A Practical Approach

to

Family and Religious Studies

Form 4

Zivave Wilson
 SECONDARY BOOK PRESS
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A Practical Approach to Family and Religious Studies | Form 4

ISBN: 978-0-7974-7574-8
First Published in 2019

Copyright © Zivave Wilson

Publisher: Munyaradzi Gunduza

Edited by: Ability Muronzi
Text and design layout: Parsons P. Makombore
Cover design: Secondary Book Press
Illustrations: Parsons P. Makombore

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Acknowledgements
I want to thank my wife Angela-Billiet Shoko and the Zivave family for their support. Special thanks also go to
my workmates at Ndawi High School for their support in the writing of this book. Lastly, I would like to thank
Chief Ndawi (Sekuru Mazhindu) and his advisors for their insight.
 CONTENTS

Chapter 1: Concept of Religion.................................................................................... 1

Unit 1.1 Global Distribution of Religions.................................................................................... 1
Unit 1.1 Distribution of Religions in Zimbabwe ...................................................................... 4

Chapter 2: Indigenous Religion................................................................................... 8

Unit 2.1 Rites of Passage in Indigenous Religion..................................................................... 8
Unit 2.2 Attire in Indigenous Religion.......................................................................................... 15
Unit 2.3 Sacred Days in Indigenous Religion............................................................................. 19

Chapter 3: Judaism....................................................................................................... 23
Unit 3.1 Rites of Passage in Judaism............................................................................................. 23
Unit 3.2 Attire in Judaism.................................................................................................................. 27
Unit 3.3 Sacred Days........................................................................................................................... 31

Chapter 4: Christianity.................................................................................................. 36
Unit 4.1 Rites of Passage in Christianity....................................................................................... 36
Unit 4.2 Sacred Days in Christianity.............................................................................................. 43

Examination I Paper 1 ................................................................................................... 47

Examination I Paper 2 ................................................................................................... 49

Chapter 5: Islam............................................................................................................ 50
Unit 5.1 Rites of Passage in Islam................................................................................................... 50
Unit 5.2 Attire in Islam........................................................................................................................ 54
Unit 5.3 Sacred Days in Islam.......................................................................................................... 56

Chapter 6: Religion, Family and Identify .................................................................... 61

Unit 6.1 Family and the Changing Culture ................................................................................ 61
Unit 6.2 Family, National Values and Good Citizen.................................................................. 66
Unit 6.3 Indigenous Religion and African Identity.................................................................. 70

Chapter 7: Religion and Education.............................................................................. 75

Unit 7.1 Religion and Education..................................................................................................... 75
Unit 7.2 Religion and Establishment of Educational Institutions and Capacity Building 80
Unit 7.3 Negative Impact of Religion on Education................................................................ 82
Chapter 8: Religion and Gender Roles........................................................................ 86
Unit 8.1 Gender in Various Religions............................................................................................ 86
Unit 8.2 Gender Based Violence..................................................................................................... 102

Examination II Paper 1 .................................................................................................. 107

Examination II Paper 2 ................................................................................................... 109

Chapter 9: Religion, Ethics, Health and Sexuality...................................................... 110

Unit 9.1 Indigenous Religion and Unhu/Ubuntu.................................................................... 110
Unit 9.2 Religious Beliefs and Sexuality...................................................................................... 116
Unit 9.3 Religion and Health........................................................................................................... 120

Chapter 10: Religion and Disability................................................................................................... 127

Unit 10.1 Disability and Religious Intervention Measures...................................................... 127

Chapter 11: Religion, Rights and Social Responsibility............................................... 138

Unit 11.1 Right to Freedom of Worship.......................................................................................... 138
Unit 11. 2 Leadership, Rights and Social Responsibility............................................................ 141
Unit 11. 3 Religion and Levels of Leadership................................................................................ 147

Chapter 12: Religion and the Liberation Struggle....................................................... 152

