken, it is difficult to break the whole bundle of rods put together. It
implies that strength lies in unity. Fascism, thus, lays stress on authority,
unity and integrity.
19.2 FASCISM
The term fascism was first used by Benito Mussolini. The main
source was social Darwinism as interpreted by Nietzsche‟s irrationalism,
traditionalism and idealism.The main motto was "my programme is
action not talk". The last source of fascism is idealism which he got from
Gentile. It is an authoritarian political ideology and mass movement.
Fascism emphasizes the role of the personal will in creating political

institutions, the use of violence in suppressing political and ideological
enemies and an existentialist emphasis on "living the moment
dangerously". Originally, the term fascism was used by an Italian political
movement that ruled Italy from 1922 to 1943 under the leadership of
Benito Mussolini. Fascism attracted political support from diverse
sectors of the population, including big business, farmers and
landowners, nationalists and reactionaries.
Mussolini defined fascism as being a right-wing collectivistic ideology in
opposition to socialism, liberalism, democracy and individualism. He
wrote The Political and Social Doctrine of Fascism. Hannah Arendt
classified Italian fascism as an ordinary authoritarian ideology and
included only Stalinism and Nazism as totalitarians. Fascism is also
considered to be a form of collectivism.
169
19.3 DEFINITIONS OF FASCISM
Schneider defines "The fascists are the gypsies of Italian
politics, not being tied down to any fixed principles; they proceed
increasingly towards one goal, the future well being of the Italian
people."
Mussolini, "My objective is simple; I want to make Italy great,
respected and feared; I want to render my nation worthy of her noble
and ancient traditions. I want to accelerate her evolution towards the
highest forms of national cooperation; I want to make a greater
prosperity always possible for the whole people. I want to create a
political organization to express, to guarantee and to safeguard our
development..". Thus for the fascists the glorification of Italy with strong
and vigorous government and prosperous people was the chief aim and
objective and for it any methods or tactics could be employed.
Rocco, “Fascism as a 'new conception of civil life', a powerful
innovating movement and the beginning of a new culture. It repudiates
democracy, liberalism and socialism, as the first two look to the interests
of an economic class. Whereas fascism looks to the interests of all”. For
fascism, Rocco writes, "Society is the end, individuals the means and its
whole life consists in using individuals as instruments for its ends".
Ebenstein writes, "Stripped to its essentials, fascism is the
totalitarian organisation of the government and society by a single-party
dictatorship, intensely nationalist, racialist, militarist, and imperialist."
Barnes defines, "A political and social order based upon the
main current of traditions that have formed our European civilization,
traditions created by Rome, first by the Empire and subsequently by the
Catholic Church the repudiation of that individualist mentality, which
found expression first in the pagan Renaissance, then in the
Reformation, and later in the French Revolution."
Sabine says, "Fascism is a body of ideas taken from the different
sources put together to fit exigencies of the situation."
As Maurice Cranston observes, "It was a paradoxical union of
anti-theoretical activism with a quasi-Hegelian metaphysics of the State.
Its activism owed its inspiration to the 19th century syndic lists notably
George Sorel, who believed in violence for its own sake, or at any rate in
destruction as a necessary step towards construction.”
170
19.4 ORIGIN OF FASCISM
Mussolini was the Father of the Fascist doctrine. He founded his Fascist
Party in March, 1919 in Italy. The sole object of it was to revive the past-
glory of Italy. After the First World War, Italy was humiliated at the Treaty
of Versailles and chaotic conditions continued to prevail in that country.
At this movement, Mussolini, was at times a school teacher and at other
times a journalist, appeared on the scene as the "champion of the united
Italy '', standing for order, discipline and strong government. He wanted
to defeat communism and establish an authoritarian government.
In October, 1922 he staged a coup d'etat through his supporters

