MASINDE MULIRO UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE

AND TECHNOLOGY
FACULTY: ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT: CIVIL AND STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

NAME: MAINA JOHNSON KINYUA

REG, NO: CSE/0072/11

TASK: ATTACHMENT REPORT

FIRM ATTACHED TO: EGIS INTERNATIONAL

HEAD OFFICE LOCATION: KENHA, NAIROBI

COURSE CODE: CSE 390

DECLARATION
I hereby do declare that the work presented herein is my own work and as far as am concerned I
would like to make this solemn affirmation that to the best of my knowledge, this report work
has never been presented anywhere else by any other person.

Signed: …………………… Date: ……………..

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am greatly indebted to all those people who restlessly assisted me financially, materially,
morally, spiritually or otherwise during the course of my attachment period. I shall however cite
a few whose services were absolutely in dispensable as it is difficult to mention all of them here.

First special thanks go to lecturers and staff in the Civil engineering department for their tireless
effort finding me a place to be attached in; it was not an easy task as I had thought. They also
sacrificed their time for me to come and assess what I was doing during my period of attachment.

In a special way I also appreciate Mr. Mayaka and his family for their support. They provided
me with all tools I needed to compile my report and even all the reference materials I needed.

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DEDICATION
I dedicate this work to my loving father Alexander Maina. It has been a precious and memorable
time to have worked under your constant support.

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ABSTRACT
Herein is a report comprising of brief out view of CAS Consultants and the tasks they involved
me in during the attachment period of 8 weeks.

The report has been divided into sections:

 Surveying,
 Laboratory works
 Road inspection.

After every section, there are the ideas and skills obtained and recommendations if any.

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Table of Contents
DECLARATION..............................................................................................................................................ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.................................................................................................................................iii
DEDICATION................................................................................................................................................iv
ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................................................v
1.0 INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................................1
2.0 LOCATION OF THE ROAD PROJECT........................................................................................................2
3.0 THE CONSULTANTS ORGANOGRAM......................................................................................................3
4.0 HIGHWAY SURVEYING...........................................................................................................................4
4.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................4
4.2 TYPES OF LEVELS................................................................................................................................5
4.3 FIELD ACTIVITIES................................................................................................................................6
4.4 LEVELLING IN SEWERS.......................................................................................................................7
4.4.1 SEWER DESIGN STANDARDS AND GUIDELINES...........................................................................9
4.4.2 SANITARY DRAINAGE DESIGN CRITERIA......................................................................................9
4.4.3 MANHOLES...............................................................................................................................11
4.5 DRAINS.............................................................................................................................................11
4.6 LEVELLING IN EARTHWORKS............................................................................................................15
4.7 SURVEY WITH A TOTAL STATION.....................................................................................................16
4.7.1 FEATURES OF A TOTAL STATION...............................................................................................16
4.7.2 THE ONBOARD SOFTWARE.......................................................................................................17
4.8 CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED IN THE FIELD.....................................................................................18
4.9 CONCLUSION...................................................................................................................................19
4.9 REFERENCES.....................................................................................................................................19
5.0 LABORATORY WORK............................................................................................................................20
5.1 LIQUID LIMIT TEST BY CONE PENOTROMETER................................................................................21
5.1.1 APPARATUS...............................................................................................................................21
5.1.2 PROCEDURE..............................................................................................................................21
5.2 STANDARD PROCTOR COMPACTION TEST.......................................................................................24
5.2.1 INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................................24
5.2.2 EQUIPMENT..............................................................................................................................24
5.2.3 PROCEDURE..............................................................................................................................24

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 5.2.4 CALCULATION...........................................................................................................................25
5.2.5 GENERAL COMMENTS..............................................................................................................25
5.3 FIELD DENSITY TEST BY SAND REPLACEMENT METHOD..................................................................27
5.3.1 INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................................27
5.3.2 APPARATUS...............................................................................................................................27
5.3.3 PROCEDURE..............................................................................................................................28
5.3.4 MEASUREMENT OF FIELD DENSITY...........................................................................................29
5.3.5 CALCULATIONS AND RESULTS...................................................................................................29
5.4 STRENGTH OF CONCRETE BY CUBE CRUSHING................................................................................32
5.4.1 CONCRETE CUBE TESTING.........................................................................................................32
5.4.2 PREPARATION OF CUBE SPECIMENS.........................................................................................32
5.4.3 PROCEDURE..............................................................................................................................33
5.4.4 CALCULATIONS.........................................................................................................................35
5.4.6 RESULTS....................................................................................................................................35
5.5 SLUMP TEST.....................................................................................................................................37
5.5.1 APPARATUS...............................................................................................................................37
5.5.2 PROCEDURE..............................................................................................................................37
5.5.3 INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS..................................................................................................37
5.5.4 LIMITATIONS OF THE SLUMP TEST............................................................................................38
5.6 SIEVE ANALYSIS................................................................................................................................38
5.6.1 APPARATUS...............................................................................................................................38
5.6.2 SIEVE SIZES................................................................................................................................38
5.6.3 PROCEDURE.............................................................................................................................38
5.6.4 RESULTS....................................................................................................................................39
5.7 CONCLUSION...............................................................................................................................41
5.8 REFERENCES................................................................................................................................41
6.0 ROAD INSPECTORATE..........................................................................................................................42
6.1 CONCRETE INSPECTION............................................................................................................43
6.2 INSPECTION OF ROAD LAYERING...........................................................................................44
6.2.1 CUTTING.................................................................................................................................45
6.2.2 FILLING......................................................................................................................................45
6.2.3 FINAL EARTHWORKS.................................................................................................................46

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 6.2.4 SUBGRADES..............................................................................................................................46
6.2.5 IMPROVED SUBGRADE..............................................................................................................46
6.2.6 LIME TREATED SUBGRADE........................................................................................................46
6.2.7 SUBBASE...................................................................................................................................47
6.2.8 PRIMING...................................................................................................................................47
6.2.9 BASE..........................................................................................................................................48
6.3.0 SURFACE DRESSING..................................................................................................................50
6.4 CONCLUSION...................................................................................................................................51
6.5 REFERENCES.....................................................................................................................................51
7.0 GENERAL CONCLUSION.......................................................................................................................52
8.0 GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS..........................................................................................................53

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1.0 INTRODUCTION
General Waruinge and 1st Avenue are urban roads under the Kenya Urban Roads Authority
(KURA).Initially the government had meant this to be a rehabilitation process but was later
found out that it could not be done due to unsuitable foundation laid before. As a result of this,
there was need to fully reconstruct the two roads.

This project had two main aims:-

 To reduce congestion and road jams for the people accessing Eastleigh CBD.
 Improve the physical appearance of the place which is part of Nairobi city.
 Improve the sewerage and drainage system which has been disastrous during rainy
seasons.

The project was under H-Young contractors and supervised by CAS consultants under Resident
Engineer J.A Otwani.

The next two pages show the consultants organogram and also the exact location of these project.

1
2.0 LOCATION OF THE ROAD PROJECT

2
3.0 THE CONSULTANTS ORGANOGRAM

Deputy 3 Road
Resident/Highways 2 Junior Senoir Roads
Inspectors and
Engineer Eng . Gideon Engineers Inspectors
Draughtslady
Onyuka

Secretary and Office

Attendants

Materilas Engineer Senipor Materilas 3 Materilas 3 Lab

Eng.Lewis Ajwallah Technologist Technicians Technicians

Project Resident Engineer

Director Structural and
ENG.J.A Otwani Drainage Engineer
Eng.C.G.O
Abuodha Vincent Wesonga

Electrical Engineer
Steve Oduor

Senior Surveyor Paul 3 Chainmen

2 survey Assistants
Onyango

Environmentalist Julius
Mutwika

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4.0 HIGHWAY SURVEYING
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Surveying is an art of making such measurements as will determine the relative positions of
points on the surface of the earth in order that the shape and extent of any position of earth’s
surface may be ascertained and delineated on a map or a plan. It is essentially a process of
determining positions of points in a horizontal plane.

Leveling is the art of determining and representing the relative heights or elevations of different
points on the surface of the earth. It can also be taken as the process of determining positions of
points in a vertical plane.

Surveying and leveling are distinct operations but in comprehensive sense, the term surveying
includes leveling. Before commencement of any construction project, surveying will always be
the first activity. For any civil engineering project, an engineer will base his/her design
depending on the survey data obtained from the field of interest.