Unit 12.1 Role of IR in the Liberation Struggle............................................................................ 152
Unit 12.2 Role of Christianity in the Liberation Struggle......................................................... 157

Chapter 13: Religion, Technology and Enterprise........................................................ 161

Unit 13.1 Religion and Technology.................................................................................................. 161
Unit 13.2 Role of Religion in Entreprising..................................................................................... 165

Chapter 14: Religion and Conflict Management.......................................................... 172

Unit 14.1 Levels of Conflict................................................................................................................. 172
Unit 14.2 Impact of Conflict............................................................................................................... 174
Religion and conflict management.............................................................................. 174

Examination III Paper 1 ................................................................................................ 179

Examination III Paper 2 ................................................................................................ 181

INDEX ...................................................................................................................... 182

 Chapter
CONCEPT OF RELIGION
1
Chapter Objectives
By the end of the chapter, you should be able to:
•• explain how religions are globally distributed.

Introduction
In this chapter, there will be a look at the distribution of various religions in the world. There are various
religions in the world which include Christianity, Islam, Judaism and Indigenous Religion among other
religions in the world. There are dynamics in the distribution of these religions in the world and Zimbabwe
in particular. The religions in the world have different numbers of followers depending with their regions.
Christianity has the largest number of followers in the world and Zimbabwe respectively.

UNIT 1.1 GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF RELIGIONS

Global distribution of religions is defined as the spreading out of religions across the world. It is important
to note that religion is eminently social and it expresses itself through how it is spread out across the globe.
Religions have distinct geographical patterns which show regional influences of the dominating religious
group and its spread of influences to other places besides its place of origin.
Demographic study of religions of the world
Demographic study of religions is the study of information in figures about the population in an area.
To begin with it is important to note that there are 2, 2 billion Christians which amount to 32% of the
world population. The second largest populated religion is Islam which has 1, 6 billion which amount to
23% of world population whereas Hinduism has 1billion followers which is 15% of the world population.
Buddhism has 500 million which is 7% of the world population. 400 million people of the world population
practice Indigenous religions.
Furthermore, an estimated 58 million people which is slightly less than 1% of the global population belong
to other religions which include Baha’i Faith, Jainism, Sikhism, Shintoism and Taoism among others. It is
also interesting to note that 1, 1 billion of the world population which is 16% have no religious affiliation.
1. Christianity
Christianity is evenly dispersed as they are about 26% Christians who live in Europe while about 24% of
Christian population are found in Latin America, the Caribbean and sub-Saharan Africa respectively. Half
of all Christians are catholic while 37% belong to the protestant tradition, 12 % belong to the Orthodox