and marched on Rome and occupied some of the public offices. The
King had to appoint Mussolini as his Prime Minister immediately. For a
few years Mussolini carried on with the parliamentary system but soon
he kicked the system and established his authoritarian regime. Mussolini
was the main architect of the theory of Fascism. In his book "The
Political and Social Doctrine of Fascism", Mussolini enunciated various
Fascist principles.
Rocco and Gentile were only two Fascist theorists who
supported Mussolini's ideas. Fascism has no preconceived notions or
fixed ideas. Mussolini molded it according to exigencies or situation of
time. Hence Fascism is considered to be the pragmatic political doctrine
and Mussolini is regarded as the prophet of the pragmatic era in politics.
The Fascist ideology held its sway over Germany, Italy and Japan during
the interwar period supreme for about two decade.
An analysis of the social background of Fascism in Italy and
Germany reveals that as an ideology, Fascism is more suitable for the
countries that also have an experience of democratic government. When
the ineffective democratic government fails to deliver the goods to the
masses, Fascism is welcomed by the people. Further, the rise of Fascist
ideology is very often linked up with economic depression. In fact, the
post-war economic depression in Italy and Germany was conducive to
the rise of Fascist dictators. These dictators promised economic the
well-being to the masses, who were grinning under the economic
pressures and thus they gained the support of the Although Fascism
reigned masses. Fascism as an ideology has found a suitable place in
the industrial society rather than in pre-industrial ones. Industrialists
supported it in order to get rid of communism and nationalization. Such
society supported this movement because of a promise of better-deal for
them. This is how Fascism owns the overall support of social classes
and becomes a mass movement.
171
19.5 THE FEATURES OF FASCISM
The Following are the main features of the Fascism as below.

19.5.1 EMPHASIS ON IRRATIONALISM AND ANTI-
INTELLECTUALISM
It is an anti-intellectual revolt against rationalism and reason.

Realistic philosophy had the motto, "action not talk". It appeals to the
people to achieve rapid progress within the shortest possible time.
People like this doctrine because it promises them rapid progress and
development. It strikes at the very root of the rational tradition. It
assumes that man is essentially an irrational being. The only way of
enlisting his enthusiasm is to appeal to the emotional nature of man.
Silence adopted various techniques to suit the psychology of the mob.
Such statements as "Mussolini is always right", and "masses love a
commander more than a politician", in fact, indicate the irrational bases
of the Fascist ideology. Distrust of reason is one of the principal
characteristics of Fascism.
19.5.2 REPUDIATION OF DEMOCRATIC VALUES
Fascism strongly denounces the principles and foundations of

democracy. It does not believe in the democratic principle of "equality" or
"liberty". It says that all men are not created equal. Mussolini observed,
"Fascism affirms the immutable, beneficial and fruitful inequality of
mankind". Not only it rejects basic human equality, but also rejects the
theory of individual liberty. According to a Fascist, "Liberty is not a right
but a duty". Hence the political power should rest in the elite or in a
leader who is capable of ruling a State. In other words, Fascism does
not believe in the democratic form of government.
Similarly the concept of "open society" which forms the corner-
stone of the democratic ideology has no place under Fascism. Individual
is merely an instrument in a Fascist State. He exists for the promotion of
the State interest. Hence, there is a greater emphasis on an individual's
"duty and discipline" rather than on his "right" and "liberty". Fascism
reminds the individual four "D's" only, namely-Duty, Discipline, Devotion
and Dedication. Fascism believes in violence as a method for the
achievement of politics. Bullet and not ballot determines the strength of a
Fascist regime. Methods of persuasion and consultation, which are
democratic in nature, are rejected totally by the Fascists.
172
19.5.3 RACIALISM AND IMPERIALISM
Fascists have strong faith in racialism. Italian and German

fascists believed in the superiority of the Nordic race. This led them to
bring about the mass-murder of the Jews, who were supposed to be a
danger to the racial Purity of Gerinan. Japanese race theories led them
to build up the theory of "Greater Asia Co-prosperity Sphere''. Thus,
Fascist ecology upholds the theory of "elite nation" which makes them
Workers of It is a moment.
Fascists believe that their racial superiority qualifies them to
establish an imperial regime over other nations. Wars are launched to
subordinate the so-called weaker and racially inferior nations of world
peace. On the contrary, it welcomes war and militarism. Mussolini writes,
"Fascism repudiates the doctrine of pacifism. War alone brings up to its
highest tension all human energy and puts the stamp of nobility upon the
peoples who have the courage to meet it". Thus, war has been highly
prized as an indicator of national prestige. In the words of Mussolini,
again, "War is to man what maternity is to woman". To the Fascists
peace means stagnation.
19.5.4 TOTALITARIANISM
Totalitarianism is another conspicuous feature of the Fascist

ideology. The Fascist control over social relations extends to all spheres
including government. Fascist regime controls education, religion,
business, agriculture, art, science and literature. In other words the
totality of human activity is subject to political control under Fascism. A
Fascist State does not distinguish between the State and society or
between the State and individual. Fascism also employs totalitarian
methods to enforce control. It may start from murder, verbal threat,
genocide, etc. It also believes in the total annihilation of the opponents.
Mussolini has summed up the totalitarian character of the State
in these words, "Fascist State is totalitarian, because out-side it there is
no human or spiritual value that can exist or have any significance. It
interprets and supervises the whole life of the people. It sums up the
manifestations of the moral and intellectual life of the people to such an
extent that there is nothing outside it, nothing against it, and everything
is for it."
173
19.5.5 ORGANIC CONCEPT OF STATE
Fascist concept of the State is organic. Fascists do not consider