Survey not only starts a project but will always be part and parcel throughout the whole
construction process. The rehabilitation and upgrading of 1st avenue Eastleigh and General
Waruinge(phase 1) contract no; KURA/177/2011-2012,is a good example of a civil engineering
project that put all the surveying works in place to ensure efficient implementation of the Road
Design provided.

Designed by CAS Consultants and implemented by H-Young contractors, this project has joint
surveying from both sides to avoid late realization of errors during inspection which has negative
effect to contractor where a repeat may be un-avoidable.

Throughout the surveying work, the following equipments were required:

 A level a
 Total station
 A staff
 Reflectors
 Tripod stand
 Ranging rod
 Pegs(wooden/metallic)
 Tape measure

Generally, the standard units of distance are metres but the sub-units of distance are metres but
sub-units; centimeters and millimeters may also be used.

Commonly used terminologies in leveling:-

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(i)Elevation of a point: Is its vertical distance above or below the datum. It is also known as the
reduced level (R.L). The elevation of a point is a plus or minus according to the point is below
the datum.

(ii)A bench mark (B.M): is a fixed reference point of known elevation.

(iii)Line of collimation is the line joining the intersection of cross-hairs to the optical centre of
the object glass and its continuation. It is also called the line of sight.

(iv)A station-is a point whose elevation is to be determined or a point which is to be established

at a given elevation. It is the point where staff is held and not the point where the level is set up.

4.2 TYPES OF LEVELS

a) The dumpy level-is a simple, compact and stable. The telescope is rigidly fixed to its
supports.
b) The wye/Y-level: is very delicate and consists of many loose and open parts which are
liable to frictional wear. Has an advantage in that:
 Have ease and rapidly with which the permanent adjustment can be tested.
 The adjustments can be made indoors.
c) The Cooke’s reversible level: combines good feature of both the dumpy and Y-levels. By
slackening the top screw, the telescope can be rotated about its longitudinal axis in its
sockets and can also be withdrawn from its sockets and replaced end to end.
d) The Cushing’s level: the telescope can either be removed from its socket nor can it be
revolved about its longitudinal axis.
e) The modern/Tilting level: the telescope has a small motion about a horizontal axis. Is
peculiarity is that the vertical axis need not be truly vertical since the line of collimation
is not perpendicular to it.
f) The automatic level: Is designed as self-aligning level. The line of sight is leveled
automatically.

ADVANTAGES OF AN AUTOMATIC LEVEL

 Operational comfort
 High precision
 High speed
 Freedom for errors
 Freedom from external influences
 Range of application

Leveling requires bench marks. Points of reference are required to shed light of the unknown
terrain. These are four kinds of bench mark:-

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 a. G.T.S bench marks:-are bench marks established with very high precision at intervals
all over the country and their positions and elevations above the standards datum. (Mean
sea level).
b. Permanent bench mark-are fixed points of reference established between the G.T.S
bench marks by the government agencies. On a vertical surface such as wall, they are
marked in the form of a broad arrow and a horizontal groove, the centre of which gives
the exact point at which the reduced level was taken.
c. Arbitrary bench marks:-Are the reference points whose elevations are arbitrary
assumed. Are used in small leveling operations.
d. Temporary bench marks:-are reference point established at the end of day’swork, when
there is a break in the work. The work when resumed is continued with reference to these
bench marks.

During leveling, how the staff is held can lead to erroneous recording. Utmost care should be
taken in holding the staff truly vertical while the reading is being taken. To hold the staff in a
vertical position, the staff man stands behind the staff, heels together with the heel of the staff
between his toes and holds it between the palms of his hands at the height of his face.

In precise leveling, the staff is equipped with a folding circular level or a pendulum plumb bob to
make it plumb while in ordinary leveling the staff is waved slowly forward and backwards and
the lowest reading is taken.

4.3 FIELD ACTIVITIES

In the field /site where construction is taking place, it is the obligation of surveyor to set-out.
Engineer gives out the designs to the surveyor who puts them physically on the ground. In the
field, leveling work is divided into sub-sections:

 Earthwork and layering.

 Sewers, service ducts and drains.

Earth work involves excavation levels and setting up the dippings. The dippings are important to
ensure the right thickness is obtained. After every layer has been process using the grader, the
foreman does the dippings and recommends where necessary. This is very essential to ensure
drainage works efficiently.

Service ducts are conduits whose main purpose is to ensure ease trespass of the road for water
and other cables. They are of zero gradient since they serve no purpose of drainage. They are
implemented at some given interval and are well designed to ensure they can withstand the
traffic loads.

Sewers and drains are purposely for proper drainage.

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The above work can be further be sub-divided according to various chainages just to ensure that
surveyors are constantly available whenever need be. Contractor ensures that all his manpower is
working efficiently and effectively depending on the quantity of work done daily. In this project,
there were four groups of surveyors. Their work was independent to ensure no blame games but
they were all under one senior surveyor.

4.4 LEVELLING IN SEWERS

A sewer is an artificial usually underground conduit for carrying off sewage. The disposal of
sewages is a major concern both to the environment and hygiene as well. Therefore it is the role
of both the designer and contractor to ensure safe transmission and disposal is well taken care
off.

Sewers normally follow the natural fall of the land and are laid in gradients which will induce a
self-cleansing velocity. Such gradients vary according to the material and diameter of the pipe.
Depth of cover is normally kept to a prevent entry of blockage materials. The sewer pipe must
have a concrete surround at least 150mm in thickness where cover is less than 1m or greater than
7m. This is to avoid cracking of pipes owing to surface or earth pressures.

Pumping in sewers is highly discouraged in that a failure in the pump may mess all the work and
again the maintenance is very high.

Initially, sewers and drains were combined but with due time things have changed. A good
system should be independent to avoid the likely flooding of sewage. The excreta disposal system
is considered “adequate” if it is private or shared (but not public) and if it hygienically separates human
excreta from human contact. Health issues will always arise when such system fails hence the need to
prevent rather than cure.

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 Reinforcement

Formwork

Balloon

Figure 1: This photo is an illustration of how sewer lines are laid with a balloon, reinforcement and shutters put in place.

Drawing provided shows the directions of the sewer pipes and the positions of manholes. The
line of the sewer is normally pegged at 20 to 30m intervals using coordinate method of
positioning from reference points or in relation to existing detail.

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Manholes are set out at least every 100m and also at pipe branches and change gradient. All the
field activities are governed by sewer design standards and guidelines stipulated below.

4.4.1 SEWER DESIGN STANDARDS AND GUIDELINES

The guidelines and design standards are for two different types of sewers:

 Sanitary
 Storm

4.4.2 SANITARY DRAINAGE DESIGN CRITERIA

Size: sanitary sewer mains shall be adequate size to convey population generated (peak dry
weather) flows, plus a general allowance for inflow and infiltration, plus an allowance for inflow
allowance for manholes in sag locations. The inside diameter of a sanitary sewer pipes must
measure at least 200mm.

Population generated flows: residential population generated flows are determined by the
formula:

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QPDW=G x P x PF/86400

Where;

QPDW; peak dry weather flow rate

G; per capital daily sewage flow generation

P; design contributing population

PF; residential peaking factor (2.6/p 0.1)

General inflow /infiltration allowance: a general allowance of 0.28l/s hectare shall be used to
allow for wet weather inflow of weather in low to manholes in sag locations.

Inflow allowance for manholes in sag locations. For manholes located in sag locations where
panding will occur or low areas subjected to inundation, an inflow allowance of 0.4l/s shall be
made for each manhole.

Minimum slopes: all sanitary sewers should be designed with a minimum slope of 0.4% or
greater.

Velocity: the velocity of flow in sanitary sewers shall be kept between 0.6m/s and 3.0m/s.

Depth: sanitary mains shall have depth adequate to permit sewer services to be constructed a
minimum of 2.74m deep (from the ground surface to the invert of the pipe) at the property line
separating private and city land.

Manhole: manholes must be installed at the end of each sewer, at all changes in sewer size, grade
or alignment and at all junctions. The maximum permitted manhole spacing for all sewers less
than 1200mm in diameter is 150m.

Pipe materials: approved materials for pipe construction of sanitary sewer mains are non-
reinforced concrete pipe, reinforced concrete pipe and PVC pipe.