1
communion and 1% belong to Christian Scientist, Mormons and Jehovah’s Witness.
The global distribution of Christianity shows that it is a dominant religion across the globe. Christianity
is distributed in every continent like in Europe, Africa, North and South America and Australia. This is
because of the missionary nature of that religion as well as due to colonisation. Many missionaries went to
various continents spreading the gospel in countries colonised by the Europeans. The high concentration
of Christianity in the global distribution is found in Europe where it began to thrive and grew rapidly in
the Roman Empire which was very strong during the formation of Christianity and its growth from the
1st century to the 4th century. In Zimbabwe due to the influence of missionary work and televangelism,
Christianity is heavily concentrated in Zimbabwe with 87% of the total population being adherents of
Christianity.
2. Judaism
14 million of the world population which is 0.2 % are followers of Judaism. Geographically, 44% of the
Jewish followers are found in the North America and 41% of the Jews are found in the Middle East and North
Africa. 10% are found in Europe while Latin America and the Caribbean has 3%. Asia-Pacific has between
1-2% Judaism followers and the Sub-Saharan Africa has less than 1% Judaism followers. In Zimbabwe,
Judaism 0.1 % of the followers who are largely the Remba people believed to be the lost tribe of Jews.
3. Islam
1.6 billion of all people worldwide belong to two
branches of Islam namely the Sunnis and the Shiites.
87-90 % of the Muslims are Sunnis and 10 to 13 %
belong to the Shiites. Muslims are concentrated in
the Asia-Pacific region. In the Middle East and North
Africa 20% are Muslims and sub-Saharan Africa 16%
are Muslims. Europe and North America have 3%
while Latin America and the Caribbean there is only
less than 1%. The global distribution of religion
shows that Islam is the second largest religion
which is concentrated in 57 countries in Northern
Africa and Asia (including the Middle East), where
the majority of Muslims live.
This religion originated in the Arab region and this is
the reason why is highly concentrated in the Middle
East in countries such as Saudi Arabia, Iraq and Iran
Fig. 1.1 Muslims during pilgrimage in Mecca
among other Arabian countries.
To add on, Islam is found most dominating in Asia because of the conquest of Islam in India and China
which was firmly cemented in Indonesia and Malaysia. The global distribution of Islam in Northern Africa,
Middle East and Asia is largely attributed to the spread of Islam in the dark ages, the crusades and conquest.
Jihad was also an instrument used to force people to convert to Islam during the early stages of Islam. In
Zimbabwe, Islam is steadily growing in terms of followers with about 0, 9% of the total population.
4. Hinduism
1 billion Hindus representing 15% of the global population are found in the Asia-Pacific region where more
than 99% of the Hindu population is found and less than 1% of the population is found outside Asia-Pacific
region. Hinduism is largely restricted to the Indian sub-continent because it is largely dependent upon

2
the Indian culture for its existence. So, Hinduism is
found in India and Fiji. Hinduism in Zimbabwe has a
total of 0,1% of the total population.
5. Buddhism
448 million of the world population are Buddhists.
This religion started in Asia and most of the Buddhists
live in the Asia-Pacific region. North America has 3,
9 million followers of Buddhism and Europe has 1,
3 Million. Buddhism is heavily concentrated in Asia
and is an offshoot of Hinduism as a religion. It is
because of this reason that it dominates in Asia in
countries like Japan, Korea, Mongolia, Vietnam and
Tibet as well as some parts of India and Russia. In Fig. 1.2 A Hindu temple
Zimbabwe Buddhism has less than 0,1 % followers.
6. Indigenous Religion
About 6% of the world population belong to folk religion or indigenous religion. These are religions which
have roots in the native geographical areas which they are practiced. These have no scripture and they
may differ from one tribe to the other. Indigenous Religion is now practiced in other continents because
of migration of people of African origin and globalisation. In Zimbabwe, Indigenous Religion is the third
largest followed religion.
Other religions are heavily concentrated in Asia –Pacific where 89% is found, 4% is found in North America
and 3% are found in sub-Saharan Africa. Latin America and the Caribbean has 2% together with Europe
which has also 2%. The Middle East and North Africa have less than 1% followers of other religions like
Baha’i faith, Shintoism, Jainism and others.
Activity 1.1 Research

Research about the ways which different religions use to spread their faith in the world

Exercise 1.1

Describe the distribution of religions in the world. [15]

