Geotextiles as filters
by DAVID J. HOARE", BSc, MSc, CEng, MICE, MIMunE,
1. Introduction
A SYNTHETIC FABRIC MEMBRANE was first
used as an alternative to a granular filter in
1958 in the reconstruction of a waterfront
concrete block revetment USA
in Florida,
(Agershou, 1961; Dallaire, 1977). General
acceptance of the idea was, however, slow in
coming, and it has only been since the early
1970s that developments have been rapid.
A wide range of permeable synthetic
fabrics ('geotextiles') are now used for civil
engineering purposes and many of the recent
ones have been designed and constructed for
a specific end-use.
In many applications there are no well
developed generally accepted theories to
allow a detailed mathematical analysis and
there are too few well documented field case
studies. Thus a real understanding of how
these geotextiles achieve their purpose is still
being developed. There is no doubt, however,
that used with caution and wisdom they have
a very major role to play in geotechnical
engineering. This is certainly the case for
filters and drains.
The design of filters and drains using geo-
textiles is in many respects similar to the
design of granular filters and drains. This
Paper will be limited to the factors affecting
the design choice and performance of the
geotextile as a soil filter. It is outside the
scope of this Paper to review in general geo-
textile types, their classification, functions
and engineering properties as these have
been dealt with in a previous article in this
series. It must be stressed, however, that
when used as a filter or a drain, the geotextile
is seldom acting as a filter alone but that the
other functions —separation, drainage in the
plane and reinforcement (McGown & loading and/or reversing flow conditions in
Ozelton, 1973; Leflaive & Puig, 1974) —may
also be essential to the efficient construction
and operation of the filter.
Most specifications for fabric filters and
drains in fact also include clauses outlining
strength as well as the filtration and permea-
bility requirements (for example, US Army,
1977 from Calhoun, 1972; List 1973). It is
important that the fabric has both sufficient
tensile strength to enable construction to be
performed without damage and to maintain
the separation function during placement in
the ground and for the life-time of the system.
For coastal protection tensile strength is
required to provide the necessary resistance
to the large physical forces involved.
Modulus of deformation is important since in
many uses large strains in the soil fabric
system must be accepted as unresistible
(such as under embankments on soft founda-
tions) and in these circumstances a fabric
with low modulus should be used (Hoare,
1978). Most conventional drainage
applications would tend to require low
modulus fabrics.
The tensile strength and ductibility of
fabrics can be of particular value in circum-
*Department of Civil Engineering, Umversity
Birmingham.
This is the third in a series of articles on geotextiles and
their applications. The first, fGeotextiles in the UK",
appeared in our November 1983 issue, pp. 30-38. The
second, "The notion of geotextiles as separators in roads",
was in January 1984, pp. 27-34.
MIHE
stances such as in drains on unstable slopes
where otherwise the drain might shear under
lateral movement and become physically dis-
continuous. This applies also in earth dams,
but here it could be argued that the fabric
would be of even greater value as it might
both cause a redistribution of stresses and
strains within the dam and also form a
physical barrier that might prevent the
promulgation of any 'cracks'hich may be
formed within the dam for whatever reason,
and along which excessive wash-out can
then otherwise occur culminating in ultimate
failure of the dam (e.g. Vaughan, 1970).
It is also vitally important that the longevity
of the fabric is adequate in the soil environ-
ment. Chemical and microbiological attack
and degradation by ultra-violet light can in
extreme circumstances cause a life measured
in days rather than years if a fabric totally
unsuited to the conditions is used. Detailed
information on the mechanical and environ-
mental properties of geotextiles is provided
elsewhere (Hoare, 1982; Rankilor, 1981).
2. Applications
Fabric filters and drains are used in five
applications involving the removal of subsoil
water in one-directional flow situations.
These are subsoil drains ('french'nd agri-
cultural drains), blanket drains (beneath
sports fields, beneath or within embank-
ments), vertical strip drains (to accelerate
consolidation, dissipate pore water pressure
etc.) behind permeable retaining structures
(such as gabion walls and revetments) and
behind impermeable retaining structures
(such as concrete walls and abutments).
Fabrics are used as filters under dynamic
railway construction (between subgrade and
ballast to prevent 'pumping') and in
revetments and other coastal works. Fabrics
have also been used as filters in dams.
Other situations occur which involve
essentially only the 'separation'unction but
which might appear superficially to be a
'filter'pplication, for example beneath
temporary and permanent pavements, and
haul roads and embankments over soft
LIST OF SYMBOLS
(grain) diameter or equivalent
diameter
0 (fabric) pore diameter or equivalent
diameter
Subscripts to d and 0 as follows:
refers to base (or protected) soil
grains
refers to granular filter grains
Subscripted number x shows that
d. is the x-percent finer than d size by
mass
ox is the x-percent finer than o sizet
"Effective fabric pore size"t
of
Oe
uniformity coefficient = ~
dr 0
dp = mean pore diameter of a granular
medium
t Definitions vary, see Sections 5 Er 6
ground, and in land reclamation. The
essential difference is that here there is no
predominant or long-term flow across the
fabric.
Wovens and most melt and resin-bonded
fabrics possess insufficient hydraulic
conductivity in the plane of the fabric to be
used as drains in isolation. The thicker
needle-punched non-wovens have some
ability as a drain but compressibility of the
fabric can be a problem. This has recently
been overcome by commercially produced
preformed drains (as variants of the Kjellman
card-board drains (Kjellman, 1 949)). In these
a thin woven or non-woven fabric is used to
wrap granular materials or corrugated and
ribbed plastics to form multi-layer drains.
There are several versions of these now
available commercially in Europe. The types
and design of strip drains have been reviewed
elsewhere (Pilot, 1978; Hansbo, 1979) and
this Paper is concerned only with the design
of the outer 'filter'heet of such drains.
Fig. 1 shows pictorial representations of
many of the 'filtration'ses of geotextiles.
3. Granular vs. fabric filters
A number of general practical advantages
of fabric filters are apparent:
(ij The filtering ability is factory controlled and
cannot be altered by careless placement by
site labour.
(ii J Quick visual inspection assures the
engineer that the filter is in place as designed.
(iii) The geographic location and availability of
materials (sands and gravels) as economic
considerations in the design of the filter
system are eliminated.
(i v) For one-directional flow conditions into a
fabric wrapped granular drain, the central
granular material needs only be designed for
hydraulic conductivity. Thus any suitable
'out-of-specification'ranular material may
be used.
(vj It is the only type of filter that has an
independent tensile strength.
(vij Special-purpose membranes are being
developed for particular uses, and these have
made methods of construction feasible
which were previously impossible, leading to
considerable economic savings in certain
cases (Rankilor, 1981b; Lawson, 1979).
(viiJ Installation of the fabric drains should
generally be quicker, easier, more economic
in labour and thus cheaper overall than
granular drains.