In the case of 1st avenue general Waruinge road, reinforcement concrete was used. Since the
process was rehabilitation and upgrading, the initial sewer line lied within the carriageway
(expanded) hence the need to be relocated to pave way for earth works. A sewer line has to be in
a suitable location for inspection purpose and incase of leakages then the newly constructed road
need not to be interfered with. Through an underground channel, loading is of great significance
and can affect its life span. This is another reason why heavy traffic cannot be allowed to be
moving on its top. Sewer lines and drainage are common in that they both dispose unwanted
materials from or within the road. At the same time, the two are very different in terms of the
contents they carry. Drainage is purposely for water whereas sewer lines are for sewage and

10
majority of its components are solid wastes. There is need to construct the two indecently since
even their slopes are also very different.

4.4.3 MANHOLES
A manhole, usually with a cover, is a hole through which a person may enter a sewer, boiler,
drain or similar structure. It is also referred to as the inspection chambers.

Figure 2 Illustrates how a manhole in a drain is set up Is a manhole obtained after casting.

Uses of manholes

 To inspect sewer lines and drains

 Facilitate change of gradient
 Facilitate change of size of sewer pipes or drains
 Facilitate unblocking in cases where the free movement has been cut off.

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4.5 DRAINS
In any major civil engineering project, soils lay the foundation. Soil being a major component
comes with it the concept of water.

This water is surface-run off, base flow or underground water. Base flow ought not to be
interrupted as it would impact more pressure on the walls. Surface run-off need to be eliminated
on carriageways for free, safe and efficient flow of traffic. Underground water pause a challenge
especially when the rock covering it is broken. It happens then underground works will be
affected by this water. Road carriage way is cambered and has a cross-fall of about 2.5%.This is
meant to facilitate drainage. Water (especially rain water) that falls directly to the carriage way
will always is directed to channels before being disposed off.

Drains are categorized as either:

 Open drains
 Closed drains

1st avenue general Waruinge road being an urban road under Kenya Urban Roads Authority
(KURA) contract no: KURA/177/2011-2012 encompasses both types of drains due to some special
access features along the road. Open drains have an advantage over closed due to ease in
cleaning and other maintenance activities. On the other hand, closed drains are part of walkways
and provide access along the road. In simple terms, the difference between the two types of
drains is that; a closed drain cannot be seen after completion of construction of the road; on the
other hand open drains are physically seen after the completion of the construction process.

In road layering, there is a layer for rockfill.Apart from transferring the traffic load to the ground
it allows free and continuous movement of underground water. Water that tries to penetrate to
the layers above the rock fill is always drained by use of weep holes situated along the drain at
some given interval. Below is a figure showing an illustration of a weep hole.

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 Drain

Weep hole

Rock fill

Figure 3: Represents a weep hole

Water on the channels is directed to open drains by open curbstones, as illustrated below:

Curbstones

Figure 4 Illustrates how water from channels is emptied in a drain by open curb stones

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For closed drains, Garry troughs will empty the water on channels to the drain.

In leveling a drain system, the following design elements levels are provided:-

 FRL(final road levels)

 Top of drain
 Top of blinding
 Invert levels
 Drain excavations
 Road cross-section with drain width

It is the role of surveyors to set out all this details on the ground to allow foremen per take the
next activity. Using lime, tape and string, marking is done giving the denotation of the extent of
excavation.

After marking, earthworks begin until when substantial trench is achieved. Surveyors obtain
levels to countercheck if the depth desired depth is attained. If not, excavation levels are marked.
Having obtained the right depths, blinding levels are marked using metallic or wooden pegs.
From the designs, levels are not provided at all chainages, hence it’s the role of surveyors to
interprate the given levels and obtain the specific points of the chainages.

Blinding involves lying down of the fine concrete in preparation for a base. Levels of the
blinding will give the base in way similar levels. After blinding, steel works commences which is
reinforcement to the concrete. Shutters are then oiled to prevent concrete sticking on them before
they are fixed to help shape the drain walls. After this, casting is done. Mold oil is used in the
oiling process. Spacer blocks (of size 5cm) are put before casting to ensure:-

 Right positioning of steel bars.

 No contact between steel bars and shutters.

After 2-8 hours after casting, the shutters can be comfortably being removed as ordinary Portland
cement (OPC) has already set. Form work refers to the laying down of the shutters.

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Figure 5: A drain after excavation awaitinging blinding

Figure 6 : Shows the reinforcement of a drain

Figure 7: Shows casting of a drain from a mixer

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4.6 LEVELLING IN EARTHWORKS
In many engineering projects, large parcels of land are required for the site and huge amounts of
materials have to be moved in order to form the necessary embankments, cuttings, foundations,
basements, lakes and so on, that have been specified in the design. Suitable land and materials
can be very expensive and, if a project is to be profitable to the construction company involved,
it is essential that its engineers make as accurate a measurement as possible of any areas and
volumes involved in order that appropriate cost estimates for such earthwork quantities can be
included in the tender documents. Surveyors are often required to compute volumes of
earthworks either in cut or in fill when planning a highway system. There are basically three
methods three methods for this:-

a) Cross section method

b) Unit area or borrow pit method
c) Contour area method.

Cross section method is adopted for computation of volumes for highways. A section of cross
sections are taken along the length of the line at regular intervals. These are obtained by
measurement in the field and can also be obtained by photogrammetry. The cross-section is
plotted on a sheet and over the cross section design templates are superimposed. The difference
in the two areas will be the amount of cut or fill.

4.7 SURVEY WITH A TOTAL STATION

A total station is an instrument that is capable of measuring angles and distances electronically.
Is also known as electronic Tacheometer.

Is operated using a multi-function keyboard which is connected to a microprocessor built into the
instrument. The microprocessor not only controls both the angle and distance measuring systems
but is also used as a small computer that can calculate slope corrections, vertical components,
rectangular coordinates and in some cases it can also store observations directly using an internal
memory.

4.7.1 FEATURES OF A TOTAL STATION

Angle measurement: Is carried out using an electronic theodolite. A total station can record angle
s with a resolution of between 1” and 20” and all instruments incorporate some form of
compensator, the more expensive using dual-axis and the rest sophisticated, single-axis
compensation.

Distance measurement; Most total stations use a GAS infa-red carrier source and face
comparison technique in order to measure distances. Nearly all total stations use coaxial optics in

16
which the EDM transmitter and receiver are combined with the theodolite telescope. This makes
the instrument much more compact and easier to use on site; normally, a total station will
measure a slope distance and the microprocessor uses the vertical angle recorded by the
theodolite along the line of sight to calculate the horizontal distance. In addition, the height
difference between the trunnion axis and prism Centre is also calculated and displayed. A signal
attention to protect the receiver. Three modes are usually available for distance measurement:-

Standard (coarse) mode:-which has a resolution of 1mm and a measurement time of 1 to 2

seconds.

Precise (fine) mode:-which again has a resolution of 1mm but a measurement time of 3 to 4
seconds. It is a more accurate than the standard mode since the instrument repeats the
measurement and refines the arithmetic mean value.

Tracking (fast) mode: - the distance measurement is repeated automatically at intervals of less
than 1 second. Has a resolution of 10mm and is used extensively when setting out since readings
are updated very quickly.

Upon field collection and storage of data, there is onboard software which performs a number of
functions.

4.7.2 THE ONBOARD SOFTWARE

Performs the followings functions:

Slope corrections and reduced levels: From raw data (slope distance, vertical angle and
horizontal angle) a total station will calculate and display horizontal distance and vertical
distances. If the reduced level of the instrument station, the height of the instrument and height of
prism are entered. The reduced levels of the prism station can also be calculated and displayed.

Horizontal circle orientation: The horizontal circle of a total station can be set to read a known
bearing by entering the easting and northing coordinates of the station occupied followed by the
E and N of a reference station. The reference station is then sited and the orientation programme
is activated to calculate the bearing from the station occupied from the station occupied to the
reference station and set the horizontal circle to displace this bearing.

Coordinate measurement: Having orientated the horizontal circle of a total station, the
coordinates of other points can be determined fairly easily. A new point is sited and distance and
circle readings taken: when using the coordinate measurement programme the instrument will
display the coordinates of the new point.

17
Traverse measurements: traverse consists of a series of distance and angle measurement taken
between successive points that enable the coordinates of those points to be calculated. As shown
below, this type of coordinate determination is performed by a total station. As a series of
horizontal circle orientation and coordinate measurements taken at each traverse station.

Resection (or free stationing)

At level two control points(1 and 2 in fig above) are required for free stationing, the coordinates
of which have to be entered into a total station. These points are sited in turn and distances and
circle readings measured to each. Using this data the instrument calculates the coordinates of the
instrument station. This is useful in setting out temporary control points in any desire location to
suite site needs. As with other coordinate functions, if reduced levels and prism heights at the
control points are also fed into the total station as well as the instruments heights, The reduces
level of the station can also be computed and displayed.