3
 UNIT 1.2 DISTRIBUTION OF RELIGIONS IN ZIMBABWE

There is a rainbow of religions in Zimbabwe and

these religions include Christianity, Indigenous
Religion, Judaism, Islam, Hinduism and Buddhism.
In terms of national distribution of religions, various
religions of the world are spread out in the whole
country. The constitutional right of freedom of
worship has influenced the spatial distribution
of religion. There are no limitations in terms of
propagation and spread of religions in Zimbabwe.
It is important to note that although some religions
are evenly distributed, Christianity is the religion
which is found with high intensity in both towns
and rural areas in Zimbabwe. There are different
Christian sects which include mainline churches
such as Anglican, Methodist and United Methodist.
Pentecostal churches and apostolic sects such
as Apostolic Faith Mission(AFM), United Family
International Church(UFIC), Johanne Marange and
the African Apostolic Church. These different sects
have one aim of converting people to Christianity. Fig. 1.3 Apostolic Christian sect
The different sects in Christianity has enabled it to
be the dominant religion in Zimbabwe.
Islam is heavily concentrated in mining towns where people of Malawian origins are found. Muslims are
also found in towns. There was an increase in the Muslim population after 2013 when the Constitution
stipulated freedom of worship. The issue of the internet has also helped people to research and understand
Islam. This has helped in exposing people to Islam which is a positive development for Islam in Zimbabwe.
Indigenous Religion in Zimbabwe remains a
significant institution in Zimbabwe. The religion is
across different parts of the country. For instance,
the Ndau in Chipinge, Karanga in Zaka and
Bikita, Ndebele in Matebeleland among others.
It is practised differently depending with the
geographical location across the country. Each
tribe has different ways which they practise their
own religion. Despite people belonging to other
religions, some of them still practice Indigenous
Religion. This is popularly known as henotheism.
Judaism is popular in cities such as Gweru, Kwekwe,
Kadoma, Harare and Bulawayo, Harare and
Bulawayo being the strongholds of the religion.
Over two thirds of Jews in Zimbabwe are above
the age of sixty-five. However, there is a decrease Fig. 1.4 Jewish synagogue in Harare
in the population of Judaisers as most of them are
migrating out of Zimbabwe.

4
The demography of religions in Zimbabwe shows that Christianity is the dominant religion in the country.
The distribution of religions in Zimbabwe is as follows, Christianity has an average of 87%, Indigenous
Religion follows with 4% and is practiced everywhere around the country and Islam has 0.9% of followers
and many Muslims are found in towns and mines.
Other religions found in Zimbabwe include Buddhism which has 0.1% of followers of the total population
while Hinduism and Judaism has 0.1% respectively. 7,9% of the Zimbabwean have no religious affiliation in
Zimbabwe. The major reason why Christianity is heavily populated in Zimbabwe is because of the missionary
activities which managed to demonise the Indigenous Religion. This made the people of Zimbabwe to
abandon the religion of their forefathers. Additionally, televangelism has also contributed to the high
infiltration of Christianity into Zimbabwe. Off late there has been an upsurge of African initiated churches
in Zimbabwe and this has also contributed to the increase of the number of Christians in Zimbabwe.

Table 1.1 The national distribution of religions in Zimbabwe.

Religion Percentage
Christianity 87%
Islam 0,9%
Hinduism 0.1
Buddhism 0.1%
Indigenous Religion 4
Judaism 0.1%

Activity 1.2 Discussion

In small groups of 10, discuss the reasons why Christianity is a dominant religion in the world and Zimbabwe
respectively.

Activity 1.3 ICT Tools

Visit the internet, check different websites of different religions in the world. Learn their main beliefs and
characteristics.
Exercise 1.2
1. Which religion in Zimbabwe has the largest number of followers? [1]
2. Explain how Christianity is spread in Zimbabwe. [2]
3. What led to the decrease in the number of followers in Judaism? [2]
4. 7,9% of the Zimbabweans have no religious affiliation. True or False [1]
5. There is one pattern of practicing Indigenous Religion in Zimbabwe. True or False [1]

Interesting facts
Judaism is the first Abrahamic religion but it has less followers than any other Abrahamic religions.
Summary of the chapter
•• The definition of religion is complex and it varies from one field to the other.
•• Religions have clearly designed beliefs and practices which differentiate one religion from the other.
•• The American continent is largely concentrated with Christianity.
•• Islam is the fastest growing religion in the world.

5
 •• Hinduism is a religion which originated in India and is more of a tradition.
•• Christianity in Zimbabwe came through missionary activity during the colonial period.
•• In Zimbabwe, Christianity is dominant religion with 87% of the total population.
•• African initiated churches have contributed to the dominance of Christianity in Zimbabwe.
•• The world over there are people who do not have a religious affiliation.

