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1.4 Solving a differential equation by direct integration 991 20

dy
already obtained. Applying the condition = v0 when t = 0 gives a value
dt
for A:

A = v0

gt2
So the particular solution is y = - + v0 t.
2

Example 1.12 Mechanical Engineering – Bending of a beam

Figure 1.3(a) illustrates an unloaded beam of length L. The beam is fixed at both
ends. When a load (force) is applied the beam bends as illustrated in Figure 1.3(b).
Let the weight of the load being supported per unit length be w. Referring to
Figure 1.3(b) we see that, when loaded, the beam bends in the negative y direc-
tion. The magnitude of the bending is the crucial quantity and this is illustrated
in Figure 1.3(c). We refer to this as the displacement of the beam, denoted H(x).
Note that in Figure 1.3(c) the H axis is positive in the downward direction. It is
possible to show that

d4H
K = w
dx4
Figure 1.3 (a)
(a) An unloaded
beam of length L;
(b) beam bending L
under load (it is (b) y
fixed at both ends);
w
(c) displacement of
the beam.

x
(c) w

where K is known as the structural rigidity of the beam and is assumed to be con-
stant. It is the product of Young’s modulus and the moment of inertia of the beam
about its central axis.
(a) If w is constant, find an expression for the displacement of the beam.
(b) The beam is fixed rigidly at both ends. Hence when x ⫽ 0 and x ⫽ L the
displacement is zero, that is H(0) ⫽ H(L) ⫽ 0. Additionally at these end-points
the gradient of the beam remains zero, so H¿(0) = H¿(L) = 0. Find the
displacement at any point x.
(c) Show that the maximum displacement of the beam occurs half-way along its length.
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20 992 Block 1 Basic concepts of differential equations

Solution
(a) We are given

d4H
K = w
dx4

First divide through by K. Repeated integration then produces

d3H w
= x + A (1)
dx3 K
d2H w x2
= + Ax + B (2)
dx2 K 2
dH w x3 x2
= + A + Bx + C (3)
dx K 6 2
w x4 x3 x2
H(x) = + A + B + Cx + D (4)
K 24 6 2

where A, B, C and D are constants of integration.

(b) We now apply the given conditions to find the unknown constants A, B, C and D.
Applying H(0) ⫽ 0 to equation (4) yields
0⫽D
Applying H¿(0) ⫽ 0 to equation (3) yields
0⫽C
Applying H(L) ⫽ 0 to equation (4) with C ⫽ D ⫽ 0 yields

w L4 L3 L2
0 = + A + B (5)
K 24 6 2

Applying H¿(L) ⫽ 0 to equation (3) with C ⫽ 0 yields

w L3 L2
0 = + A + BL (6)
K 6 2

Equations (5) and (6) can be solved to express A and B in terms of the known
constants w, K and L. This produces

wL wL2
A = - , B =
2K 12K

Replacing the expressions for A and B and the values of C and D into equation
(4) and simplifying produces

wx2 2 wx2
H(x) = (x - 2Lx + L2) = (x - L)2
24K 24K
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1.4 Solving a differential equation by direct integration 993 20

(c) We now seek the point along the beam at which the displacement is a
maximum. Recall that turning points of a function are located by equating the
first derivative to zero, that is H¿ ⫽ 0; the nature of the turning point is then
determined using the second-derivative test.
Using equation (3) we have

dH wx3 wLx2 wL2x wx

= - + = (2x2 - 3xL + L2)
dx 6K 4K 12K 12K

which may be expressed as

dH wx
= (2x - L)(x - L)
dx 12K

so dH>dx = 0 when x = 0, L>2, L.

The conditions H¿(0) ⫽ H¿(L) ⫽ 0 are given so we investigate that case where
x = L>2 using the second-derivative test.
Using equation (2) we have

d 2H wx2 wLx wL2

= - +
d x2 2K 2K 12K

Substituting x = L>2 and simplifying yields

d 2H wL2
(L>2) = -
d x2 24K

We note that this is negative and so H is a maximum at x = L>2. Hence the max-
imum displacement occurs at x = L>2, that is half-way along the beam. This
accords with intuition.

Exercises

1 Obtain the general solutions of the following 2 Find the particular solution of
differential equations:
dx
dy dy = t2
(a) = 3x + 2 (b) = e3x dt
dx dx
that satisfies the condition x(3) = 0.
d2y d2y
(c) 2 = k, constant (d) 2 = -sin x
dx dx
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20 994 Block 1 Basic concepts of differential equations

Solutions to exercises

3x2 e3x (d) y = sin x + Ax + B

1 (a) y = + 2x + c (b) y = + c
2 3
t3
kx2 2 x = - 9
(c) y = + Ax + B 3
2

End of block exercises

dy
1 If y = Ae2x is the general solution of = 2y, 3 Show that x(t) = 7 cos 3t - 2 sin 2tis a
dx solution of
find the particular solution satisfying y(0) = 3.
What is the particular solution satisfying d2x
+ 2x = -49 cos 3t + 4 sin 2t
dy dt2
= 2 when x = 0?
dx
4 The general solution of
2 Identify the dependent and independent
variables of the following differential d2x
equations. Give the order of the equations = -v2x
dt2
and state which are linear.
dy is x = Ae jvt + Be-jvt, where j2 = -1. Verify
(a) + 9y = 0
dx that this is indeed a solution. What is the
d2y particular solution satisfying x(0) = 0,
(b) a b a 2 b + 3
dy dy
= 0 dx
dx dx dx (0) = 1? Express the particular solution
dt
d3x dx and the general solution in terms of
(c) + 5 = sin x
dt3 dt trigonometrical functions.

Solutions to exercises

(c) x is the dependent variable; t is the

1 y(x) = 3e2x, y(x) = e2x
independent variable; third order,
non-linear
2 (a) y is the dependent variable; x is the
independent variable; first order, linear
sin vt
(b) y is the dependent variable; x is the 4 particular solution: ; general solution:
independent variable; second order, v
non-linear (A + B) cos vt + (A - B)j sin vt
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Separation of variables
BLOCK 2

2.1 Introduction

Separation of variables is a technique commonly used to solve first-order differential

equations. It is so called because we try to rearrange the equation to be solved in
such a way that all terms involving the dependent variable (y say) appear on one side
of the equation, and all terms involving the independent variable (x say) appear on
the other. Then it is a matter of integration to complete the solution. It is not possible
to rearrange all first-order equations in this way, so this technique is not always
appropriate. Further, it is not always possible to perform the integration even if the
variables are separable. In this block you will learn how to decide whether the
method is appropriate, and how to apply it in such cases.

2.2 Separating the variables

In this section we consider differential equations that can be written in the form

dy
= f (x)g(y)
dx

Note that the right-hand side is a product of a function of x and a function of y.

Examples of such equations are

dy dy dy
= x2y3, = y2 sin x and = (ln x)(sec y)
dx dx dx

You may have to think carefully about some equations to recognise this form. For
example, the equation

dy y
=
dx x + 1

can be written as

= a by
dy 1
dx x + 1

dy
and so is of the form = f (x)g(y).
dx