A number of potential disadvantages (or at
least cautionary statements) should also be
made:
(i) The life of a fabric in a soil environment is
unproven (in terms of the normal design life
of an engineering structure).
(iij Most (unprotected) fabrics are seriously
affected by long exposure to ultra-violet light.
(iii) The operation of a fabric as a filter in the
long-term field situation is unproven
(although it should also be said that the long-
term satisfactory behaviour of many granular
filters is also not beyond doubt).
(i vJ The system will not operate as designed if
the fabric is installed carelessly so that it
becomes tom or severely damaged or if
adjacent sheets are not adequately over-
lapped or fixed.
March 1984 29
4. Mechanism of filtration
As with the design of granular graded
filters, there are the two contrary require-
ments which have to be met in the design of
geotextile filters. These are the Permeability
criterion —that adequate permeability must
be provided (i.e. the pore sizes of the filter
must be sufficiently large to ensure that water
may flow freely away without excessive
hydraulic heads being generated), and the
Washing-through criterion —that mechani-
cal filtering efficacy must be ensured (i.e. the
filter pore sizes must be small enough to
prevent the continued passage of soil
particles through the filter.
Standard 'design'ules for granular filters
endeavour to optimise these requirements by
considering particle sizes and their
distribution. Reviews of these rules have
been carried out by many authors (e.g. TRRL,
1970; Cedergren, 1977; Billam, 1981).
The analogy between a granular and a
fabric filter, however, is not perfect. A fabric
filter is essentially a thin membrane
(0.5-4mm) whereas each layer of a granular
filter will be thick (at least 0.2-0.3m). Thus
the real function of the geotextile must be to
retain the soil mass by mechanical constraint
whereas in a granular filter there is a
I I
I I
I I
I I
I r
V
/ ~gh
zygo r~y1 ~W Pi+YAXX
e
Pig. 1. Pictorial representation of 'filtration'applications
30 Ground Engineering
progressive retention of particles as they
pass into and through the tortuous voids
across the thickness of the filter.
With any type of drain which will operate
efficiently, there is bound to be a certain
amount of loss of soil grains through the filter
during its early life. This has been well
accepted in both agricultural drains, well-
screens and civil engineering drains (Hunter
Blair, 1968; Johnson well screens, 1968;
Barratt, 1966; Rycroft Et Murray, 1979; Bell,
1 980).
Investigations into the mechanism of
operation of fabric filters under uni-
directional flow conditions (Marks, 1975)
show that following the filter's installation
and commissioning, fine particles within the
zone closest to the filter migrate towards the
filter. Some of the migrating particles pass
through the filter and are washed away. The
process of 'bridging'ontinues to develop
from the filter back into the soil until a new
equilibrium is reached. At any point on the
fabric, several particles may combine to
bridge an aperture in the fabrics, or a single
particle may completely block a screen
aperture. A filter cake may form in the soil at
some distance back from the fabric. At
equilibrium therefore, which may take several
I ~ I
I I
I I I
I I I
> e
/gW
of geotextiles (based on Gnoud, 1977)
months to occur in practice, the soil adjacent
to the filter has become more permeable,
whereas the filter's original permeability has
been somewhat reduced. The situation is
acceptable if sufficient hydraulic conductivity
remains across the fabric and the head loss
across the fabric is not too large. This
mechanism is thus very similar to the 'self-
induced'ilter action of well-screens and the
fabric is essentially acting as the catalyst
which induces the formation of the filter in
the soil. This filter action has previously been
well established in the period 1930s-1960s
in the chemical engineering and chemistry
fields (Celanese Corporation, 1975). A dia-
gramatic representation of this soil filter is
shown in Fig. 2 and Fig. 3 shows the
reduction in system permeability determined
by Marks.
The formation of an acceptable 'self-
induced'ilter by the fabric screen depends
on many factors: the physical and mechanical
properties of the fabric (pore size and its
distribution, porosity, fabric thickness and
fabric compressibility), characteristics of the
soil to be protected (grain size and its
distribution, porosity, permeability,
cohesiveness), external stresses and strains
imposed upon the soil/fabric system, and the
hydraulic conditions prevailing (laminar or for 5 minutes over the fabric on a 300mm ing fabric filter design rules to ascertain the
turbulent flow, uni-directional or reversible sieve, the vibration rate being such that the basis on which fabric pore sizes should be
flow directions). This final factor —the balls move but do not jump about. The determined as there is no standardisation.
hydraulic conditions prevailing —is of vital amounts passing for various fractional sizes Determination of fabric
importance, because reversible flow are then computed to give the fabric pore size permeability
conditions would usually destroy the self- distribution. Constant-head and falling-head per-
induced filter, and even turbulent flow Great care should be taken when interpret- meameters are generally used for measuring
conditions can destroy the bridging network
as almost vibratory conditions can be set up Fig. 2 (right). articles
increasing migration potential. Table I Interaction of soil locking
summarises the influence of all these factors particles and fabrics pore»
on the operation of the fabric screen in drains
(McGown, 1976). (a) Particles blocking
Under conditions of severe turbulence with pores
dynamic loading or reversing flow conditions, (bJ Particles clogging
a satisfactory stable bridging network within in complex pore
system Fabric
the soil will not form and there is considerable filaments
disagreement on how such fabric filters (c) Development of a
operate and how they should be designed fabricinduced soil
filter (a)
(see Review of Design Rules and subsequent
discussion).
5. Determination of relevant
fabric properties
Comment here will be limited to drawing
attention to the range of definitions for and Average
fabric
methods of determining the most relevant thickness
fabric properties for filtration.
Determination of fabric pore size
distribution
Woven fabrics can be investigated under a ilaments
(b)
microscope and the void distribution
obtained by direct measurement (Calhoun,
1972). In this way 'percent open area's ii
calculated. Most methods however involve Fig. 3 (below). Fabric Original soil
the use of a sieving technique. There are filter design structure
lr
many versions including: (Schober e Teindi, 1980)
Calhoun (1972): sieve 150gm of single (aJ Filter-criterion for
Filter zone
size sand for 20 minutes over a fabric on a wovens and thin non- in soil
sieve using an automatic sieve shaker. The wovens (thi ckness
"Equivalent Opening Size" (EOS) is the smaller than 1mm
'retained-on'ize of that sand fraction of (0.04in) with steady Bridging
which 5% of the sand by weight passes the laminar flow) network
fabric (adapted by US Army, 1977). (b) Filter-criterion for of larger
Ogink (1975): sieve 50gm of specified needlefelts (thi ckness particles
sand under specified vibration conditions for greater than 2mm lr
5 minutes over a fabric on a sieve. 0eo for (0.08inJ with steady () Fabric
example, corresponds to the average laminar flow 0
diameter of the sand fraction of which 10% (c) Filter-criteria for
passes the fabric. The maximum pore turbulent alternating Drain
diameter of the fabric is considered to be 0„. flow compared with
I.C.I. (Rankilor, 1978): sieve 100gm of those for steady
single size Ballotini glass balls of known size laminar flow (c) ~Water flow