Glossary of terms

African initiated Churches – these are churches which have been formed by Africans.
Demography – the study of information in figures about the population in an area.
Henotheism – a dherence to one particular god out of several, especially by a family, tribe,
or other group.
Missionaries – these are people who are responsible for the spread of religious beliefs and
practices.
Religion – the way people interact and communicate with the Supreme-Being.
Religious affiliation – this is the connection or link to a particular religion.
Rituals – t hese are set of actions which involve the use of words, symbols and objects
that are repeated by group of believers as prescribed by their religious
tradition.
Shiites – t hese are people who belong to a Muslim sect which argue that relatives of
Muhammad are the rightful heirs in leading Islam as a religion.
Sunnis – t hese are people who belong to a Muslim sect which follow the example of
Prophet Muhammad.
World religions – t hese are religions that are appealing to believers across the whole world.

Revision Exercise
Structured Questions
1. There are several religions found globally.
(a) Define religion. [2]
(b) Identify four characteristics of a religion. [4]
(c) Account for the reasons why Christianity is found in all corners of the world. [3]
(d) Explain how religions are globally distributed. [8]
2. Islam is the fast growing religion in the current global distribution of religions of the world.
(a) What is global distribution of religion? [2]
(b) State the religions which are dominant in the Asia-Pacific region. [4]
(c) Explain the reasons for the fast growing of Islam. [6]
(d) Describe the global distribution of Islam. [8]
3. The global distribution of religions is similar to national distribution of religions in Zimbabwe.
(a) Define national distribution. [2]
(b) Outline four religions with large following in Zimbabwe. [4]
(c) Account for the dominance of Christianity in Zimbabwe. [6]
(d) Describe the national distribution of religion in Zimbabwe. [8]
4. The demography of religions of the world shows that Christianity has a large following.
(a) What is demography of religions? [2]

6
 (b) State any four reasons why Indigenous Religion has few followers. [4]
(c) Explain the demographic study of religions. [6]
(d) Describe the role colonialism in the spread of Christianity. [8]
5. 7,9% of the total population in Zimbabwe have no religious affiliation.
(a) What is religious affiliation? [2]
(b) Outline four religious affiliations in Zimbabwe. [4]
(c) Describe the reasons why some people have no religious affiliation. [6]
(d) Explain how Islam is spreading in Zimbabwe. [8]

Essay Questions
1. Describe the distribution of religions across the globe. [25]
2. Account for the global distribution of religions. [25]
3. Compare and contrast the global distribution of Christianity and Islam. [25]
4. Describe the distribution of religions in Africa and reasons why Indigenous Religion is decreasing in terms
of followers. [25]
5. Compare the global distribution and national distribution of religions in Zimbabwe. [25]

7
 Chapter
INDIGENOUS RELIGION
2
Chapter Objectives
By the end of the chapter, you should be able to:
•• identify the rites of passage in IR.
•• describe the regalia in IR.
•• identify sacred days in IR.
•• describe the significance of sacred days in IR.

Introduction
In this chapter, Indigenous Religion is discussed at length by looking at rituals, sacred days as well as attire in
Indigenous Religion. Indigenous Religion is a religion that originated with the great ancestors of the African
land and has been passed down from one generation to the other through oral tradition. Zimbabwe has
various indigenous groups of people of different tribes which include Shona, Ndebele, Venda, Tonga,
Xangani, Kalanga and Sotho whose religious beliefs and practices which are inherited from the ancestors
of Zimbabwe. As such, Indigenous Religion is a home-grown religion which originated with African
forefathers.

