1.

7 THE PH SCALE:

The Danish chemist Soren Sorensen in 1909 proposed pH which is used to express the
molar hydronium (H3O+) concentration.

The term PH is derived from the French puissance d'hydrogène (power of hydrogen)
and it is defined as the negative logarithm of hydronium or hydrogen ion concentration:

PH = -log [H+] or PH = -log [H3O+].

Rearranging this equation to isolate the hydrogen ion molarity yields the equivalent
expression:

Likewise, the hydroxide ion molarity may be expressed as a POH:

𝐏𝐎𝐇 = −𝐥𝐨𝐠[𝐎𝐇−] [OH-] = 10-POH

Finally, the relation between these two ion concentration expressed as PH or

POH is easily derived from the Kw expression:
Kw = [H+][OH−]=1x10-14
By taking the negative logarithm of both sides of the equation you get
(−log[H3O+]) + (−log[OH−]) = 1 10-14

Hence 𝐏𝐇 + 𝐏𝐎𝐇 = 𝟏𝟒

Table 1.2: Summary of relations for acidic, basic and neutral solutions
Acidic H3O+ > OH- pH < 7

Basic H3O+ = OH- pH = 7

Neutral H3O+ < OH – pH > 7
❖ The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14.
In the laboratory, the pH of a solution is measured with a pH meter which is commonly
used in the laboratory to determine the pH of a solution.

Example 1:

Calculate the pH of each of the following:

a) [H3O+] = 2.3 X 10-²

b) [H3O+] = 4.1 X 10-³

c) H3O+] = 3.2 X 10-9

Solution

a.
b.
c. ,

Example: 2

Calculate the pH of each of the following:

a) [OH-] = 1.5 X 10-5

b) [OH-] = 6.4 X 10-²

c) [OH-] = 4.2 X 10-10

Solution

First, calculate the [H3O+] from the [OH-], and then take the negative logarithm of
[H3O+] to convert to pH

a.
b. ,
c. ,
Example 3:

Calculate the [H3O+] of each of the following:

a) pH = 2.3

b) pH=3.5

c) pH =9.6

solution

a. [H3O+] =
b. [H3O+] =
c. [H3O+] =

1.7.1 pH of strong acids and bases

The pH of a solution of a strong acid is easily calculated by multiplying the
stoichiometric coefficient of the H3O+ to the given concentration of the acid.

Example 1:

Calculate the pH of a 0.025 M HNO, solution.be Solution:

Step 1: Write the dissociation equation of the acid.

HNO3(aq) + H₂O(l) H3O+ (aq) + NO-3(aq)

Step 2: Use the stoichiometric coefficient of the H,O* in the dissociation equation and multiply to
the given concentration of the acid.

[H3O+] = 1 x 0.025 = 0.025 M

Step 3: Then calculate the pH.

PH = -log [H3O+] = -log (2.5 X 10-2) = 1.60

Smilarly the pH of a solution of a strong base is easily calculated by multiplying the
stoichiometric coefficient of the OH to the given concentration of the base.

Example 2:

Calculate the pH of a 0.0050 M solution of slaked lime Ca(OH)₂

Solution:

Step 1: Write the dissociation equation of the base.

Ca(OH) 2(aq) Ca²+ (aq) + 2OH- (aq)

Step 2: Use the stoichiometric coefficient of the OH in the dissociation equation and multiply to
the given concentration of the base.

[OH-] = 2x 0.0050 = 0.010 M

Step 3: Calculate the hydronium ion.

[H3O+] = [OH]\𝐊𝐖

[H3O+] =

Step 3: Then calculate the pH.

pH = -log (1.0 X 10-¹2) = 12.00

1.8 ACID-BASE INDICATORS

Acid-base indicators are substances used to determine whether an aqueous solution is acidic,
basic, or neutral.

Examples of acid-base indicators include litmus paper, phenolphthalein, and methyl orange.

A Universal Indicator is a mixture of indicators which give a gradual change in color over a wide
pH range - the pH of a solution can be approximately identified when a few drops of universal
indicator are mixed with the solution.
1.9 SALT
A salt is defined as the ionic compound that results from a neutralization reaction between an acid
and a base. As such, salts are composed of cations (positively charged ions) and anions (negatively
charged ions).

When an acid neutralizes a base, an ionic compound called a salt is formed. Salt solutions can be neutral,
acidic, or basic, depending on the acid-base properties of the constituent cations and anions.

Salts play crucial role in daily life; there are several varieties of salts. Sodium chloride (NaCl) is
the most common type of salt in our lives. It is commonly known as table salt.

Properties of Salt

 Salt is made up of cation and anion.

 Due to their oppositely charged ions, the ions are attracted towards each other with an
electrostatic force of attraction which is called an ionic bond
 An equal number of opposite charges makes the ionic compounds neutral with no charge.
 Salt solution is a good conductor of electricity.
 Salts are ionic in nature due to the presence of ions.
 They are brittle, hard and crystalline solids. Salt is white, odorless and it has a salty taste.
 All Salts of potassium (K), ammonium (NH+) and sodium (Na) are soluble in water (H₂O).
 Nitrites, nitrates, and bicarbonates are soluble in water.