o 5
Needle-felts~
B
o'I- '
g O =
rr 1.0
i

..~444RW O

'-
c1(

r'~
5
i
Wove ns
0 = 1.5
Needle-felts

~ V"
d66 =ow
Wovens and
thin non wovens
50 IKI I lu
+

- —du =Ow
0, I
0 2 3 0 1 2 3 4 5
(a) U=—
d66
10
(b) U=-
d
60
(c) U=—
d66
I0 10

32 Ground Engineering
flow across the plane of the fabric, and Again there is little standardisation of test
modified permeameters or adapted Rowe detail.
consolidometer cells where permeability One problem which has often occurred is
along the plane of the fabric is required. that the hydraulic gradients applied in the
TABLE I: FACTORS AFFECTING SCREEN OPERATION latter McGown, 1976)
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FABRIC PROPERTIES AND SCREEN OPERATIONS
Fabric property/ Control of maximum size of
Screen operation particle migrating
The upper limit of pore size in the fabric
Pore size controls the maximum size of particle
distribution which can migrate
The magnitude of the percentage open
area influences the probability of particles
being aligned with a hole in the fabric
Percentage frequency which is large enough. In a soil system the
of pores/unit area numbers of holes, in particular large holes,
that are not "blocked" by soil particles
lying partly or wholly across them is
related to the percentage open area.
The thicker the fabric the less likely there
Thickness will be continuous large holes.
The more complex the fabric structure and
Rigidity of structure more mobile the constituent filaments the
more likely the pores will close up or open
up under compression or straining.
EXTERNAL FACTORS INFLUENCING FABRIC SCREEN OPERATION
Externalfactors/ Control of maximum size of
Screen operation particle migrating
Particle size The grading characteristics of the soil
distribution will influence the availability of par-
ticular sizes for migration or for reten-
tion. Well graded soils will be much less
subject to migration than say gap
graded soils.
Soil
Void ratio If particles are assumed to be spheres
then two limiting states of packing are
possible to define. At loosest state par-
ticles of same size can migrate through
space left by previous particle. At
densest it cannot.
Hydraulic Seepage velocity controls the maximum
gradient size of particle that can be migrated.
Care must be taken in lab testing not to
greatly exceed field situation hence
change migration potential.
Fluid
Flow As the flow direction deviates from
pattern straight through flow, so the size of
aperture presented to the direction of
flow diminishes and the maximum size
of particle migrating reduces.
Particle size The grading of the drainage media con-
distribution trols the size and distribution of the pore
space available to transport the mi-
grated particles from the soils. In-
sufficient pore size will lead to clogging
Drainage of the drain by the larger particles first
media and later other sizes (This is the lower
limit of permeability).
Void ratio The void ratio is controlled by grading
and by state of compaction. Insufficient
pore size will lead to clogging of drain.
Strain With straining in the fabric the pore
sizes are likely to reduce and the maxi-
Stress mum size migrating altered.
In
fabric Tears If a tear occurs then local changes in
maximum size migration will increase.
tests have been unrealistically high when
compared to field conditions (Ogink, 1975;
McGown, 1 976). This has led to unrepresen-
tative results as steady laminar flow
Control of probability of
migrating
The probability of particle migration,
particularly the larger particles,
will be directly associated with the per-
centage of large holes.
The probability of particle migration
increases with increased percentage
open areas. "Blocking" of holes by
particles lying partly or wholly across
them will reduce effective area available
to flow.
The thicker the fabric the more likely it
will be that particles will be trapped
passing through the fabric and so
clogging it.
If the pores close up the particles will
clog up in it and if the pores open up
then many more particles will pass.
Control of probability of
migration occurring
As before
As before —and if turbulent flow exists
almost vibrating conditions can be set
up increasing migration potential.
As before —and if turbulent flow exists
almost vibratory conditions can be set
up increasing migration potential.
As flow direction deviates from straight
through flow so probability of particles
accumulating along fabric is increased.
Thus inclined flow reduces migration
and increases clogging potential.
If drainage media is much more per-
meable than soil then in confined flow
situation the depth of flow is much less
than in soil. Thus larger vertical drops
in flow depth occur at the fabric causing
clogging by accumulation of soil along
fabric face. (This is the upper limit of
permeability).
Insufficient pore space leads to clogging
and too much leads to high flow rates in
small depth and possibility of clogging
of fabric in unconfined flow.
With straining the pore size distribution
may well change both in size and
frequency in any given size range.
If a tear propagates then there will be
great increase in amount of soil
migrating.
Sufficient hydraulic
conductivity
Flow through the fabric will not be en-
tirely uniform in so far as larger holes will
take a much larger share of flow than
they are relatively due.
The more available open area in the
fabric, the smaller will be the flow
resistance of the fabric.
The thicker the fabric the greater the
flow resistance for any pore sizes and
percentage open areas.
The flow through the fabric may be
greatly reduced if it compresses.
Sufficient hydraulic
conductivity
At the soil fabric interface the voids in
the soil may not coincide with the pores
in the fabric and "blocking" may occur.
Grading will have a strong influence
here.
Controls the velocity of fluid approach-
ing screen. Dependent on screen prop-
erties void ratio will define which type
of flow that occurs in soil —Laminar,
Translational or Turbulent.
For any given situation the amount and
character of flow (laminar etc) is directly
related to the applied hydraulic
gradient.
Shape of drain defines pattern of flow
paths. For converging, radial or in-
clined, hydraulic conductivity must be
maintained very high to achieve satis-
factory operation at the relatively high
flow induced.
The velocity of flow must be sufficient
to carry the migrated particles through
the intersticial paths of the drainage
media and through the system.
Void ratio controls the flow conditions
(laminar etc) at exit from fabric.
Flow conditions (laminar etc) may
change if fabric pore size distribution
changes.
Flow will occur along line of least resis-
tance; initially this will occur near the
tear.
March 1984 35
conditions do not occur and Darcy's Law no
longer applies (Cedergren, 1977; Rankilor,
—<
d1 5f
d856
5 for washing-through criterion ...(9)
that 2.3 becomes 2.1.
The above uniformity criterion involve a
1 978).
For flow across the plane of the fabric, it is
difficult to quote a value for hydraulic
gradient and hence coefficient of permea-
—>
dl 56
dl 56
5 for permeability criterion ...(10)
number of assumptions which should not be
overlooked and have been derived purely
from the 'classical'ules for granular filter
design.
bility because the fabric is so thin (and/or d50f
25 for graded angular or The 'classical'riteria for clays without
compressible), and hence assessment of dgp6
or sub-angular filters ...(1 1) sand or silt partings given above may
fabric thickness is critical. It is better to quote 7 for uniform filters-
theoretically be transferred directly into
permeability in terms of the quantity of water for uniformity cnterion membrane filters, such that
passing/unit area/unit time under a specified and for clays without sand or silt partings
small head of water. 0, < 0.08mm ...(221
d», < 0.4mm i.e. a well- Discussion on the advisability and limitations
6. Review of design rules U> 20 graded one
...(121 of this approach is given later.
There are several different approaches stage filter is Schober & Teindl (1980) have extended
which may be adopted to develop fabric filter Other criteria
acceptable the scope of fabric filter design rules by con-
design rules. disregarded
sidering the effect of soil grading as well as
In order to be able to 'substitute' fabric specific particle sizes. This is an extension of
(AJ Development from well-screen/ membrane for the granular filter in the above work on granular filters by Ziems (1967),
slotted pipe criteria rules, it is necessary to be able to equate the Davidenkoff (1976), Busch Er Luckner
There have been various criteria developed pore size distribution of the voids in a fabric (1974). Grading is measured by the
for the design of well-screens established membrane to a (3-dimensional) granular Coefficient of Uniformity U and according to
since the 1930s. filter of given particle size distribution and the theory a well-graded soil is less likely to
Bennison (1947) as quoted by Healy & Long shape. cause siltation and can be protected by a
(1971) suggest: One such approach is outlined by Rankilor coarser filterthan a poorly-graded soil. Teindl
d80f —1 (1978). recommends that the effective pore diameter
o enn size
opening
for well graded soil ...(1) Following the statement by Atterberg (1908) 0. (the actual single pore size of a woven
that, in general terms fabric, or the 080 for a non-woven) should be
related to the mean particle size d» by:
—1 for uniform soil ...(2) ~f =o2
o enin size d1 5f 0, =B
Cedergren (1 977) quotes the US Army Corps from which it follows that if 0, = dgf, d50
of Engineers (1955) and US Army et al
0, = 0.2 where B= f(U).
(1971) criteria for the gradation of filter then ...(141 A factor of safety against soil migration rl is
materials in relation to the slots and holes in dl 5f
introduced, the soil in effect being protected
pipes buried in them: then the 'Equivalent Membrane'riteria by a finer-pored filter than would otherwise
becomes: be necessary (rI = 1.5 incorporates this
For slots
I
"'d h
> 1.2 - (3)
0, < 1 recommendation). Fig. 3 shows the design
d856
for washing-through, and ...(15) curves. This theoretical work was confirmed
by laboratory experimentation.
For circular holes Schober Er Teindle also quote other filter
d85f
) - (41
0,
dI 56
) 1 for permeability design rules:
Ragutzki (1973) for uniform sand
hole diameter
For coarse sands and gravels, the
and US Bureau of Reclamation (1973) permeability criterion of the membrane with filter surcharge loading
d85f
maxm. opening of pipe drain ) usually becomes the critical design factor; for
fine sands and silts the washing-through
criterion is normally more critical.
0, < 0.5-1.3for wovens
d50
...(241
Walton (1968) also quotes this last criteria For the uniformity criterion it is necessary
for perforated and open jointed clay pipes. to develop a relationship between d,ii,, and
0, < 0.5-1.5for non-wovens ...(25)
If it is valid to compare the entry require- d50
d»f, d»,. Assuming a linear particle
ments of granular filter materials into slots distribution curve on the semi-log plot, it and for wovens and non-wovens, without
and holes in pipes with the entry of soil follows (by similar triangles) that filter surcharge loading, i.e. grains can move
through the pores of a fabric membrane, then freely
(inverting the relationship): dgpf —U 1.42
d1 5f 0, < 0.5-0.7
0, <1 or05 d50
d856
and thus
and Zitscher (1975) for wovens
The value of 0, would logically be the actual d,ii, —5.0». U 'sing the
pore size (or the E.O.S.) for a woven fabric, Atterberg statement....
0, < 0.5-1.0 ...(27)
(181 d50
and for a non-woven it would either be the
mean pore size O,p ol Ogp (Ogink, 1975, Hence the uniformity criteria for the 'Equiva- ((.) Development from laboratory tests
indicates that the effective pore size of a non- lent Membrane'ecomes: using soil/fabric systems
woven is more realistically represented by The USWES attempted to quantify
080). 0, <2.3 provided U >3 ...(19) filtration performance and to derive criteria
d506
Early quantitative design rules on this basis for fabric screens based upon the established
are given by Nelson (1960) (as quoted by i.e. for non-wovens with a wide range of pore criteria for granular material adjacent to holes
Rycroft Et Murray, 1979) who suggested: sizes ( —the value of 3 has been chosen as a
—<1 drainage pipes and well-screens (Calhou,
in
050 sensible figure) 1972). Six tape woven fabrics, one needle-
punched and one heat-bonded non-woven
d856 0, < 1.4 for =1 were tested in so-called filtration and clogg-
d506
U (20)
or for a more conservative approach ing tests. The filtration tests were downward
i.e. for fabrics with single pore size. flow tests through loose sand and silty sands
d506
<1 -. (8) Using identical arguments and assump- and the ability of the fabric to retain various
tions but replacing the Atterberg statement particle sizes was measured. In the clogging
These rules were investigated experimen- bythatof Bailey(1980) asreportedbyBillam tests the variations in the silt content of layers
tally by Calhoun (1972). (1981), who found that for densely packed of a silty sand upstream of the fabric were
unequal sized spheres of a wide range of measured at various times and the ratio of the
(B) Development from classical sphere gradings: final to the initial silt contents in the 2.5mm

~ =O2
'rules'or

granular filters layer above the fabric was taken as the

Taking some typical classical rules for all —.(21) Clogging Ratio and used as a measure of the
soils except clays without sand or silt partings dI Qf
clogging of the soil during the test.
(Cedergren, 1977; Billam, 1981): then the above results are unaltered except From this the following fabric filter design

