Material Science and Metallurgy- Unit No.

1 Structure of Material

Nutan Maharashtra Vidya Prasarak Mandal’s

NUTAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND

RESEARCH,
Under Administrative Support of Pimpri Chinchwad Education Trust

ISO 9001:2008 Certified

DEPARTMENT – MECHANICAL

SUBJECT: MATERIAL SCIENCE AND METALLURGY

Unit No.1
Structure of Materials
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (SANDWICH)
ACADEMIC YEAR: 2019-2020

SUBJECT TEACHER: PROF. M.G. OVHAL

NUTAN COLLEGE OF ENGGINERING AND RESEARCH PROF.MILIND OVHAL

Material Science and Metallurgy- Unit No.1 Structure of Material

Unit 1: Structure of Materials- [08 Hours] Crystal structures, indexing of lattice planes, Indexing
of lattice directions, Imperfections in crystals-point defects, line defects, surface and bulk defects,
Mechanism of plastic deformation, deformation of single crystal by slip, plastic deformation of
polycrystalline materials.
INTRODUCTION TO CRYSTAL PHYSICS
Crystal Physics’ or ‘Crystallography’ is a branch of physics that deals with the study of all possible
types of crystals and the physical properties of crystalline solids by the determination of their actual
structure by using X-rays, neutron beams and electron beams.
Solids can broadly be classified into two types based on the arrangement of units of matter. The
units of matter may be atoms, molecules or ions. They are, (i) Crystalline solids and (ii) Non-
crystalline (or) Amorphous solids
CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS-

A crystalline material can either be a single (mono) crystal or a polycrystal. A single crystal
consists of only one crystal, whereas the polycrystalline material consists of many crystals
separated by well-defined boundaries. Examples Metallic crystals – Cu, Ag, Al, Mg etc.,
Nonmetallic crystals – Carbon, Silicon, Germanium
NON-CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS-

In amorphous solids, particles are arranged in an orderly manner. They are randomly distributed.
They do not have directional properties and so they are called as `isotropic’ substances. They have

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Material Science and Metallurgy- Unit No.1 Structure of Material

wide range of melting point and do not possess a regular shape. Examples: Glass, Plastics, Rubber
etc.
SINGLE CRYSTALS Single crystals have a periodic atomic structure across its whole volume.
At long range length scales, each atom is related to every other equivalent atom in the structure by
translational or rotational symmetry
POLYCRYSTALLINE SOLIDS-

Polycrystalline materials are made up of an aggregate of many small single crystals. They have a
high degree of order over many atomic or molecular dimensions. Grains are separated by grain
boundaries. The atomic order can vary from one domain to the next. The grains are usually 100
nm - 100 microns in diameter. Poly crystals with grains less than 10 nm in diameter are
nanocrystalline

AMORPHOUS SOLIDS-

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Material Science and Metallurgy- Unit No.1 Structure of Material

NUTAN COLLEGE OF ENGGINERING AND RESEARCH PROF.MILIND OVHAL

Material Science and Metallurgy- Unit No.1 Structure of Material

SPACE LATTICE-
A lattice is a regular and periodic arrangement of points in three dimensions. It is defined as an
infinite array of points in three dimensions in which every point has surroundings identical to that
of every other point in the array. The Space lattice is otherwise called the Crystal lattice

TWO-DIMENSIONAL SPACE LATTICE-

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Material Science and Metallurgy- Unit No.1 Structure of Material

BASIS A crystal structure is formed by associating every lattice point with a unit assembly of
atoms or molecules identical in composition, arrangement and orientation. This unit assembly is
called the `basis’. When the basis is repeated with correct periodicity in all directions, it gives the
actual crystal structure. The crystal structure is real, while the lattice is imaginary.
UNIT CELL-
A unit cell is defined as a fundamental building block of a crystal structure, which can generate
the complete crystal by repeating its own dimensions in various directions.
LATTICE PARAMETERS-
The three interfacial angles and their corresponding intercepts are essential. These six parameters
are said to be lattice parameters. Similarly, the angles between X and Y and Z axes are denoted by
α, β and γ respectively as shown in the above figure. These angles α, β and γ are called as interaxial
angles or interfacial angles.
CRYSTALS SYSTEMS-

The seven systems are, Cubic Tetragonal Orthorhombic Trigonal (Rhombohedral) Hexagonal
Monoclinic and Triclinic

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Material Science and Metallurgy- Unit No.1 Structure of Material

Crystal Systems-
Primitive lattice: It has lattice points only at the corners of the unit cell. Body centred lattice: It
has lattice points at the corners as well as at the body centre of the unit cell. Face centred lattice:
It has lattice points at the corners as well as at the face centers of the unit cell. Base centred lattice:
It has lattice points at the corners as well as at the top and bottom base centers of the unit cell.
Diagram-

SIMPLE CUBIC STRUCTURE

BODY CENTRED CUBIC STRUCTURE

FACE CENTRED CUBIC STRUCTURE

HEXAGONAL CUBIC STRUCTURE

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Material Science and Metallurgy- Unit No.1 Structure of Material

ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR-

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Material Science and Metallurgy- Unit No.1 Structure of Material

MILLER INDICES

It is defined as the reciprocals of the intercepts made by the plane on the three crystallographic
axes and they are used to designate plane in the crystal.
The three possible integers represented as (h k l) designates the plane in the crystal, is the reciprocal
of the intercept made by the planes on the crystallographic axes.
Procedure for finding Miller Indices Step
1: The intercepts of the plane are determined along the axes X, Y and Z in terms of the lattice
constants a, b and c.
Step 2: The reciprocals of these numbers are determined.
Step 3: The least common denominator (lcd) is obtained and multiplied with each by this lcd.
Step 4: The Miller indices are written within the parenthesis in the form of (h k l).
DETERMINATION OF ‘MILLER INDICES’FOR THEPLANE ABC HAVING INTERCEPTS
OF 2 UNITS ALONG X-AXIS, 3 UNITS ALONG Y-AXIS AND 2 UNITS ALONG Z-AXIS.
Step 1:2,3 and 2 are the intercepts on the three axes.
Step 2: The reciprocals are 1/2, 1/3 and 1/2.
Step 3: The least common denominator is ‘6’. Multiplying each reciprocal by lcd, we get, 3,2 and
3. Step 4: Hence Miller indices for the plane ABC is (3 2 3)

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Material Science and Metallurgy- Unit No.1 Structure of Material

CRYSTAL IMPERFECTIONS-
Imperfection” is generally used to describe any deviation from the perfect periodic array of atoms
in the crystal. Crystal imperfections can be classified on the basis of geometry given by 1. Point
Imperfections 2. Line imperfections 3. Surface (or) plane imperfections and 4. Volume
imperfections

1. POINT IMPERFECTIONS
In Imperfect point- like regions, one or two atomic diameters in size and hence referred to as ‘zero
dimensional imperfections. Different kinds of point imperfections are VACANCIES. If an atom
is missing from its normal site in the matrix, the defect is called a vacancy defect. It may be a
single vacancy, divacancy or a divacancy.
SCHOTTKY IMPERFECTIONS When the regular atom leaves, a vacancy is created. A
pair of one cation and one anion can be missed from an ionic crystal. Such a pair of vacant ion
sites is called Schottky imperfection.
SUBSTITUTIONAL IMPURITY Foreign atom that substitutes for or replaces a parent
atom in the crystal. Pentavalent or trivalent impurity atoms doped in Silicon or Germanium are
substitutional impurities in the crystal.
INTERSTITIAL IMPURITY A small sized atom occupies the void space in the parent
crystal without disturbing the parent atoms from their regular sites, then it is called as ‘interstitial
impurity’.
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Material Science and Metallurgy- Unit No.1 Structure of Material

2. LINE IMPERFECTIONS
The defects, which take place due to dislocation or distortion of atoms along a line, in some
direction are called as ‘line defects. They are also called dislocations. It may be called as ‘one
dimensional defect. A dislocation is defined as a disturbed region between two substantially
perfect parts of a crystal and it is also responsible for the phenomenon of slip by which most metals
deform plastically. The two types of dislocations are, (i) Edge dislocation (ii) Screw dislocation

Edge Dislocation Screw Dislocation

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Material Science and Metallurgy- Unit No.1 Structure of Material

(i) If one of these vertical planes does not extend to the full length, but ends in between
within the crystal it is called ‘edge dislocation’.
(ii) In this dislocation, the atoms are displaced in two separate planes perpendicular to
each other.
3. SURFACE (OR) PLANE IMPERFECTIONS
Surface imperfections arise from a change in the stacking of atomic planes on or across a boundary.
Grain Boundary-

Twin Boundary-

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Material Science and Metallurgy- Unit No.1 Structure of Material

4. VOLUME IMPERFECTIONS
Volume defects such as cracks may arise in crystals when there is only small electrostatic
dissimilarity between the stacking sequences of close packed planes in metals. Presence of a large
vacancy or void space, when cluster of atoms are missed is also considered as a volume
imperfection.

MECHANISM OF PLASTIC DEFORMATION-

1. PLASTIC DEFORMATION BY SILP

2. PLASTIC DEFORMATION BY TWINNING

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Material Science and Metallurgy- Unit No.1 Structure of Material

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Material Science and Metallurgy- Unit No.1 Structure of Material

The stresses in metal piece cross the elastic limit the specimen gets plastically deformed.

Plastic deformation is accompanied by changed in both internal & external state and it is not
reversible. Permanent deformation involves distortion of the crystal & microstructure. It carried
out as in working and shaping processes such as bending, stamping, drawing, spinning, rolling,
forging, Extruding etc. The stamping of automobile parts, pressing of ship shafting, spinning of

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Material Science and Metallurgy- Unit No.1 Structure of Material

Al pans, rolling of boiler plates, rails, I beams, drawing of wire, extension of telephone cables &
forging of crankshaft all operations involve plastic deformation of metals & alloys.