Remote elevation measurement (REM): Is a function used to determine height in accessible

points where it is not to locate a prism. Since measurements are taken along an extended plumb
line through the prism, the prism must be positioned vertically above or below the points to be
survey. The prism height, P, is entered into the instrument and the horizontal distanced, to the
prism determined. In a RED mode, the total station will now display the heights from the ground
at the prism to any point along the vertical through the prism. REM can also be used to set
profile boards at their correct heights.

18
4.8 CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED IN THE FIELD
a) Adverse weather conditions.i.e very hot or when raining.
b) A lot of dust from earthworks in progress.
c) Instrumental errors as they may not be 100% accurate.
d) Misunderstanding with foremen who on failure to implement the right levels will always
blame surveyors.
e) Redundancy of work which may cause boredom and fatigue as well.

4.9 CONCLUSION
Surveyors are of great importance in any civil engineering project. In this project, Rehabilitation
and Upgrading of 1st Avenue Eastleigh and General Waruinge (phase 1) av learnt the following:-

 How to operate and correctly use a total station.

 How to reduce levels on smaller intervals of chainage.
 How to mark levels in drains and sewer.
 The importance of joint surveying of both consultant and contractor.
 How to offset points from the Centre line of a road.

19
4.9 REFERENCES
1. Surveying and leveling(part 1) T.P Knetkar and S.V Kulkarni
2. Surveying-7th edition Arthur Bannister, Stanley Raymond and Raymond baker.
3. Surveying for enginners-3rd edition. J.Uren and W.F Price.
4. Fundamentals of Surveying S.K Roy

5.0 LABORATORY WORK

To any client, quality of a product can never be compromised under any circumstance. In this
case, the government of Kenya bears the responsibility to ensure that its citizens (road users) get
roads of high quality and long lasting.

To ensure all this, there is need for the lab work to ascertain that the materials being used meet
the minimum standards set by the Kenyan government. Just like in surveying, joint testing by
contractor and consultant is conducted. From each; they have a representative in the lab who
submits his/her findings to the respective material engineer.

Material engineers have an obligation to give go ahead, order demolish or further recommend.
Among the materials that undergo test are:-

 Subgrade s(1 and 2)

 Improved subgrade
 GCS (Graded Crushed Stones)
 DBM (Dense Bituminous macadam)
 AC (Asphaltic Concrete)

In materials specifications, the following standards have been used as references:-

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  AASHTO 1176
 British Standards 1377, part 2
 British Standard 812, part 105
 British Standard 812, part 110 to 114
 ASTM C131 and C535
 British Standards 812, part.2
 AASHTOT104
 D White oak (1990) (shell bitumen handbook)
 AASHTOT182
 AASHTOT283

For this duration of two weeks, the following experiments/tests were conducted:-

1. Liquid limit test by the cone penetrometer method.

2. Plastic limit
3. Sieve analysis
4. Linear shrinkage test
5. Standard proctor compaction test
6. Field density test by sand replacement method

5.1 LIQUID LIMIT TEST BY CONE PENOTROMETER

Aim: To determine the minimum moisture content at which a cohesive soil losses its ability to
flow as a liquid under its own weight using the cone penetrometer apparatus.

5.1.1 APPARATUS
a) A flat, gall plate, of which a convenient size is 10 mm thick and about 500mm square.
b) Two palette knives or spatulas.
c) A penetrometer as used in bituminous material testing.
d) A cone of stainless steel
e) One or more metal cups
f) An evaporating dish, of about 150mm diameter
g) Moisture content tins
h) A wash bottle or beaker
i) A corrosion-resistant airtight container
j) A metal straightedge about 100mm long or a straight-bladed spatula.
k) A stopcock or stopwatch readable to 1s.

5.1.2 PROCEDURE
1. Take about 100g of air-dry soil that passes through a 425um sieve.

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2. Mix the soil with distilled water to form a paste for at least 10 min using the two palette
knives. If necessary add more distilled water so that the first cone penetration reading is
about 15mm.
3. Push a portion of the mixed soil into the cup with a palette knife taking care not to trap
air. Strike off excess soil with the straightedge to give a smooth level surface.
4. With the penetration cone locked in the raised lower the supporting assembly so that the
tip of the cone just touches the surface of the soil. When the cone is in the correct
position a slight movement of the cup will just mark the nearest 0.1mm.
5. Release the cone for a period of 5s. If the apparatus is not fitted with an automatic release
and locking device take care not to jerk the apparatus during this operation. After locking
the cone in position lower the stem of the dial gauge to contact the cone shaft and record
the reading of the dial gauge to the nearest 0.1mm. Record the difference between the
beginning and end of the drop as the cone penetration.
6. Lift out the cone and clean it carefully to avoid scratching.
7. Add a little more wet soil to the cup, taking care not to trap air, make the surface smooth
as in 3 and repeat 4 to 6.
8. If the difference between the first and second penetration readings is not more than
0.5mm record the average of the two penetrations and proceed to 9. If the second
penetration is more than 0.5mm and less than 1mm different from the first, carry out a
third test. If the overall range is then not more than 1mm record the average of the three
penetrations and proceed to 9. If the overall range is more than 1mm remove the soil
from the cup, remix and repeat 3 to 8 until consistent results are obtained and then
proceed to 9.
9. Take a moisture content sample of about 10g from the area penetrated by the cone and
determine the moisture content.
10. Repeat 3 to 9 at least three more times using the same sample of soil to which further
increment of distilled water have been added. Proceed from the drier to the wetter
condition of the soil. The amount of water added shall be such that a range of penetration
values of approximately 15mm to 25mm is covered by the four or more test runs and is
evenly distributed. Each time soil is removed from the cup for the addition of water, wash
and dry the cup.
11. If at any time during the above procedure the soil has been left for a while on the glass
plate cover the soil with the evaporation dish or damp cloth to prevent the soil from
drying out.
12. From the linear graph read off the moisture content corresponding to a cone penetration
of 20mm to one decimal place.
13. Express the moisture content corresponding to a cone penetration of 20mm to the nearest
whole number and report it as the liquid limit (WL) of the sample.
14. Express the percentage of material passing the 425um test sieve correct to the nearest
whole number.

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The next page show all the data collected during that experiment, and even the graph drawn
together with data obtained after analysis.

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5.2 STANDARD PROCTOR COMPACTION TEST
5.2.1 INTRODUCTION
For construction of highways, airports, and other structures, it is often necessary to compact soil
to improve its strength. Proctor (1933) developed a laboratory compaction test procedure to
determine the maximum dry unit weight of compaction of soils, which can be used for
specification of field compaction. This test is referred to as the Standard Proctor Compaction
Test. It is based on compaction of soil fraction passing No. 4 U.S. sieve.

5.2.2 EQUIPMENT
1. Compaction mold
2. No. 4 U.S. sieve
3. Standard Proctor hammers (5.5 lb.)
4. Balance sensitive up to 0.01g
5. Balance sensitive up to 0.1g
6. Large flat pan
7. Jack
8. Steel straight edge
9. Moisture cans
10. Drying oven
11. Plastic squeeze bottle with water

Proctor Compaction Mold and Hammer:

The Proctor compaction mold and hammer is 4” in diameter and 4.584” in height. The inner
volume is 1/30 ft3. The height of fall of the hammer is 12”.

5.2.3 PROCEDURE
1. Obtain about 10 lb. of air dry soil and break the soil lumps.
2. Sieve the soil on a No. 4 U.S. sieve. Collect all the minus 4 sieve materials (about 6 lb.) in a
large pan.
3. Add water to the minus 4 sieve materials and mix thoroughly to bring the moisture content to
about 5%.
4. Determine the weight of the Proctor Mold + base plate (not extension), W1 (lb.).
5. Attach the extension to the top of the mold.
6. Pour the moist soil in three equal layers. Compact each layer uniformly with the Standard
Proctor hammer 25 times before each additional layer of loose soil is poured. At the end of
the three-layer compaction, the soil should extend slightly above the top of the rim of the
compaction mold.
7. Remove the extension carefully.
8. Trim excess soil with a straight edge.
9. Determine the weight of the Proctor Mold + base plate + compacted moist soil, W2 (lb.).