36 Ground Engineering
 criteria were recommended: O.o than 50 filament diameters should be used
(aj Adjacent to granular materials containing <1 for material with less than ...(32) and preferably the filament should have a fair
50% or less by weight of silt (material of little 50% passing No. 200 US degree of positive bonding but not include
or no plasticity, passing the No. 200 sieve): std. sieve
those bonded by resins, glues and other
EOS(mm) 059 -0.15mm for soil with greater ...(33) materials which might be unevenly spread
d856
" (28) than 50% passing throughout the structure.
No. 200 sieve (h) To reduce the possibility of excessive
Open area >40% ...(29) migration of particles through the fabric due
(h) For the permeability criterion to local or general piping, the flow velocity
(h) Adjacent to soils having little or no i fabric >5 aoa ...(34) across the fabric should not exceed
cohesion containing more than 50% silt by 0.3m/sec.
weight: The 5 times value was chosen to give a
Ogink (1975) presents a report covering
suitable safety factor.
EOS > 200 microns (30) the hydraulic aspects of synthetic fabrics in
Bourdillon (1975) in France tested the
usefulness of needle-punched
contact with sand. This includes the following
fabrics as
Open area > 10% ...(31) vertical or horizontal drainage strips or layers.
recommendations:
For 'sand-tightness'nder static flow
In nocase should the EOS be less than 150 He measured the change in permeability of
conditions (where a self-induced filter will
microns nor the open area less than 4%. Also several layers of fabric normal to and in the
form):
fabrics used to wrap collector pipes should
be surrounded by at least 150mm of clean
granular material. If the fabric is used to line a
plane of the fabric under applied normal
pressure and related this to the void ratio of
the fabric at that pressure. He also carried out
—>
o9O
0906
1 for all fabrics
except non-wovens (35)
trench, the collector pipe should a series of Proctor compaction tests
separated from the fabric by at least 150mm
of clean granular material.
On the basis of testing only two fabrics
be
incorporating a layer of the fabric along the
bottom of the mould, using a clayey silt and a
silty clay at moisture contents above Proctor
—>
o9O
daob
1.8 for non-wovens ...(36)
which were not wovens, it was recommended optimum. At the end of the test he measured For 'sand-tightness'nder dynamic loading
that only woven fabrics be used as filters. This the impregnation of the fabric bythe soil, and conditions (where no self-induced filter can
decision backed by so little experimental correlated this to the change in void ratio form):
evidence was to say the least unfortunate.
The work also failed to discuss the very
important differences between reversing and
and hence back-analysed final permeability.
Figs. 5 and 6 demonstrate his findings. This
demonstrates the considerable effect that
—<
098
dob
1 as the limiting condition ...(37)
non-reversing flow conditions. This work fabric compressibility can have on its or if the finest 15% of soil is permitted to
filtration and drainage properties. migrate then
formed the basis of the US Army Guide
Specification for plastic filter fabrics but in its
latest form does not preclude the use of non-
woven fabrics (US Army, 1977).
To allow for fabric compressibility and for
the increased washing through which occurs
at high hydraulic gradients, McGown (1976)
—<1
o98
d156
(38)
Non-reversing flow conditions were also suggests that two additional criteria be In the event of dynamic loading where a self-
added to those such as put forward by Marks induced filter action can develop:
used in an extensive series of investigations
carried out at the Universities of Tennessee
by Marks (1975) (Rosen Er Marks, 1975); at
Strathclyde by McGown (1976) (Sweetland,
in order to more completely
suitability of fabrics as filters:
identify the

(aj To ensure a reasonably simple fabric

—<
o98
d856
1 i.e. if 15% of the sand is ...(39)
coarser than 098 that will be
1977); at the Norwegian Geotechnical structure with a fair degree of structural sufficient to induce sand-
Institute by Sande Er Elsrud (1974); and at rigidity, fabrics with thicknesses of no more tightness.
Delft Hydraulic Laboratories by Ogink Fig. 5 (rightJ. Vertical o
(1975). This work was sponsored by a permeability— 10-
pressure —vo7d
E
leading manufacturer of melt-bonded
heterofilament fabrics. The tests consisted ratio relationship for
principally of downward flow permeameter a needle-punched x 6-
tests with the fabric separating the soil from fabricinisolation
the coarse drainage media. The hydraulic (Bourdillon, 1976) C2
gradients in the soil, the head loss across the
E
6-
fabric and the percentage migration of fines
were usually measured. Control tests on
granular filters designed to 'classical'ules
were run in parallel. Soil types used included
silty and sandy morainic soils (Strathclyde
and Norway) dune sands (Delft) and a wide Fig. 6 (right, below) 2-
range of soils from sandy silts to sandy clay Vertical
alluvium with added kaolinite and bentonite permeability—
on some occasions (Tennessee). No
pressure relationship 0
0
r
e
significant difference in performance for a needle- 1 2 7
Void ratio
between the fabric and the control drains was punched fabricin
I I I I

noted. Typical results are shown in Fig. 4. isolation and when 0.5 1.5 2 2.5 3
As a result of this work the following filter in contact with a Pressure x 10 , kN/m
criteria for the melt-bonded non-woven silty clay of varying
water content o 10-
fabrics as tested were suggested by Marks:
(Bourdillon, 1976) K
(a) For the washing-through criterion E
o
c'5 6-
o1x10 X

Fig. 4. Range ofsystem permeabilities

oE for thesandysiltsoils tested(Marks,1975) ar
6- ay
Ill
E
o
o.
4-

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIII/zii
1x10 I
0 1 I
I
0 150 300 450 600 0.5 1.5 2 25 8 3
Time, hours Pressure x 10', kN/ms
38 Ground Engineering
 Comprehensive experiments involving design, and Table II from this Paper shows the separation necessary to induce the filter to
106 different fabrics containing a wide range recommendations which are based on form and yet would minimise the risk of fine
of woven and non-woven types and four soil laboratory and field experiments and the soil particles clogging the fabric matrix. The
types (a silt, a poorly graded fine sand, a authors'udgement. use of such fabrics has been widely proven
uniformly graded sand, and a well graded under such conditions, although
sandy gravel) were conducted by List (1973). 7. Comments on design are also commonly and usually
'thick'abrics

Reversing flow type filtration tests were methods: uni-directional successfully used.
undertaken and the relative amounts of soil flow conditions For filters to protect predominantly clay
migrating through a fabric over a period of Most fabric manufacturers are very happy soils, the desirable fabric is less obvious and
time determined, together with permeability (and confident) to recommend their fabrics is open to debate. The work of Kassiff (1 965),
values measured as mean flow per second for use as filter fabrics under uni-directional Vaughan (1970, 1970b, 1975) and Knight
per unit area of fabric. On the basis of these flow conditions. Many of them do not publish (1980) indicate nothing which would
tests, List was not prepared to predict a design method. Some used to publish a suggest that a change in design philosophy is
performance of a fabric without testing it in method but in their current literature have required to that already outlined for
the soil system, but did give criteria which a seen fit to exclude it and refer a customer to situations of low hydraulic gradient and
fabric should meet in order to be used for the firm's 'design team'. This may have sound where the implications of a 'failure'f the
revetments and similar hydraulic structures: commercial justification in a relatively new filter/drain are not severe.
(a) Water permeability of fabric tested in and developing market. Some manufacturers The situation must be considered very
isolation should be at least have very great experience in the use of differently in, for example, large dams where
a falling head of 25cm andmean
Sml/sec/cm'henusing