the State merely as "a necessary evil" as individualists do. The State is
not a negative institution. The State is considered as a positive moral
and spiritual fact. According to Mussolini, the State is not "a night
watchman, solicitous only of the personal safety of the citizens." It is "the
spiritual and moral fact or an ethical entity". The State is not only the
guarantor of security, both internal and external but, it is also "the
custodian and transmitter of the spirit of the people''.
Hence, everything is for the State, nothing against the State and
nothing outside the State. Thus, Fascism is an enemy of international
order and so viewed, the Fascists have a positive approach to the State
as a social institution. To them the State embodies the very spirit of the
people. It being totalitarian in character encompasses the economic,
moral, political and all other facets of life. Thus, Fascism "proclaims the
rights of the State, the pre-eminence of its authority and the superiority
of its ends".
19.5.6 CORPORATE STATE
Fascist economy was regulated by means of corporatism. For

each branch of production a corporation was organized. It was
composed of the representatives of workers, employers and the State.
But these corporations did not take over the ownership of the industry. It
simply regulated the working of the private industry. The corporation had
also a political aspect. They formed the basis of representation, and
acted as an electorate. Members were elected by the corporations to
represent in the national legislature. This basis of representation was
functional or vocational. It was to replace the system of territorial
representation. The corporate State should have the power to control the
economy of the whole country.
In the Fascist corporate State, trade unions are not allowed to
exist. The Fascists' plan of the corporate State was given the effect in
Italy through the Corporation Act of 1934. Maxey writes, "The corporate
State was held up as a paragon which would give private initiative,
ample freedom and at the same time preserve and promote the well-
being of all. Another feature of the corporative system, which certainly
commended it highly to the Fascists, was that it enabled the State to
manage the whole economy for national interest."
174
19.6 PRINCIPLES OF FASCISM
It is an anti-democracy, anti-intellectual revolt against rationalism

and reason. It is a realistic philosophy whose motto was 'action not
talk.'It appeals to the people to achieve rapid progress within the
shortest possible time. It strikes at the very root of rational tradition.
Fascism strongly denounces the principles and foundation of
democracy.
It does not believe in the democratic principle of 'equality' or „liberty‟. It
says that all men are not created equal. Fascism believes in violence.
Fascism has strong faith in racialism. Fascist ideology upholds the
theory of 'elite-nation' which makes them racially supreme to entire
mankind.
It is an enemy of international order and world peace. On the contrary, it

welcomes war and militarism. Mussolini writes, 'Fascism repudiates the
doctrine of pacifism'. In the words of Mussolini, 'war is to man what
maternity is to women.' Totalitarianism is another conspicuous feature
of Fascist ideology. It also employs totalitarian methods to enforce
control. It was composed of the representatives of workers, employers
and the state.
Mussolini ruthlessly suppressed all opposition parties except the fascist
party. He viewed democracy as the worst type of government. Fascism
believes in myths which are intended to rouse the feelings of the people.
It puts emphasis on propaganda through manipulation of mass media
and not a scientific education. Fascist concept of the state is organic.
The state is considered as a positive moral and spiritual fact. The state
is not only the guarantor of security, both internal and external, but it is
also 'the custodian and transmitter of the spirit of the people."Hence,
everything for the state nothing against the state and nothing outside the
state.
19.7 ECONOMIC IDEOLOGY OF FASCISM
Economic ideas of Fascism differs from socialism as well as

individualism. G.D.H. Cole has summed up the economic ideology of
Fascism. Fascists do not wish to nationalize all means of production and
oppose communism. Italia Fascism believed that the productive capacity
of the state can be raised if private capital is allowed to exist. In other
words fascism believes in the utility of capitalistic system of production.
But it does not believe that capitalists should be left completely unbridled
and uncontrolled. Fascist economy was regulated by means of the
corporation of the state.
175
19.8 MERITS OF FASCISM
Rocco described Fascism as the new conception of civil and

political life and the beginning of a new culture. Fascism arose when
democracy failed. It made the people aware about the vices of
democracy, liberalism and appealed to the people to sacrifice for the
greater benefits of the state. It put emphasis on duty, discipline and
devotion.
19.9 DEMERITS OF FASCISM
Fascism is based on militarism, imperialism and war. It preaches