10. Remove the base plate from the mold. Extrude the compacted moist soil cylinder using a
jack.

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11. Take a moisture can and determine its mass, W3 (g).
12. From the moist soil extruded in step 10, collect a moist sample in a moisture can (step 11)
and determine the mass of moist soil + can, W4 (g).
13. Place the moisture can with soil in the oven to dry to a constant weight.
14. Break the rest of the soil cylinder by hand and mix with leftover moist soil. Add more water
and mix to raise moisture content by 2%.
15. Repeat steps 6-12. In this process, the weight of the mold + base plate + moist soil (W2) will
first increase with the increase in moisture content and then decrease. Continue the test until
at least two successive decreased readings are obtained.
16. The next day, determine the mass of the moisture cans + soil samples, W5 (g) (from step 13).

5.2.4 CALCULATION
1. Determine weight of the mold W1 (step 4).
2. Determine weight of the mold + compacted moist soil,W2 (step 9).
3. Determine weight of the compacted moist soil = W2-W1.
4. Moist unit weight γ = weight of the compacted moist soil / volume of mold = (W2 - W1) /
(1/30 ft3).
5. Determine mass of moisture can, W3 (step 11).
6. Determine mass of moisture can + moist soil, W4 (step 12).
7. Determine mass of moisture can + dry soil, W5 (step 16).
8. Compaction moisture content , w (%) = (W4 - W5) x 100 / (W5 - W3).
9. Dry unit weight γd = γ/ (1+ w (%) / 100).

5.2.5 GENERAL COMMENTS

1. Plot a graph showing γd vs. w (%) and determine the maximum dry unit weight of
compaction,γd(max).
2. Also determine the optimum moisture content corresponding to γd(max).
3. Discuss your results.
4. Why does the weight of the mold + base plate + moist soil (W2) first increase with an
increase in moisture content and then decrease? Discuss.

The next page shows all this data as obtained from the lab during the experiment:-

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5.3 FIELD DENSITY TEST BY SAND REPLACEMENT METHOD

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5.3.1 INTRODUCTION
The dry density of the compacted soil or pavement is a common measure of the amount of
compaction achieved during the construction. Knowing the field density and filed moisture
content, the dry density is calculated. Therefore filed density test is important as a field control
test for the compaction of soil or any other pavement layer.

There are several methods for the determination of field density of soils such as core cutter
method, sand replacement method, rubber balloon method, heavy oil method.e.t.c

One of the common methods of determining field density of fine-grained soils is core cutter
method; but this method has a major limitation in the case of soils containing coarse-grained
particles such as gravel, stones and aggregates. Under such circumstances, filed density test by
sand replacement method is advantageous, as the presence of coarse-grained particles will
adversely affect the test results.

The basic principle of sand replacement method is to measure the in-situ volume of the hole from
which the material was excavated from the weight of sand with known density filling in the hole.
The in-situ density of material is given by the weight of the excavated material divided by the in-
situ volume.

5.3.2 APPARATUS
A. Sand pouring cylinder equipment:

B. Small pouring cylinder: suitable for fine and medium grained soils. This consists of a metal
cylinder of capacity 3 litres, 100mm in diameter and 380 mm length with an inverted funnel or
cone at one end and a shutter to open and close the entry of sand and a cap on the other end.
Metal tray to excavate the hole with suitable shape and size. Calibration container of the small
pouring cylinder (size 100 x 150 mm)

C.Large pouring cylinder suitable for fine, medium and coarse grained soils. This consists of a
metal cylinder of capacity 16.5 litres, 200mm in diameter and 610mm length with all
arrangements mentioned above. Calibration container size 200 x 250 mm.

D.Medium pouring cylinder: suitable for fine, medium and coarse grained soils. This cylinder
with 150mm diameter and length 450mm. The calibration container size is 150 x 200mm.

E. Tools for levelling and excavating

F. Hand tools such as scraper for levelling the surface; a dibber or an elongated trowel for
digging and excavating the material.

G. Containers: Metal containers of any convenient size (about 150mm diameter and 200mm
depth) with removable lid for collecting the excavated material.

H. Sand: Dry and clean test sand of uniform gradation, passing 1.0mm and retained 600-micron

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sieve.

I. Balance: A suitable balance of capacity 15 or 30kg accuracy 1.0g and necessary set of weights.

5.3.3 PROCEDURE
The test may be conducted in two stages:

(i) calibration of apparatus

(ii) measurement of field density

Calibration of apparatus:

The determination of volume of the excavated hole is based on the weight of sand filling the hole
and the cone and the density of the test sand used in the experiment under identical height and
pouring conditions of the sand into the test hole and determination of the weight of the sand
occupying the cone of the sand pouring cylinder.

Clean and dry tests and passing 1.0mm sieve and retained 600-micron sieve is collected in
sufficient quantity required for at least three or four sets of tests. The top cap of the sand –
pouring cylinder is removed. The shutter is closed, the cylinder is filled with dry test sand up to
about 10mm from the top and the cap is replaced. The of the cylinder with the sand is
determined accurate to one gram and is recorded =w1.in all the subsequent tests for calibration
as well as for the field density tests, every time the sand is filled into the cylinder such that the
initial weight of the cylinder with sand exactly W1. The sand pouring cylinder is placed over
the calibration cylinder over test holes already excavated, the shutter is opened and the sand
equal to the volume of the calibration cylinder or the excavated test hole is allowed to flow out
and the shutter is closed.

The sand pouring cylinder is now placed on a clean plane surface (glass or Perspex plate), the
shutter is kept open till the sand is fills up the cone fully and there is no visible movement of
sand as seen from the top of the cylinder by removing the cap. The shutter is closed, the cylinder
is removed and the sand which occupies the cone is carefully collected from the plate and
weighted=W2.

The sand pouring cylinder is refilled with sand such that the initial weight is again W1. Now the
cylinder is placed centrally on the top of calibration container and the shutter is opened.When the
sand fills up the calibration container and the cone completely and there is no movement of sand,
the shutter is closed and the sand pouring cylinder and the remaining sand is weighted = W2.

The above steps are repeated three times and the mean value of W2 and W3 are determined such
that the mean value of the weight of sand required to fill the calibration container up to the level
top can be determined.

The volume calibrating container, V is determined either by measuring the internal dimensions

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or by filling with water and weighing. From the weight of sand Wa and its volume V in the
calibrating, the density of sand is determined.

5.3.4 MEASUREMENT OF FIELD DENSITY

The site where the field density test is to be conducted is cleaned and levelled using a scraper for
an area of about 450mmsquare. The metal tray central hole is placed on the prepared surface.
Using this central hole as pattern, the soil/material is excavated using a dibber or a trowel up to a
required depth and the loose material removed is carefully collected in the metal container and is
weight=W. The sand-pouring Cylinder is refilled with sand such that its weight is again W1. The
metal tray with central hole is removed and sand-pouring cylinder is placed centrally over the
excavated hole.The shutter is opened till the sand fills the excavated hole and the cone completly
and there is no further movement of the sand in the cylinder. The shutter is closed and the
cylinder is weighed again=W4, so that the weight of sand filling the excavated hole alone = Wb
can be found.

The moisture content of the excavated soil% is determined by taking a sample of soil from its
moisture content dish, weighing, drying in oven at 110c and re-weighing. Alternatively,the
moisture content (W %) is determined by placing the entire excavated soil collected from the
hole (of weight W) in the oven and finding its dry weight=Wd.

The above steps for the determination of the weights of excavated soil, the weight of the sand
filling the hole and the weights of samples for the moisture content determination area repeated
at least three times and the average values taken for the determination of fields density(wet and
dry) values.

5.3.5 CALCULATIONS AND RESULTS

W 1 =weight of sand pouring cylinder and filled up to 10mm from top edge, g

W 2= weight of sand in the cone, mean value, g

W3=weight of cylinder and sand after pouring into the calibration container and cone, g

W4=weight of cylinder and sand after pouring into the excavated hole and cone, g

Va=volume of the excavated container, cm3

W=weight of the soil from the excavated hole,g

Wd=oven dry weight of the soil excavated from the hole, g

W=moisture content of the soil, %

The weight of sand filled the calibrating container only =Wa= (W1-W3-W2), g

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Bulk density of sand =Wa g/cm3
Va
Weight of sand filling the excavated hole alone=Wb-(W1-W4-W2), g
In situ bulk density of wet excavated soil=
The results are reported as the average value of at least three sets of tests in the following:
In-place wet density of soil in g/cm3, correct to second decimal place or in kg/m3 correct to
nearest whole number.
In place dry density of soil in g/cm3 or in kg/m3 (as above)
Moisture content of the soil in percent, correct to first decimal place.