head loss across the fabric of 35cm.
(b) Not more than 25gm of protected soil
should pass the fabric over a period of 17
hours in a test such as his.
Preliminary laboratory studies into the
clogging of fabrics under steady seepage of
ditch water and tap water with silt have been
reported (Hoogendoorn Et Van Der Meulen,
1977). Results indicated that all the
investigated fabrics were sensitive
clogging under these conditions, and that the
rate of clogging increases for decreasing
pore size O,o. Small values of the ratio
0,()/O„also increase the sensitivity to
clogging. They note that granular filters are
also sensitive to clogging under the test
conditions used. Similar results (Paute Et
Chene, 1977) showed that for non-woven
fabrics where large pores exist no clogging
occurs and it is through these large pores that
fabrics in civil engineering and indeed have
funded much of the research already referred
to.
All design methods are based on the kind
of criteria already outlined, and without doubt
these methods enable a satisfactory filter
drain to be designed and built in granular
soils. The one reservation is that there seems
to be a general feeling that when things go
wrong in practice it is because the filter was
to too fine, i.e. clogging is much more of a
problem than excessive wash-through
(personal communication from Warwick,
1981, and Campbell, 1979). In Denmark
Campbell reports drains using a thick non-
woven fabric becoming clogged by fine silt in
approximately 6 months. He would advocate
allowing fines to pass and enter the drain to
be washed away either naturally or, on
occasions, by high pressure jetting from
manholes. Thus in circumstances where the
any failure might have catastrophic results.
Before synthetic fabric filters are included in
large da ms as the only filter protection it is felt
that much more extensive verification of the
long-term effects is needed, and designers
should make sure that a given material has
the required properties and minimum life
expectancy needed (Cedergren, 1977).
Fabrics have been incorporated in the
filtering system for small dams (Giroud et a/,
1977), while other dams have been
constructed using fabrics in conjunction with
out-of-specification granular filters.
At this stage it can only be suggested that
for large structures laboratory investigations
using the specific materials be undertaken to
investigate the dispersive properties of the
soil under the conditions prevailing and the
ability of a fabric to provide filter protection. It
should be added that in such
the inclusion of a fabric membrane
'important'tructures

most of the flow occurs, and that where fine
pores exist clogging occurs as soil particles
are deposited giving a much reduced fabric
permeability. A semi-Markovian statistical
approach to the analysis of particle move-
ment through a thick needle-punched fabric
was adopted by Rollin, Masounave & Dallaire
(1977) and the results compared with
experimentally determined values.
A number of researchers have performed
work similar but extended to that of List
(1973) on fabric filters under the action
loadings such as occur under
consequences of a washing-through failure
would be no more severe than a clogging
failure, for protection against granular soils
especially where low hydraulic heads occur, it
is recommended that the value of the
"Effective Fabric Pore Size" 0, be taken as at
least Ogo and maybe even 0». The EOS
should also be taken as a minimum value.
Provided a self-induced filter will form in
the (granular) soil it is intuitively obvious that
a 'thin'abric is ideal as it would form the
of'ynamic
within the filter system against the core of the
dam and elsewhere as applicable in addition
to sensibly designed granular filters
(designed as if the fabric were not present)
could only do good, and the tensile strength
and ductility of the fabric could be of very
considerable advantage as outlined pre-
viously. Under these circumstances some
error in estimating the longevity of the fabric
would not be critical. The marginal cost of this
'belt and braces'pproach would be rela-

trafficked roads and railway tracks. Since no TABLE ii: FILTER FABRIC DESIGN FOR PREFORMED DRAINS (Heaty B Long, 1977)
firm design rules have been put forward, this
work is dealt with later. Type of fabric

(Dj Development from observed field Fabric

beha vi otjr property Woven Non-woven Mat
It is very difficult to perform long-term field
trials on fabric filters and very little hard Opening size < Den D2o = O.S. "'
Dao Sieving test
evidence is available by which the methods of retains D,t)
design outlined above may be tempered to fit 0
the realities of site conditions. Field Open area > 5o/o >
performance has been evaluated by Healey 8 5o/ofa'3()

Long (1971)and Calhoun (1972) fora variety Permeability k,a >

of applications. The installations included
preformed drains and fabric collector pipes
as well as river and coastal protection works.
'0
ttt
Opening size ( O.S. ( Des Dgn ( O.S. ( Dg,
retains D»
2k.a,i"'ieving

test
tt)
I
Performance was evaluated qualitatively and Qt
signs of distress were located using visual Open area > 5o/o > 10o/ofa'o

observations rather than field measure- t(t

ments. No major failures were, however, Permeability km„>

attributed to the fabrics, although isolated
areas of clogging and occasional tears in the
screens were reported. However, due to the
0
Opening size 0S Dan Dzn < 0 S. ( Deo'
retains
5k,„„"'ieving

D»"
test

inadequate monitoring which had been ttt

Open area > 10o/o > 15o/o
conducted on the fabrics in-situ, insufficient
information to confirm or deny the
0—
0 E Permeability > 2krrrarse
0 0
'design'riteria

was available, save to say that krmii

generallythefabrics performed satisfactorily. ZZ so I I

Healey Et Long (1977) gives a summary of (a) 0 S = opening sizes (bl Between these sizes
the filter fabrics side of preformed drain (ol Under design pressure (dl Based on finest soil