the gospel of belligerent nationalism and imperialist expansionism. It
justified violence and opposed peace. It paves the way for ruthless
dictatorship which has been criticized. It sacrifices individual on the altar
of the state. Fascism is criticized by the liberals because it does not
accept the principles of liberty and free government. The liberals attack
Fascism because of its anti-democratic and anti-humanitarian idea. It
denies all human values.
LET US SUM UP
Fascism embodied corporatism, in which political representation was

based on trade and industry rather than on geography. In this, fascism
revealed its roots in syndicalism, a form of socialism originating on the
left. The government characterised firms of the same industry, with
representatives of labor and management serving on myriad local,
regional, and national boards subject always to the financial authority of
the dictator‟s economic plan. Fascism is a set of ideologies and
practices that seeks to place the nation, that is defined as exclusive
biological, cultural, and his traical terms, above all other sources of
loyalty, and to create a mobilized radical community.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Fascism developed in ___________________________.

A) Germany B) France C) England D) Italy
2. Fascism believe in __________________________.

A) Imperialism b) Nationalism C) Capitalist
D) One State, one party and are one leader
3. When did Fascism end?

a) 1941 b) 1942 c)1943 d)1944
176
GLOSSARY
Fascism : Government in which most of the country‟s power

is held by its ruler.
Totalitarian : Ensure control
Rocco – Fascism : Ideology of fascism interpreted by Alfred Rocco.
1. Italy
2. one State, one party and are one leader
3. 1943
MODEL QUESTION
1. What is Fascism?
2. Explain the main features of Fascism.
3. Discuss the merits and demerits of Fascism.
SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Mahajan, V.D. (2006), Political Theory, S.Chand & Company ltd,

New Delhi.
3. Agarwal, R.C. (2006), Political Theory, S. Chand & Company Ltd,
New Delhi.
177
UNIT - 20
GANDHISM
STRUCTURE
Overview
Learning Objectives
20.1 Gandhism
20.2 Major Gandhian Ideologies
20.3 Gandhiji’s Education Concept

20.4 Self-Rule or Swaraj of Gandhi
20.5 Method of Non-Violence
20.6 Application of various facets of gandhian ideology

Let us sum up
Check Your Progress
Glossary
Model Questions
Suggested readings
OVERVIEW
Gandhism is a body of ideas that describes the inspiration,
vision, and the life work of Mohandas Gandhi. It is particularly
associated with his contributions to the idea of nonviolent resistance,
sometimes also called civil resistance. Gandhism starts with the famous
line „Simple living and high thinking‟ and its objective is to transform the
individual and society. Therefore, in the turbulent times where the world
is grappled with so many problems, it is imperative to strive to inculcate
Gandhian philosophy in various facets of life and governance. The two
pillars of Gandhism are truth and nonviolence. In this unit, we will
discuss elaborately about the various thoughts of gandhism.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 Understand the concept of Gandhism.
 Know the concept of Swaraj.
 Discuss the method of non-violence and its influence in the society.
178
20.1 GANDHISM
Between the middle of the nineteenth and beginning of the