The next page show the results obtained from the lab.

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5.4 STRENGTH OF CONCRETE BY CUBE CRUSHING

5.4.1 CONCRETE CUBE TESTING

Concrete cube testing is a simple, cost effective test of the compressive strength of concrete,
providing you peace of mind that your concrete is fit for purpose and in line with BS EN 12390.
Samples are taken from the concrete while being poured then cast and air cured under BS
standard conditions. They are then water cured for a specified period then crushed to determine
the maximum compressive strength at accredited Laboratory.

Concrete cube testing is the main compliance test for concrete and is also a requirement of BSI
kite marking. Cubes come in mainly two sizes 100mm and 150mm, 100mm are more common
for continuous testing and more easily storable. For most of the works cubical molds of size 15
cm x 15cm x 15 cm are commonly used. Cube testing is now a common operation for all
concrete suppliers not only does it tell you if your concrete is ok but with enough information it
can help alter mixes which will save money.

This concrete is poured in the mold and tempered properly so as not to have any voids. After 24
hours these molds are removed and test specimens are put in water for curing. The top surface of
this specimen should be made even and smooth. This is done by putting cement paste and
spreading smoothly on whole area of specimen.

These specimens are tested by compression testing machine after 7 days curing or 28 days
curing. Load should be applied gradually at the rate of 140 kg/cm2 per minute till the Specimens
fails. Load at the failure divided by area of specimen gives the compressive strength of concrete.

Following are the procedure for Compressive strength test of Concrete Cubes

Apparatus

Compression testing machine

5.4.2 PREPARATION OF CUBE SPECIMENS

The proportion and material for making these test specimens are from the same concrete used in
the field.

Specimen

6 cubes of 15 cm size Mix. M15 or above

Sampling

(i) Clean the mounds and apply oil

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(ii) Fill the concrete in the molds in layers approximately 5cm thick

(iii) Compact each layer with not less than 35strokes per layer using a tamping rod (steel bar
16mm diameter and 60cm long, bullet pointed at lower end)

(iv) Level the top surface and smoothen it with a trowel

Curing

The test specimens are stored in moist air for 24hours and after this period the specimens are
marked and removed from the molds and kept submerged in clear fresh water until taken out
prior to test.

Precautions

The water for curing should be tested every 7days and the temperature of water must be at 27±
2oC.

5.4.3 PROCEDURE
i. Remove the specimen from water after specified curing time and wipe out excess water
from the surface.
ii. Take the dimension of the specimen to the nearest 0.2m
iii. Clean the bearing surface of the testing machine
iv. Place the specimen in the machine in such a manner that the load shall be applied to the
opposite sides of the cube cast.
v. Align the specimen centrally on the base plate of the machine.
vi. Rotate the movable portion gently by hand so that it touches the top surface of the
specimen.
vii. Apply the load gradually without shock and continuously at the rate of
140kg/cm2/minute till the specimen fails
viii. Record the maximum load and note any unusual features in the type of failure.

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 Tamping rod

Molds

Figure 8: Illustrates cube being prepared in the field, giving the 35 blows per layer

NOTE

Minimum three specimens should be tested at each selected age. If strength of any specimen
varies by more than 15 per cent of average strength, results of such specimen should be rejected.
Average of their specimens gives the crushing strength of concrete.

Figure 9: Illustrates cubes already in the curing tank with identification numbers

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5.4.4 CALCULATIONS
Size of the cube =15cm x15cm x15cm

Area of the specimen (calculated from the mean size of the specimen) =225cm2

Characteristic compressive strength (f ck) at 7 days =

Expected maximum load =fck x area x f.s

Range to be selected is …………………..

Similar calculation should be done for 28 day compressive strength

Maximum load applied =……….tones = ………….N

Compressive strength = (Load in N/ Area in mm2)=……………N/mm2

Report

a) Identification mark

b) Date of test

c) Age of specimen

d) Curing conditions, including date of manufacture of specimen

f) Appearance of fractured faces of concrete and the type of fracture if they are unusual

5.4.6 RESULTS
Average compressive strength of the concrete cube = ………….N/ mm2 (at 7 days)

Average compressive strength of the concrete cube =………. N/mm2 (at 28 days)

The next page a sample of these results from the lab.

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5.5 SLUMP TEST
The concrete slump test is an empirical test that measures the workability of fresh concrete. More
specifically, it measures the consistency of the concrete in that specific batch. This test is
performed to check the consistency of freshly made concrete. Consistency is a term very closely
related to workability. It is a term which describes the state of fresh concrete. It refers to the ease
with which the concrete flows. It is used to indicate the degree of wetness. Workability of
concrete is mainly affected by consistency i.e. wetter mixes will be more workable than drier
mixes, but concrete of the same consistency may vary in workability. It is also used to determine
consistency between individual batches.

The test is popular due to the simplicity of apparatus used and simple procedure. Unfortunately,
the simplicity of the test often allows a wide variability in the manner that the test is performed.
The slump test is used to ensure uniformity for different batches of similar concrete under field
conditions and to ascertain the effects of plasticizers on their introduction.

5.5.1 APPARATUS
Metal mold, in the shape of the frustum of a cone, open at both ends, and provided with the
handle, top internal diameter 102 mm, and bottom internal diameter 203 mm with a height of 305
mm.

A 610 mm long bullet nosed metal rod, 16 mm in diameter.

5.5.2 PROCEDURE
The test is carried out using a mold known as a slump cone or Abrams cone. The cone is placed
on a hard non-absorbent surface. This cone is filled with fresh concrete in three stages, each time
it is tamped using a rod of standard dimensions. At the end of the third stage, concrete is struck
off flush to the top of the mold. The mold is carefully lifted vertically upwards, so as not to
disturb the concrete cone. Concrete subsides. This subsidence is termed as slump, and is
measured in to the nearest 5 if the slump is <100mm and measured to the nearest 10mm
>100mm slump mm.

5.5.3 INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS

The slumped concrete takes various shapes, and according to the profile of slumped concrete, the
slump is termed as true slump, shear slump or collapse slump. If a shear or collapse slump is
achieved, a fresh sample should be taken and the test repeated. A collapse slump is an indication
of too wet a mix. Only a true slump is of any use in the test. A collapse slump will generally
mean that the mix is too wet or that it is a high workability mix, for which slump test is not
appropriate. Very dry mixes, having slump 0 – 25 mm are used in road making, low workability
mixes; having slump 10 – 40 mm are used for foundations with light reinforcement, medium
workability mixes; 50 - 90 for normal reinforced concrete placed with vibration, high workability
concrete; > 100 mm.

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5.5.4 LIMITATIONS OF THE SLUMP TEST
The slump test is suitable for slumps of medium to high workability, slump in the range of 5 –
260 mm the test fails to determine the difference in workability in stiff mixes which have zero
slump, or for wet mixes that give a collapse slump. It is limited to concrete formed of aggregates
of less than 38 mm (1.5 inch).

5.6 SIEVE ANALYSIS

Aim: To determine the particle size distribution of aggregates/soil by sieving

5.6.1 APPARATUS
 Weighing balance accurate to 0.5% of mass of test sample
 Test sieves as listed below
 Oven capable of maintaining constant temperature to within 5%
 Sieve shaker
 Chart for recording results

5.6.2 SIEVE SIZES

Course aggregates: 63, 50, 37.5, 28.0, 20.0, 14.0, 10.0 and 2.36mm

Fine aggregates: 4.75, 2.8, 2.0, 1.0, 0.5, 0.3, 0.212, 0.106 and 0.075mm

Test proportion: The minimum mass of test portions taken shall be according to the following
table, depending on the nominal size of aggregates.

Nominal size in 40 20 10 5 or less

mm
Minimum mass 10 5 2 0.200
in kg

Drying: Dry the test samples to a constant mass by oven drying at temp of about 105 oc

5.6.3 PROCEDURE
Take an approximate minimum sample from the original sample either by quartering or by
means of sample divider.

Make sure that the sieves are dry and clean before use.

Machine sieving: Fit the nest of sieves and pan (mesh size) diminishing towards the bottom. Tip
the weighed sample into the nest of sieves, fit the lid and clamp the whole in the machine.
Operate the machine for 5 min(coarse aggregate) and 3 min.(fine aggregates) Weigh the material

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retained on each sieve and the pan together with any material cleaned on the mesh by light
brushing on completion of sieving.