(
40 Ground Enqineerinq
 tively small and would be justified if just the
occasional major dam failure were averted.
This could well be the case, although such a
statement cannot, of course, be proven.
8. Comments on design
methods: reversing flow/
hydrodynamic flow
conditions
Design of filters to protect against soil
migration under reversing flow and
hydrodynamic conditions is not at all well
understood, and is a very complex process
depending on many factors. Certainly no self-
induced filter will form if large hydraulic
gradients or large dynamically applied
stresses or strains are applied to the soil-
fabric system. It seems probable that the two
conflicting requirements for a filter can never
both be met from a fabric filter used in
isolation under these conditions. The overall
filtering ability of a fabric in soil must be
related to the ability of the fabric to inhibit the
movement of the soil particles. Hence fabrics
having smaller pores would appear more
applicable than is the case for an identical
situation involving uni-directional flow.
List (1973) in his laboratory tests under
severe reversing flow conditions found that
the thick non-woven fabrics have in general a
better performance than thin wovens or non-
wovens when used as a single layer filter. This
is in accordance with this intuitive view. Thick
non-wovens have a thickness made up of
many fibre strands and will have thus a 3-
dimensional structure which will offer the
most tortuous path for a soil particle to
traverse. The void size will also be very small.
Laboratory research is known to be
underway in a number of centres on this
topic, and undoubtedly more information will
become available in due course.
Snaith Et Bell (1978) performed tests to
investigate the use of fabrics under highway
pavements with a view to establishing which
fabrics would be suitable to protect a
particular sub-base material from pumping
of clay sized particles from a particular
cohesive subgrade in Northern Ireland.
Severe dynamic loading conditions were
imposed. The cohesive subgrade tests
contained 58% sand. Results showed thin
wovens and non-wovens to be unsuitable but
double-fleeced woven, a thick non-woven
and a thin non-woven used in conjunction
with a sand layer to be good under the
conditions of test.
It was suggested that the explanation of
the results was to be found in the behaviour of
the pore water pressure at the soil-fabric
interface. Further work to investigate this has
been undertaken both at Queen's University,
Belfast and by the author at Birmingham
University (Hoa re, 1 982). Ayres Et Mc Morrow
(1980), in discussion on the original work,
point out the dangers of making inferences
about the pumping action in all fine subgrade
soils which do not have the very large sand
fraction which was present in the subgrade
tested. They suggest that the fabric was in
effect forming a filter against the sand
fraction, and the sand fraction itself was
forming a self-induced filter. Without the
sand the mechanism of filtration might be
very different. A large number of laboratory
tests have apparently been carried out in
connection with research for the Inter-
national Union of Railways, and they report
that they can find no commercially marketed
fabrics in Europe which can prevent the
passage of fines from the clay soils tested.
Their tests included the fabrics reported as
42 Ground Engineering
satisfactory by Snaith Et Bell. From the tests
at Birmingham, the author would agree with
this thesis.
It is understood(Ayres personal communi-
cation, British Rail, 1981) that there is
considerable debate within the railway world
over the effectiveness of fabrics under rail-
way ballast to prevent pumping on cohesive
subgrades. The general European view is that
to protect the fabric from damage from the
ballast it must be placed within a sand layer. It
is debatable then whether the fabric serves
much purpose since sand designed as a filter
alone is normally sufficient to prevent pump-
ing. A non-woven thermo-bonded fabric has
been in place under a track for a number of
years, and when inspected at this location
has appeared satisfactory against disintegra-
tion. The French and Austrians have found
such operations unsatisfactory
probably
because needle-felt non-wovens were used
and under severe loading conditions from
ballast the mechanical bonds within the
fabric come undone and failure results.
Newby (1980) outlines South Pacific
Railroad experience and indicates that
thermo-bonded fabrics are the worst.
It would thus appear that no specific
answer can be offered at this time as to how
fabrics can satisfactorily be used as filters in
isolation under severe dynamic loading
conditions, especially with difficult soil types.
It is accepted that thicker fabrics are better
than thin ones, but also that (McGown, 1976;
Lawson, 1979) the best solution given the
current state-of-the-art is to use (even a thin)
fabric in conjunction with a granular filter
(often incorporating out-of-specification
materials) to replace one layer of a multi-layer
filter system.
References
Agershou, HA. (1961):"Synthetic material filters
in coastal protection", Journal of the Waterway Port
Coastal and Ocean Division, ASCE, Vol. 87, No.
WW1, Feb., pp. 111-124
Atterberg, A. (1908): "Studien auf dem Gebiet der
Boden Kunde", Landu Versuchanstalt, Vol. 69
Ayres, D.J. & McMorrow, J.C. (1980): "The
filtration behaviour of construction fabrics under
conditions of dynamic loading", Disc. on Snaith Et
Bell, Gbotechnique, London, Vol. 30, No. 1, Mar.,
pp. 87-88
Barrett, R J. (1966):"Use of plastic filters in coastal
structures", Xth Int. Conf. Coastal Eng., Japan, Ch.
62, pp. 1048-1067
Bell, J.R. (1980): "Design criteria for selected
geotextlle installations", presented at the 1st
Canadian Symp. on Geotextlles held at Calgary, pp.
35-37
Bennison, E.W. (1947): "Groundwater,
its
development and uses", Edward F. Johnson Inc.,
St. Paul, Minn.
Bi liam, J. (1981):"Introductory notes on the design
of granular filters", lecture notes, Midland
Geotechnlcal Society, Birmingham, Mar. 2