twentieth century‟s the world has seen a galaxy of great men who
influenced their age in different ways. But none of them made greater
impact on the thinking and action of men than Mahatma Gandhi. His
ideas and deeds permeated the entire human community. He was
essentially a man who would be counted at par with the Buddha and
Christ. He was the greatest of the humanists the India presented to the
world in modern times".
Gandhi was not a philosopher in the academic sense of the term. His
ideas cannot be classed with any of the well-known schools of Indian
philosophy. He was a practical idealist. In advocating his philosophy of
action, Gandhi always advised men to consider the psychological fact of
human nature. He had tremendous faith in the goodness of man. Like
Rousseau he never considered man a born sinner.
According to him in human being‟s love, cooperation, and desire of
general welfare always predominated over selfishness. His faith in the
inherent goodness of human nature was the basis of his humanism. The
sum of the energy of mankind was not to bring us down but to lift us up.
The equality of all men was the fundamental creed of Gandhi from the
days of his boyhood.
It was in South Africa that he laid the foundation of his philosophy of life
and made initial experiments to test its practicability. When he returned
to India in 1915 it was not to start something new; it was merely to carry
on work undertaken by him in South Africa for the good of his
countrymen. By justice he meant devotion to the cause of the oppressed
and the outcast. He decided to fight against the British Rule in India
because it led to the degradation of the poor.
Similarly, he considered it his duty to uplift the untouchable. By liberty he
meant realization of one's duties and complete dedication to perform
them without emphasis on the rights.
In all the spheres of his activity his only emphasis was on the good of
the people. Gandhi was essentially a man of religion. He was not
religious in the ordinary sense in which religion is understood in India. It
was religion based on truth and love or non-violence. Thus, for Gandhi,
religion means morality or a moral order. That is why religion for Gandhi
became the basis of all his activities.
It became his philosophy of life and it functioned as a source of strength
in him. He made it clear that religion in its real sense could become the
179
basis of friendship among all mankind. He emphasized repeatedly that
religions were not for separating men from one another but rather for
binding them. He saw the conflict between different religions, he suffered
personally to establish harmony and as a matter of fact he laid down his
life for the cause of religious harmony.
Gandhi subscribed to the principle of equal regard for all faiths and
creeds: Sarvadharma Samanatra. According to Gandhi, “the aim of
religions was to lead man to face with God”. He considered God as
identical to truth. He tried to see God through service of humanity. As
God has created different faiths, there could be no question of our
having only one religion. He said, "Man's ultimate aim is the realization
of God and all his activities, political, social and religious have to be
guided by the ultimate aim of the vision of God”.
Gandhi's humanistic treatment of the whole problem of untouchables led
him to fight for their religious, economic, and political rights. He refused
to take them as a separate class apart from the Hindus. On this issue his
argument was simple when he said, "God did not create men with the
badge of superiority or of inferiority. And no scripture which labels a
human being as inferior or untouchable because of his or her birth can
command over allegiance. It is a denial of God and Truth which is God”.
Gandhi believed no social reform was possible unless each one of the
individuals was mentally transformed and economically uplifted. With
myriads of oppressed and neglected individuals nothing could be
achieved. The condition of Indian society is now fairly changed because
Gandhi set the ideals of equality irrespective of caste and creed in the
manifesto of the Congress Party much before it came to power. As a
staunch devotee of truth and justice, Gandhi laid special emphasis on
the necessity of recognizing women as equal to men. He emphasized
the teachings of the ancient Indian seers who honoured women.
The natural differences determine only the different duties and not
superiority or inferiority. He called upon women to shed the age-old
mentality of slaves and help men in the process or human evolution. He
considered women as "the incarnation of Ahimsa". He believed that a
woman could help a great deal in purifying the life of man by giving to
man her infinite love and infinite capacity to suffer. He made efforts to
eradicate the social evils like women illiteracy, child marriage and
widowhood. Gandhi considered communalism as the worst social evil in
India.
Communalism meant to him fight between people of different faiths for
their respective supremacy. He was secular in his outlook. With his
180
broad religious attitude there could be no room for such a conflict. The
All-India Muslim League in the name of rights for the Muslims in India
branded Hindus as its enemies. This led to the growth of suspicion
among the Hindus and Muslims resulting in communal riots on many
occasions. He emphasized that India could not survive if Hindus and
Muslims fought against each other. He asked people to adopt a rational
and human approach towards the whole problems so that permanent
peace could be brought about.
Political freedom for India was Gandhi's main ideal during his struggle
against the British rulers. He felt that without freedom nothing was
possible. In his fight for India's freedom, he had a wider humanistic goal.
His attitude of a saint in tackling all human problems continued even in
the sphere of his political activity.
20.2 MAJOR GANDHIAN IDEOLOGIES
Truth and Non-violence: They are the twin cardinal principles of
Gandhian thoughts. For Gandhi ji, truth is the relative truth of
truthfulness in word and deed, and the absolute truth - the ultimate
reality. This ultimate truth is God (as God is also Truth) and morality -
the moral laws and code and its basis. Nonviolence, far from meaning
mere peacefulness or the absence of overt violence, is understood by
Mahatma Gandhi to denote active love - the pole opposite of violence, in
every sense.
Satyagraha: Gandhi ji called his overall method of nonviolent action
Satyagraha. It means the exercise of the purest soul-force against all
injustice, oppression, and exploitation. It is a method of securing rights
by personal suffering and not inflicting injury on others.
Sarvodaya: Sarvodaya is a term meaning 'Universal Uplift' or 'Progress
of All'. The term was first coined by Gandhi ji as the title of his translation
of John Ruskin's tract on political economy, "Unto This Last".
Swaraj: Although the word swaraj means self-rule, Gandhi ji gave it the
content of an integral revolution that encompasses all spheres of life. For
Gandhi ji, swaraj of people meant the sum of the swaraj (self-rule) of
individuals and so he clarified that for him swaraj meant freedom for the
meanest of his countrymen. And in its fullest sense, swaraj is much
more than freedom from all restraints, it is self-rule, self-restraint and
could be equated with moksha or salvation.
Trusteeship: Trusteeship is a socio-economic philosophy that was
propounded by Gandhi ji. It provides a means by which the wealthy
181
people would be the trustees of trusts that looked after the welfare of the
people in general.
Swadeshi: The word swadeshi derives from Sanskrit and is a
conjunction of two Sanskrit words. „Swa‟ means self and „desh‟ means
country. So swadesh means one's own country. Swadeshi, the adjectival
form, means of one‟s own country, but can be loosely translated in most
contexts as self-sufficiency. Swadeshi is the focus on acting within and
from one's own community, both politically and economically. It is the
interdependence of community and self-sufficiency.
20.3 GANDHIJI’S EDUCATION CONCEPT
Gandhi's concept of education is of quite significance in the