Hand sieving: Weigh out the required sample. Stand the sieves of the largest mesh size in the
tray and put the weighed sample onto the sieve.

Shake the sieve horizontally with a jerking motion in all directions for at least minutes and until
no more than a trace of sample passes. Ensure that all material passing falls into the tray.

Weigh any material retained on the sieve.

Pass material collected in the tray through the sieve of the next smaller mesh size, and weigh any
material retained.

Repeat the procedure for the remaining sieves in order of diminishing size.

5.6.4 RESULTS
Tabulate the results in the table provided and calculate the cumulative weight passing each sieve
as a percentage of the total sample to the nearest whole number.

Plot the grading curve for the sample in the grading chart provided and comment on the curve
obtained.

The next page is a representation of the data collected in the lab after conducting the
experiment.

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5.7 CONCLUSION

Having conducted all these tests, I came to understand their importance in quality assurance.
Apart from two experiments that were new, all the others I was familiar with. Either done at
school or did them in JKUAT. Lab work was involving and required dust coats among other
clothing. Some experiments were done in the lab whereas others were done in the field upon
signing of requests. In addition, I realized how important it was for references to be readily
available to ascertain results and give zero tolerance to errors.

5.8 REFERENCES
1) R.F Craig; Craig’s Soil Mechanics (7th edition)

2) V.N.S Murthy; Geotechnical engineering.

6.0 ROAD INSPECTORATE

Inspection in the area of road infrastructure is directed mainly towards checking the
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reinforcement of laws and other regulations which govern state road maintenance, their
safeguarding, and safeguarding of traffic on them and also laws and other regulations governing
tolling obligations. Supervision can either be during construction or after completion for the
following purposes:-

 Regular maintenance of state roads.

 Renovation of state roads.
 Reconstruction of state roads.
A contractor may not necessarily be interested in giving the best quality as required by the client.
Just like any other firm, he has to maximize his profits under all circumstance and make losses a
past for him to sustain his firm.

It’s very possible that even when a contractor notices mistakes done, he may not attend unto
them on basses of resources forgetting that blame will befall on him. Road projects are huge in
terms of the resources used. During construction, an error can be realized and attended to fast
enough unlike that seen on completion. A client may be pleased by the wearing course not
paying a lot of attention to how the base has been put up. A weak base will be realized later
when the wearing course shows some signs physically.

Due to all these shortcomings, there is needed to involve inspectorate an s a party in the
construction process. In the reconstruction and rehabilitation of 1stAvenue and General
Waruinge phase 1; I observed that the inspectors were four. They represented the CAS
consultant firm and reported directly to the Deputy Resident Engineer.

There were four and their number may increase or decrease depending on the size of the project.

They were divided as per the following activities/tasks:-

 Inspector for concrete.

 Inspector for earth works
 Inspector for laying Improved GCS, DBM and AC.

6.1 CONCRETE INSPECTION

Concrete is made by mixing:

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(i) Cement
(ii) Water
(iii) Coarse and fine aggregates
(iv)Admixtures (if required).
The aim is to mix these materials in measured amounts to make concrete that is easy to:-

 Transport
 Place
 Compact
 Finish
And which will set, and harden, to give a strong and durable product. The amount of each
material (i.e. cement, water and aggregates) affects the properties of hardened concrete.
CEMENT: The cement powder, when mixed with water, forms a paste. This paste acts like glue
and holds or bonds the aggregates together.
The Properties of Concrete are its characteristics or basic qualities. The four main properties of
concrete are:
 Workability
 Cohesiveness
 Strength
 Durability
Concrete has three different states:
 Plastic
 Setting
 Hardening
In each state it has different properties.
CONCRETE STATES
Plastic State: When the concrete is first mixed it is like 'bread dough’. Itis soft and can be
worked or moulded into different shapes. In this state concrete is called plastic. Concrete is
plastic during placing and compaction. The most important properties of plastic concrete are
workability and cohesiveness.
Setting State Concrete then begins to stiffen. The stiffening of concrete, when it is no longer
soft, is called SETTING. Setting takes place after compaction and during finishing. Concrete that
is sloppy or wet may be easy to place but will be more difficult to finish.
Hardening State After concrete has set it begins to gain strength and harden. The properties of
hardened concrete are strength and durability. Hardened concrete will have no footprints on it if
walked on.
Strength and Durability
Well-made concrete is a naturally strong and durable material. It is dense, reasonably watertight,
able to resist changes in temperature, as well as wear and tear from weathering. Strength and
Durability is affected by the density of the concrete. Denser concrete is more watertight (or less
permeable).Concrete durability increases with strength.
Strength and Durability are affected by:
COMPACTION: Compaction is removing the air from concrete. Proper compaction results in
concrete with an increased density which is stronger and more durable.
CURING: Curing is keeping concrete damp for a period, to allow it to reach maximum strength.
Longer curing will give more durable concrete.

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Weather: Warmer weather will cause concrete to have a higher early strength.
Type of cement: Different types of cement will affect concrete properties: ie how
Quickly or slowly concrete gains strength.
The water to cement ratio: Too much water and not enough cement means
Concrete will be weaker and less durable.
The water to cement ratio (W/C) is the weight of the water divided by the weight of cement.
Water 20 litres
Cement 40 kg
W/C = i.e. = 0.5
The lower the ratio, the stronger the concrete.

Normal class concrete has a strength grade of N20, N25, N32, N40 and N50 with the
corresponding characteristic strength of 20, 25, 32, 40 and 50 MPa at 28 days. The slump at the
point of delivery should be 20–120 mm and the maximum size of coarse aggregate should be 10,
14 or 20 mm. Normal class concrete is suitable for most purposes. For most domestic
applications such as driveways and paths grade N20 and N25 are the common grades ordered.
Special class concrete is specified when you have additional or alternative
Requirements to those for normal class concrete, e.g. lightweight aggregate, colour pigments,
anon-standard strength grade. Special class concrete will not always be available from every
concrete supplier.
The road inspector on the ground has to be present when delivery from trucks is done. He has to
check the workability 1st with assistance from laboratory technicians who will conduct the slump
test.
He records their outcome and also ensures that cube for compression testing are prepared from
every truck delivered.
He also checks that blowing of dust has been done before casting starts. The inspector also
records the concrete mixer number as a record of how many trucks is using to ensure the project
runs fast enough as agreed during tendering processes. All this is for the purpose of evaluation of
what is happening on daily bases of the project life cycle.

6.2 INSPECTION OF ROAD LAYERING

Layering of a road is essential, if not well supervised its likely that the thickness can be
compromised or even a layer can be skipped. Inspector in charge has the mandate to sign
requests brought in by the foreman in charge of the activity on the ground. These requests are a
green light to lab technicians to come and conduct their tests. Since compaction test cannot be
done on all the sections of the road, then the inspector has to ascertain that processing is done
uniformly to evade any likelihood of unevenness.
The following is a procedure of the work being inspected during layering:-

 Cutting
 Backfilling

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  Final earthworks
 1st subgrade
 2nd subgrade
 Sub base-Improved Graded Crushed stones
 Priming
 Base –Dense bituminous macadam
 Wearing coarse-Asphaltic concrete

6.2.1 CUTTING
Cutting is where soil or rock material from a hill or mountain is cut out to make way for a canal,
road or railway line. In cut and fill construction it keeps the route straight and/or flat, where the
comparative cost or practicality of alternate solutions (such as diversion) is prohibitive.
Contrary to the general meaning of cutting, a cutting in construction is mechanically excavated
or blasted out with carefully placed explosives. The cut may only be on one side of a slope,
or directly through the middle or top of a hill. Generally, a cut is open at the top (otherwise it
is a tunnel). A cut is (in a sense) the opposite of an embankment.
There are at least two types of cut, side hill cut and through cut. The former permits passage of a
transportation route alongside of or around a hill, where the slope is transverse to the roadway. A
side hill cut can be formed by means of side casting, i.e., cutting on the high side balanced by
moving the material to build up the low side to achieve a flat surface for the route. In contrast,
through cuts, where the adjacent grade is higher on both sides of the route, require removal of
material from the area since it cannot be dumped alongside the route.
Cutting is highly dependent on the section being worked on. This makes the depth of cutting
very different from one point to another.