Bourdillon, M. (1975):"Utilisation des textiles
tissue pour le drainage", D.lng. thesis
(unpublished) L'Universite Claude Bernard
Busch, KF. Er Luckner, L. (1 974): Geohydraulik.
Enke, Stuttgart
Calhoun, C.O. (1972): "Development of design
criterion and acceptance specifications for plastic
filter cloths", Tech. Rept. S-72-7 US Army
Waterways Exptal. Stn., Vicksburg, Miss., June
Cedergren, H.R. (1977): Seepage, drainage and
flow nets. 2nd Ed., John Wiley Et Sons, Inc., New
York, NY
Celanese Corporation (1975): "Mechanism
filtration in subsurface drains designed with Mirafl
140 Fabric", Publication PM 3
Dallaire, G. (1977): "Filter fabrics can cut costs of
river-bank and shore protection structures", Civil
Engineering, ASCE, Mar., pp.74-79
Davidenkoff R. (1976):Anwendung von Filtern lm
Wasserbau, W. Ernst Son, Berlin
Et
Giroud, JP. (1977):"Geotextiles", TravauxPublics,
Dec.
Giroud,J.P., Gourc, J.P., Bally, P. 6 Delmas, P.
(1977): "Behaviour of a non-woven fabric in an
earth dam", Int. Conf. on the Use of Fabrics
Geotechnics at Paris, pp.213-218
in
Hansbo, S. (1979):"Consolidation of clay by band-
shaped prefabricated drains", Ground Engineering,
Vol. 12, No. 5, July, pp.16-25
Healy, K.A. 8 Long, R.P. (1971): "Prefabricated
subsurface drains", H.R.B.-H.R.R. No. 360,
pp.57-64
Healy, KA. & Long, R.P. (1977): "Fabric filters on
prefabricated underdrains", presented at the Int.
Conf. on the Use of Fabrics in Geotechnlcs at Paris,
pp.237-241
Hoare, D.J. (1978): "Permeable synthetic fabric
membranes I —Their use in the strengthening of
soils", Ground Engineering, Vol. 11, No. 5, July,
pp.33-36
Hoare, D.J. (1978): "Permeable synthetic fabric
membranes II —Factors affecting their choice and
control in geotechnics", Ground Engineering,
Vol. 11, No. 8, Nov., pp.25-31
Hoare, D.J. (1 982): "A laboratory investigation into
pumping of clay through synthetic fabrics under
dynamic loading", 2nd int. Conf. on Geotextiles, Las
Vegas, Aug., pp.423-428
Hoare, D.J. (1 983): "Geotextiles in the UK", Ground
Engineering, Vol. 16, No. 5, Nov., pp.30-38
Hoogendoorn, A.D. Er (fan Der Meulen, T. (1977):
"Preliminary investigations on clogging of fabrics",
Int. Conf. on the Use of Fabrics in Geotechnlcs at
Paris, pp.177-182
Hunter Blair, A. (1968): "Well screens and gravel
packs", Water Research Centre, TP. 64, Oct.
Johnson Well Screens (1968): "Principles and
practical methods of developing water wells", Bull.
1033, June
Kassiff G., Zaslavsky, D. Et Zeitlen, G. (1965):
"Filters for compacted clay", Proc. 6th Int. Conf.
SMFE., Vol. 2, pp.495-499
Kjellman, W. (1948): "Accelerating consolidation
of fine grained soils by means of cardboard wicks",
Proc. 2nd lnt. Conf. SMFE, Vol. 2, pp.302-305
Knight,D.J. (1 980): Discussion on Session 6, Proc.
7th Europ. Conf. SMFE, Vol. 4, pp.223-224
Lawson, C.R. (1979): "Membranes in
geotechnlcs", Sixth Asian Regional Conf. SMFE,
Singapore, July
J. (1 974): "L'emploi de textiles
Leflai ve, E. Er Puig,
dans les travaux de terrassement et de drainage",
Bull. Liason. Lab. Ponts. Chauss. No. 69, pp.61-79
List, H J. (1973)."Untersuchungen von lnstationar
Belasteten Kunstoffe-Filtern fur den Wasserbau",
Mltteilungsblatt der Bundesanstalt fur Wasserbau.
No. 35, Oct.
Marks, B.D. (1975): "The behaviour of aggregate
and fabric filters in subsurface applications", Univ.
of Tennessee Rept., Feb. (unpublished), pp.1-444
McGown, A. Et Ozelton, M.W. (1973): "Fabric
non-
membranes in flexible pavement construction over
soils of low bearing strength", Civil Engineering
Public Works Review, London, Jan., pp.25-29
F. McGown. A. (1976): "The properties and uses of
permeable fabric membranes", presented at the
Residential Workshop on Materials and Methods
for Low Cost Road, Rail and Reclamation Work,
Leura, Australia, Sept. pp.663-709
Nelson, WR. (1960): "Flbreglass as a filter for
closed tile drains", Agr. Eng., Oct., pp.690-700
Newby, JE. (1980): "In-depth view of geotextlle
subgrade stabillsation", Railway Track and
of Structures, June, pp.22-30
Ogink, H.JM (1975); "Investigations on the
hydraulic characteristics of synthetic fabrics", Delft
Hydro. Lab. Pub. No. 146, May
Paute, J.L. & Chanc, G. (1977): "Distribution du
diambtre des pores des non-tisses et Vibrocat in UK London Clay.
GKN Keller used the Vibrocat and bottom
commentaires sur le phbnombne du colmatage", (continued from page 25/
feed vibro-replacement to strengthen and
Int. Conf. Use of Fabrics in Geotechnics, Paris, of stone and also reduces wastage compared compact the made ground to give, after
pp.195-199 with the conventional way of hole filling direct treatment, an allowable working load of
Pilot, G. (1977): "Methods of improving the from a tractor shovel. GKN Keller maintain 150kN/m't a depth of 600mm below
engineering properties of soft clays —State of the that cost savings can be achieved not only ground level under the frame stanchion
art", presented at the Int. Sym. on Soft Clay held at because the technique is faster than the other foundation bases for the two-storey building.
Bangkok, July, and reprinted in Bull. Liason. Lab.
dry vibro replacement method but also This was achieved by forming under each
Ponts. Chauss. Special Issue Vl e, April 1978,
because the additional pull-down force can base position clusters of 4-6 stone columns
pp.1 40-1 78
obviate the need for pre-bores and soil through the full depth of the fill of around 6m
Ragutzki, G. (1973): "Beitrag zur Ermittlung der removal on certain sites. and on to the natural sand and gravel stratum.
Filter Wirksamkeit durch Lassiger Kunstoffe",
Beneath the ground floor slab area, stone
Forschungsstelle fur Insel-und Kustenschutz.
Sonderdruck aus Jahresbericht, Band XXV
Chiswick site columns at 2 "/zm centres on a square grid,
The Vibrocat was demonstrated on part of taken down to a depth of 3m only, provided a
Rankilor, P.R. (1978): Designing with Terram. the site at Chiswick, West London, that is partial treatment to cater for the
Booklet commissioned by ICI Fibres, London being developed by MacWall Estates I td. in
35kN/m'loor