contemporary situation. His philosophical concept of education is entirely
based on the development of human personality, to maintain the
discipline, to create the manual work with learning and to develop the
culture of the peace. He was a great educationist and an individualist par
excellence. He knew that education is the most important means in the
society which can be used as an instrument of socio-economic progress,
material advancement, political evolution, and moral development of an
individual. Gandhi's whole philosophy and work was based on ethics and
morality. His concept of education is also founded on ethics and
morality. It may be said that his concept of education has full of religious
ideas. His philosophical thought on education is highly pedestal that
creates the socio-economic development of the society.
The ultimate aim of education is character development, which is
a sure steppingstone to nation-building. Gandhi propounded that one of
the most essential qualities towards this end is the purity of personal life,
which is „an indispensable condition for building a sound education‟. He
rendered the recitation of Vedas, Sanskrit, Latin or Greek as irrelevant „if
they do not enable us to cultivate absolute purity of heart‟. The end of all
knowledge, according to him, must be building up of character. This
formation of personal and spiritual character constitutes the part of his
concept of holistic education. Gandhi himself serves as a fine example
of this concept, constantly attempting to emerge as a better human
being. The Gandhian conception of personality is a holistic personality in
which every aspect, attitude and aptitude is given a balanced
development and his concept of education puts the highest importance
on the formation of the individual‟s personality which will be capable of
subsuming the highest and ultimate ideals of human life.
182
20.4 SELF-RULE OR SWARAJ OF GANDHI
The Self-rule or Swaraj, as Gandhi termed it as Kingdom of God

or Ramarajya. The aim of such government should be to recognize the
equality in birth and consequently the right of equal opportunity.
Democracy does not mean freedom to everyone for doing everything.
Mutual tolerance must be considered as a golden rule for a true
democratic order. Ramarajya conceives of a society in which all its
members get equal opportunity to express themselves and in which
none suffers under forced opinion. The Swaraj of my dream recognizes
no race or religious distinctions. He liked it to be 'Purna Swaraj'. So that
everyone is well protected.
Gandhi was not a narrow nationalist. His nationalism is neither
exclusive, nor aggressive nor destructive. India must learn to live before
he can aspire to die for humanity. For Gandhi freedom was not merely a
political fact but a social reality. As a politician he never tolerated or
compromised with injustice, wrong tyranny, and authoritarianism. He
was a patriot because he was humanitarian. He even said India must
die, if in her death the world was to live.
20.5 METHOD OF NON-VIOLENCE
Gandhi advocates the method of non-violence, the solving of all

human problems, whether religious or social, or political or economic.
Non-violence or ahimsa literally means non-killing. But with him it
acquired a distinct meaning. It meant not offending anybody, nor
harbouring an uncharitable thought even against one who behaved as
an enemy. It meant helping an evil doer. The practical application of
nonviolence in life is Satyagraha or soul force.
The principle of non-violence is not new. Only its importance is
stressed in relation to the human species. Democratic order cannot be
saved without non-violence. True democracy means village industries,
through crafts, removal of untouchability, communal harmony,
prohibition, and nonviolence organization of labour. Gandhi remained
firm on this principle because he was sure that in human relationship
truth could not the realized by any other primary education means. Non-
violence means humanistic attitude towards life.
20.6 APPLICATION OF VARIOUS FACETS OF GANDHIAN
IDEOLOGY
Civil Services: Truth lies at the core of Gandhian philosophy as he