6.2.2 FILLING

There are a variety of reasons for creating fills, among them reduction of grade along a route or
elevation of the route above water, swampy ground, or areas where snow drifts frequently
collect. Fills can also be used to cover tree stumps, rocks, or unstable soil, in which case material
with a higher bearing capacity is placed on top of the obstacle in order to carry the weight
of the roadway or railway and reduce differential settlement. While filling a depression to
reach the road level, the original bed is flattened after the removal of the topsoil. The fill layer is
distributed and compacted to the designed specifications. This procedure is repeated until the
compaction desired is reached. The fill material should not contain organic elements, and
possess a low index of plasticity. Fill material can include gravel and decomposed rocks of a
particular size, but should not consist of huge clay lumps. Sand clay can be used. The area is
considered to be adequately compacted when the roller movement does not create a
noticeable deformation. The road surface finish is reliant on the economic aspects, and the
estimated usage.

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6.2.3 FINAL EARTHWORKS

After laying of 1st and 2nd subgrades, Final earth works takes place to pave way for the laying of
the base. Final earthwork is of great importance in giving the right and sound foundation. Is
similar to subgrades in nature and is processed using grader to ensure proper distribution of
moisture.
These layer is easily affected by weather condition and cant be laid when the weather is very wet
6.2.4 SUBGRADES
Subgrade is purposely for pavement support. Materials forming the direct support of the
pavement normally comply with the following requirements:-

 CBR at 100% MDD (standard compaction) and 4 days soak:more than 5.

 Swell at 100% MD (standard compaction) and 4 days soak: less than 2%.
 Organic matter (percentage by weight): less than 3%

This means that no pavement should be placed directly on class S1 soil and that an improved
subgrade is required on such soil.

6.2.5 IMPROVED SUBGRADE

Placing an improved subgrade not only increases the bearing strength of the direct support of the
pavement but also:

 Protects the upper layers of the earthworks against adverse weather conditions (protection
against soaking and shrinkage)
 Facilitates the movement of construction traffic.
 Permits proper compaction of the pavement layers.
 Reduces the variation in the subgrade bearing strength
 Prevents pollution of open-textured subbases by plastic fines from the natural subgrade.

It happens technically and economically advantageous to lay an improved subgrade not on S1,
but also on S2 and S3 class soils. The decision will generally depend on the respective costs of
sub base and improved subgrade materials.

An improved subgrade would generally not be economically justified on class s4 soils. An

improved subgrade placed on the soils of any particular class must obviously be made of a
material of higher class (up to class s5, since class s6 is sub base quality).

6.2.6 LIME TREATED SUBGRADE

Treatment of the subgrade soils with lime may be considered in the following cases:

Where the natural soils are excessively clayey and no better material is economically available,
their treatment with hydrated lime may be the cheapest solution.

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Where the natural soils are excessively wet and cannot be dried out because of adverse weather
conditions, their treatment with quicklime may allow construction to proceed and provide a
markedly stronger subgrade.

6.2.7 SUBBASE
Sub base materials

a) Natural gravel

Many different types of natural gravel occur in Kenya, namely lateritic gravels, quartzite gravels,
calcareous gravels, some forms of weathered rock, soft stone,coral rag and conglomerate.

Natural gravels for sub base shall have a CBR of at least 30% at 95% MDD (modified
AASHTO) and after 4 days soak.

b) Clayey and silty sands

Various types of clayey and/or silty sands are to be found in Kenya. These are suitable as sub
base materials if their CBR,at 95% MDD and after 4 days soak, is at least equal to 30% and if
they comply with the other requirements given on table below. Attention is particularly drawn to
the plasticity limitations.

c) Cement and lime improved materials

Natural gravels, sands and clayey sands, which do not meet the sub base requirements given,
may be improved by treatment with cement or lime.

d) Graded crushed stones(GCS)

Stones are abundant in many parts of the country and graded crushed stones may as well be sued
as sub base material particularly where no suitable natural gravel can be economically found. To
avoid segregation, graded crushed stones should always be kept moist during handling,
transporting and layering and should not be stockpiled in heaps higher than 5m

6.2.8 PRIMING
A prime coat is an application of low viscosity bituminous binder to an absorbent surface. Its
purposes are to waterproof the surface being sprayed and to help bind it to the overlying
bituminous course. All non-bituminous road bases must be primed. The rate of application
depends on the texture and density of the material being primed.

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Figure 10: illustrates priming being done

6.2.9 BASE
Base materials.

a) Natural gravels

Must have a CBR of at least 80, at 95% MDD and after 4 days soak. Natural gravels meeting
these requirements are very scarce in Kenya. Most of the lateritic gravels are not suitable for
roadbase,due to their poor nodule hardness(incomplete laterization) and high plasticity.
Weathered rocks are even poorer. Only a few quartz gravels and coral gravels have been found
to be adequate.

b) Graded Crushed Stones

Graded crushed stones are one of the most widely used base materials in Kenya. The material
requirements, traffic limitations and construction procedures are summarized below. A minimum
amount of fence of 4%is considered necessary to ensure stability of the base.Again,no plasticity
is allowed in graded crushed stones for base.

c) Dense Bitumen Macadam

Because of the rapid ageing of bitumen observed in Kenya, the use of 40/50 bitumen is not
recommended for dense bitumen macadam.DBM is adequate for all traffic but is economically
justified only for heavy traffic.

Below is a a typical road cross section showing all the layering together with the respective
thickness of each.

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50
6.3.0 SURFACE DRESSING
Surface dressing is a surfacing of the highest importance. It can be sued as a definitive surfacing
under light and medium traffic or as an economical first surfacing under heavy traffic. Further,
surface dressing can be applied as a maintenance process. The service life of all forms of
bituminous surfacing is extended by periodic resealing.

Asphalt concrete (A.C)

Is a common surface dressing material. Consists of a well graded mixture of coarse aggregate,
fine aggregate and filler; bound together with straight-run bitumen. There are two types of A.C:-

(i)Asphalt concrete type 1(high stability): Is fairly stiff type of mix, designed to resist rutting and
high stresses. May be placed in a thin layer (50mm or less) on only rigid or semi-rigid pavements
or in a thick layer (minimum 75mm) on a flexible pavement.

(ii)Asphalt concrete type II (Flexible): This is a flexible type of mix, designed to resist
comparatively high flexural deformation. Is placed in a thin layer(maximum 50 mm).

The desired rigidity/flexibility will be obtained by proper combination of the following factors:-

i. Grade of bitumen
ii. Crushing ratio of coarse aggregates
iii. Angularity of sand.
iv. Mix grading
v. Amount of filler
vi. Amount of bitumen
vii. Filler bitumen ratio
viii. Voids in total mix.

As a road inspector, one has to be familiar with all this elements. They help in proper
evaluation. The next page show a typical road cross section, giving all the above layering and
respective thickness.

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6.4 CONCLUSION

Road inspection was a very keen process. The is no room for error whatsoever since an error
made will cost the contractor. From the exercise I also realized that the road inspectors are the
eyes of the resident engineer in any project. They have a responsibility to alert the Engineer of
any abnormality if any and also keep him updated of the daily/weekly progress.

Inspection may not be very involving but is just about professionalism of the work done. It was
an interesting area to work in during the attachment period.

6.5 REFERENCES

1. Road design manual part V( may 1988)

2. Internet: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road_construction#Construction

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7.0 GENERAL CONCLUSION

Attachment period is a very beneficial programme to any student especially those involved in technical
subjects. The eight weeks I was in the field was full of learning. Below are some of the ideas I learnt in
this project of construction and rehabilitation of First Avenue and General Waruinge road:-

a) How to work jointly(consultant and contractor)

b) Management skills in managing; Manpower, Money, Materials and Machinery(4 M’s)
c) The chain of commands.(organization organogram)
d) Also learnt skill needed in jobs.
e) Learnt the modes of payment, supervision and challenges encountered in government projects.

The whole exercise was a success.

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8.0 GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS

Having being in the field for two months, I came across some challenges that needed to be addressed in
future. They are as follows:-

a) Language barrier: During my first two weeks, I could not comprehend anything since the
language used I was not familiar with.
b) Lack of payment or even supplementing students: During the attachment period there were
financial constrains but us students we had to solemnly depend in the little we had.
c) Being overworked by the other people we were supposed to learn from. It happened that after
we adapted to the daily cores, some workers would give use their jobs and disappear since they
knew we could hardly refuse.
d) Lack of safety gadgets and equipments. As students we were not considered as workers hence
we were not entitled to Helmets, Reflectors and Safety boots yet we were subjected to the
same environments us others.

From the above challenges, the following are the recommendations:

 Provide students with safety equipments.

 Give students little money for their upkeep.
 Proper allocation of jobs to avoid being exploited.
 Use of national language in communication.

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