loading requirement.
Rankilor, P.R. (1981): Membranes in ground association with Fleming Property Unit Trust With the completion of the ground
engineering, John Wiley Er Sons Inc., England, to form the Hogarth Business Park. treatment the pad foundations and a ground
390pp. Undertaken for Tarmac Scha) Ltd.. project bearing slab will be constructed.
Rankilor, P R. (1981):"The use of a plastic webbing managers for the development, GKN Ke)ler's The Vibrocat was equipped with a mast
in the construction of a marine causeway in the Gulf contract was for treating the ground under a that would permit the poker unit to reach a
of Arabia", presented at the Symp. on Membranes 85m x 35m steel-framed industrial unit with depth of gm. It was supplied with
in Ground Engng., held at the Geol. Soc., London, column loads up to 1 600kN and a floor compressed air from a separate 280cfm (at
10 February, published in Q. Jour. Eng. Geol., Vol. loading requirement of 35kN/m'. 100psi) compressor and with 40mm single
15, 1982, pp.227-232 This part of the site was formerly a sand size gravel for the stone columns by a Terex
Rollin, A.L., Masounave, J., Et Dallaire, G. (1977): and gravel extraction pit that had 72-10 loading shovel.
"Etude des propriktbs hydrauliques des subsequently been filled. The soils report, A total of 737 stone columns were installed
membranes non-tissues", Int. Conf. on the Use of confirmed by a series of trial pits, showed that within 4'/2 weeks, using one Vibrocat and
Fabrics in Geotechnics, Paris, pp.201-206 the fill material extends to depths of crew of three —foreman, rig operator and
Rosen, W J. ErMarks, B.D. (1975):"Investigation of 1.6-2.2m in one part and to 6.8m in another. tractor-shovel driver. This performance,
filtration characteristics of non-woven fabricfilter", The fill materials are composed basically of a amounting to 50 stone columns/10 hour day,
TRR No. 532, T.R.B.,pp.87-93 random mixture of clayey rubble, ash, sand was said to be some 20% better than that
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44 Ground Engineering