himself has tried to remain truthful throughout his life. Gandhian view of
truth was irreversible in different contexts irrespective of the urgency of
183
the situation. This was why Gandhiji cancelled the Non-Cooperation
movement after the satyagraha is deviated from the path of truth and a
violent incident of Chaurichaura took place. This principle of truthfulness
to self and to the public is essential for civil servants in the current
context to rampant corruption.
Peace and Stability in the World: Non-Violence is a key component of
Gandhianism, which was the great weapon used by Gandhiji during the
freedom movement of India against British Raj. Gandhiji believed non-
violence and tolerance require a great level of courage and patience. In
a world that is moving through the phases of war marred by violence and
terrorism, there is a significant requirement of Gandhian idea of non-
violence more and more today than the past days.
Secularism: Gandhianism was tolerant towards all religions and the
world today needs more and more religiously and faith wise tolerant
people in societies where violence is committed in the name of religion.
Tolerance in the society will help in neutralizing the ethnocentric bias in
the globe that is taking place day by day based on religion, caste,
ethnicity and region etc.
Creation of Casteless Society: Gandhiji was against the caste system
and coined the term Harijan to pay respect to the lower caste people. As
the Caste system is still prevalent in the Indian society, the Gandhian
philosophy is useful to create a casteless society where everyone is
treated equally irrespective of their caste.
Gandhian Socialism: Gandhian view of socialism is not political but
more social in its approach, as gandhiji thought of a society with no
poverty, no hunger, no unemployment and education and health for all.
These Gandhian ideologies will continue to act as the lighthouse for
Indian policy makers. From poverty alleviation to Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan
and universal health care (Ayushman Bharat) to skill India programs
everywhere the core inspiration comes from Gandhianism.
Decentralization: Gandhian idea of decentralization of power can be
implemented in democracies through empowered local self-governments
at grass root level. Indian government, for instance, has implemented
local self-government by adopting the Panchayati Raj and Municipality
system in rural and urban areas respectively.
Cleanliness: Gandhiji laid great emphasis upon cleanliness or
Swacchta, as he used to say- „Swacchta Hin Seva‟. The recent
Swacchta Bharat Abhiyaan, the biggest cleanliness drive of India, is to
fulfill the dream of Bapu by making India clean. However, this
184
cleanliness drive is more than physical cleanliness and the need to lay
more emphasis upon the internal cleanliness of the individual. Thus,
along with clean roads, toilets for a clean India we require a corruption
free society with greater levels of transparency and accountability too.
Sustainable Environment: Gandhiji held that “Earth has enough for
Human needs, But not for Human greed‟s”. These lines of Mahatma
Gandhi reflect upon how human behaviour destroys nature and how a
sustainable way of living is the need of the hour. The world is whirling
under the burden of global warming, climate change and resource
crunch and all environmental conservation treaties and sustainable
development efforts must implement this Gandhian philosophy.
Ethical Importance: On the ethical and behavioural part Gandhianism
has much significance today because society is witnessing the
degradation of values. Societal values have degraded to such an extent
that people don‟t hesitate to kill someone for the gratification of their own
needs. Respect for women is one of the major ideas of Gandhian
philosophy and the world is witnessing the increased level of violence,
subjugation women face nowadays in society. Thus, Gandhian dream of
a safe country necessitates social consciousness and women
emancipation.
LET US SUM UP
Gandhiji‟s political contributions offered us independence but his

ideologies enlightened India as well as the world even today after so
many years. Every individual, thus, should follow the key Gandhian
ideologies in their day-to-day life for a happy, prosperous, healthy,
harmonious, and sustainable future. The basic Principles of Gandhism,
who for India‟s freedom adhered to six principles in life as truth,
nonviolence, vegetarianism, Brahmacharya, Simplicity and faith.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. What did Gandhiji mean by „Swaraj‟?

a) Freedom for the country b) Freedom for the country men
c) Self-government d) Complete Independence
2. Which of these slogans is associated with Gandhiji?
a) Freedom is my birthright b) Do or die

c) Delhi chalo d) Inqulab Zindabad
3. Non-violence was advocated by
a) Gandhi b) Tilak c) Naoraji d) Nehru
185
GLOSSARY
Gandhism : Ideas that describes the inspiration, vision, and

the life work of Gandhi
Justice : Fairness behaviour or treatment
Nonviolence : Humanistic attitude towards life.
1. Self-government
2. Do or die
3. Gandhi
MODEL QUESTION
1. Explain the basic principles of Gandhism?