Plastic deformation by Slip:

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Material Science and Metallurgy- Unit No.1 Structure of Material

Slip is defined as that mechanism of deformation where in one part of the crystal moves/ slips over
another part along certain planes known as slip plane. Slip due to pure shearing stresses that are
acting across the specimen irrespective of whether the crystal is subjected to tensile/ compressive
stresses.

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Material Science and Metallurgy- Unit No.1 Structure of Material

Representation of the greater resistance to slip along planes having lower atomic density due to
necessity for side motion. Due to increase of tensile load, the blocks again divided and relative
displacement has taken place. Slip can be imagined to a park of playing cards when they are
shuffled. Slip occurs due to the movement of dislocations through the crystal that movement
compared to the movement of an earthworm as it arches its back in order to move forward.

Slip is governed by the following major rules:

1. It occurs only along certain crystallograpohic planes and directions

2. Slip occurs only along the most closely packed set of planes
3. Slip direction is that direction on when the atoms are most closely spaced. Slip occurs on
that system where the shear stress is maximum i.e., at 45o to the applied tensile load.

Plastic deformation by twining:

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Material Science and Metallurgy- Unit No.1 Structure of Material

Zn, Tin, iron deform by twining.

In twinning each plane of atoms move through a definite distance and in the same direction. The
extent of movement of each plane is proportional to its distance from the twining plane, as shown
in fig. The distance moved by each successive atomic plane is greater than the previous plane by
a few atomic spacings. When a shear stress is applied the crystal will twin about the twinning plane
in such a way that the region to the left of the twinning plane is not deformed whereas the region
to the right is deformed. The atomic arrangement on either side of the twinned plane is in such a
way they are mirror reflections of each other. Twins are known as annealing twins when they are
produced during annealing heat treatment and mechanical twins when they are produced by
mechanical deformation of metals.

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Material Science and Metallurgy- Unit No.1 Structure of Material

Mechanism of twinning:

Partial dislocation line moves up (or) down by one plane each time the twinning dislocation goes
round it. Twinning may be caused by impact, by thermal treatment (or) by plastic deformation.

Slip Twinning

1. All atoms in one block move 1. Different planes of atoms moves fractional distances
over the same distance depending on their distance from the twinning plane.

2. Under microscope, slip appears 2, It appears as broad lines (or) bands.

as thin line.

3. There is very little change in 3. Lattice orientation changes in the twinned regions.
lattice orientation.

4. It requires lower shear stress. 4. It requires higher shear stress.

5. Occurs in metals having a 5. Occurs in metals having a smaller number of slip

greater number of slip systems. systems.

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Material Science and Metallurgy- Unit No.1 Structure of Material

DEFORMATION OF SINGLE CRYSTAL BY SLIP-

Deformation of Single Crystals When a single crystal is deformed under a tensile stress, it is
observed that plastic deformation occurs by slip on well‐defined parallel crystal planes. Sections
of the crystal slide relative to one another, changing the geometry of the sample as shown in the
diagram. Slip always occurs on a particular set of crystallographic planes, known as slip planes.
Slip always takes place along a consistent set of directions within these planes – these are called
slip directions. The combination of slip plane and slip direction together makes up a slip system.
Slip systems are usually specified using the Miller index notation. For example, cubic close‐packed
metals slip on the slip direction must lie in the slip plane. Slip occurs by dislocation motion. To
move dislocations, a certain stress must be applied to overcome the resistance to dislocation
motion. Slip occurs when the shear stress acting in the slip direction on the slip plane reaches some
critical value. This critical shear stress is related to the stress required to move dislocations across
the slip plane.

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Material Science and Metallurgy- Unit No.1 Structure of Material

The tensile yield stress of a material is the applied stress required to start plastic deformation of
the material under a tensile load. We want to relate the tensile stress applied to a sample to the
shear stress that acts along the slip direction. λφσλφ φ λ τ coscos coscos cos cos ___ _____ = ==
= A F A F planes slip of area resolved force plane slip on acting R It is found that the value of τR
at which slip occurs in a given material with specified dislocation density and purity is a constant,
known as the critical resolved shear stress τC.

This is Schmid's Law. The quantity CosφCosλ is known as the Schmid Factor (M) The tensile
stress at which the material starts to slip is the yield strength. τ = σ YC φ coscos λ in a given crystal,
there may be many available slip systems. As the tensile load is increased, the resolved shear stress
on each system increases until eventually τC is reached on one system. The crystal begins to

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Material Science and Metallurgy- Unit No.1 Structure of Material

plastically deform by slip on this system, known as the primary slip system. The stress required to
cause slip on the primary slip system is the yield stress of the single crystal. As the load is increased
further, τ C may be reached on other slip systems; these then begin to operate. From Schmid's
Law, it is apparent that the primary slip system will be the system with the greatest Schmid factor
(M). τ = σ YC M

PLASTIC DEFORMATION IN POLYCRYSTALLINE MATERIAL-

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Material Science and Metallurgy- Unit No.1 Structure of Material

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Material Science and Metallurgy- Unit No.1 Structure of Material

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