2. Discuss the Gandhi‟s concept of swaraj.
3. What are Gandhi‟s Principles of nonviolence?
SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Kapur, A.C. (2006), Principles of Political Science, S. Chand &

2. Mahajan, V.D. (2006), Political Theory, S.Chand & Company Ltd,
New Delhi.
3. Agarwal, R.C. (2006), Political Theory, S.Chand & Company ltd,
New Delhi.
186
TAMILNADU OPEN UNIVERSITY
M.A. Political Science (MPSS - 11)
POLITICAL THEORY
Model Question Paper

Time: 3Hrs Max Marks: 70
PART – A (3 x 3 =9)
Answer any THREE questions in 100 words each. Each question

carries 3 marks
1. Explain the meaning of Political theory.

2. State sovereignty
3. Write about the criticisms of divine origin of state theory.
4. Define Liberty
5. What are the different theories of political obligations?
PART –B (3 x 7 =21)
Answer any THREE questions in 200 words each. Each question
carries 7 marks
6. Explain the relationship between Political Science with other
disciplines.
7. Describe the montesquieu‟s theory of separation of powers.
8. Discuss the Characteristics of rights.
9. Bring out various rights of equality.
10. Elucidate the concept rule of law and its features.
PART- C (4 x 10 =40)
Answer any FOUR questions in 500 words each. Each question
carries 10 marks
11. Discuss the Empirical and Normative Approaches to the study of

Political Science.
12. Critically examine the Austin‟s theory of sovereignty.
13. Enumerate the elements of the State.
14. Critically analyse the evolutionary theory of origin of State.
15. What is the difference between classical and modern liberalism?
16. Analyse the fascism concept‟s contribution to political theory.
17. Examine the application of various facets of gandhian ideology to
contemporary world.
187
188

MPSS 11

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MPSS 11

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M.A.

SCHOOL OF POLITICS AND PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

TAMIL NADU OPEN UNIVERSITY

Name of the Course Code with MPSS – 11 POLITICAL THEORY

Curriculum Design : Dr. R. Arumugam Assistant Professor,

Course Writer: Dr. J. Prabhakaran

Content Editor : Dr. J. Prabhakaran

Course Coordinator Dr. R. Arumugam

January 2022 (First Edition)

ISBN No: 978-93-95914-32-1

© Tamil Nadu Open University, 2022

Further information on the Tamil Nadu Open University Academic Programmes

My Dear Beloved Learners!

With warm regards,

Unit -1 Meaning, Nature and Scope of Political theory -

Unit -2 Approaches to the Study of Political Theory:

Unit -3 Key Concepts: State – Society – Sovereignty –

MEANING, NATURE AND SCOPE OF POLITICAL THEORY-

1.5 Political Theory relationship with allied Disciplines

1.5.6 Other Social Sciences

Political theory is the study of political ideas and values like

After studying this unit, you will be able to

This Chapter would enable the students to understand the basic

Many books have been written on political science by eminent

Sociology is a broad and comprehensive term it is a parent science of all

1. Political Science is that part of social science which treats the

Polis : City State.

Politics : Power and inclusion.

1. State and Government.

1. Explain the scope of Political Science.

4. Define Psychology role in Political Science.

1. Johari J.C, (2007), Contemporary Political Theory, Sterling

2. Barker, E.(1951), Principles of social and political Theory, Oxford

APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF POLITICAL THEORY:

The study of political science and in the process of search for

After studying this unit, you will be able to

 Explain the Historical approaches to the study of political science.

It is quite difficult to identify and categorise various conceptions

An Approach may be defined as said to be observing and then

The term „historical approach‟ to politics may be used in two

The normative conception in political theory is known by different

Political theory in the twentieth century is not normative but

g) Urge for value free research.

When something is desired, aimed at or commended purely for

Values (It ought to be

Focus of Inquiry Real Ideal

Designed to Discover Determine

Nature of Inquiry Scientific and Descriptive Critical and Prescriptive

Sense - experience and

Result of Inquiry Verifiable Debatable

Criteria of Validity True and False Right and Wrong

Political theorists concentrate more on theoretical claims instead

1. Who described historical approach as „historicism‟?

a) Evidence based Approach b) Policy Analysis

Normative : Behaviour deriving from standard norm.

Instrumental Values : The value of both physical objects and abstract

1. Describe the approaches in the study of Political Science.

1. Johari J.C, (2007), Contemporary Political Theory, Sterling

KEY CONCEPTS: STATE – SOCIETY –

3.6.1 Power View of Politics

3.7.1 Legal and Moral Aspects of Citizenship

3.9.1 Impact of Global Order on Political and