UNIT 2.1 RITES OF PASSAGE IN INDIGENOUS RELIGION

Rites of passage can be defined as practices which are done to show the transition from one stage of life
to the other. They mark an important turning point in life from birth, puberty, marriage and death and
rites give some form of identity and new status in life. These rites of passage vary from one religion to the
other. The different rites in Indigenous Religion ensures that people are equipped for every stage of life.
The different rites become important instruments which are used to ensure a smooth flow of the transition
of people from one level to the other.
(a) Birth rites
Birth is a rite of passage in Indigenous Religion because it marks the transition from one state to the other.
This is a transition from spiritual world of origin to the human world. It is believed that a child comes from
the spirit world. This rite initiates the child into the human world through a ritual. The child is believed to
be commissioned by the ancestors to come to the world and accomplish a particular task. Birth rites in
Zimbabwe are not universal, they differ according to the cultures of different tribes.
Rite of birth begin from the period a woman is pregnant and all the procedures which take place to ensure
that there is safe delivery of the baby. Precautions like the position of the birth in the womb and protection

8
from witches are then made to ensure safe delivery
of the baby. The baby is born under the observation
of a midwife who knows the family and a sacrifice is
offered to the ancestors since procreation is at the
centre of the ancestor’s interests.
There are different ways in which the placenta and
the umbilical cord are disposed among different
traditions in Zimbabwe, some bury it in the land
and others burn it in the fireplace. Burying the
umbilical cord reflects the relationship between
the newly born baby and his or her own land. This is
the reason why indigenous people are regarded as
mwana wevhu (son of the soil). The child is bathed
with water which would not have been boiled and
libations are made to ancestors. Among the Karanga
people, a child may also be taken to the grave site to Fig. 2.1 A ritual being done on a baby in Indigenous
dedicate the child to the ancestors. Religion

Kugadzira Nhova (Treatment of the fontanelle)

Indigenous people value the life of the baby treating the fontanelle which is known as kugadzira nhova
or ukwethesa inkanda. This is because when a child is born, the baby will have a soft spot on the top of
the head. There will be a space between the two skull-bone sutures joining forms a membrane-covered
soft spot called fontanelle. It takes a year to two years for the fontanelle to harden. In indigenous society,
fontanelle has various symptoms like vomiting after sulking milk from the mother as well as being weak,
eyes turn white and sores develop on the upper part of the mouth, the palate as well beneath the tongue.
And above all, the fontanelle is attributed to witches in Indigenous Religion.
As such a ritual is done to prevent the baby from dying soon after the birth of the baby due to fontanelle
as well as preventing witches from tampering with it. Herbs and medicated things are used as preventative
measure of fontanelle. In some Shona cultures they use a treatment known as kutara in treating fontanelle
which involve the father sliding his manhood from face left ear to right ear and back of the head to the
middle of the head. In Venda they use tshiudza to treat the fontanelle which are indigenous herbs before
the fall of the umbilical cord.

Case Study Birth rite of the Tonga people

The Tonga people are the indigenous people who
are found along the Zambezi River. Like other
indigenous communities, birth is a rite of passage
which connects the unborn with those born. When
a woman is pregnant she is given some traditional
medicine known as Matsvedza which ensure a safe
and smooth delivery of the baby by the midwives
known as vathumbusi. When the baby is born
under the supervision of the vathumbusi, the baby
is bathed in ritualised water which has some herbs
known as Mabakha to protect the baby from illness
as well as bad spirits.
Fig. 2.2 A Tonga menopausal woman

9
After that some deep incision (kutemera nyora) known as mberi is done with some medicine called masatho
to make that the child is strong.The child will be named within the first week after being born and it was
done by the grandparents of the baby. The name given is that of grandfathers or the father. The naming
ceremony is called kudumuliya mwana (naming the child). During the naming ceremony a goat is given to
the child by the person whose name would have been given to the child. The gift is given to the child for
perpetuating the name of the person whose name is given to the child.

Kusungira or Masungiro
This is a rite that is done for the first pregnancy of the newly married woman who is taken to her parents’
home to live with them from the sixth month of pregnancy until she gives birth. She is escorted by her
husband and other relatives with two goats. A male goat for the father which is killed during the rite
and the she goat for the mother which is kept alive. The he goat is supposed to be killed by the son-in
law on this ceremony. The mother, father, mother-in-law, father-in-law eat a meal together from the same
plate. The woman is left at her parents’ place under the guidance of a traditional midwife who monitors all
the problems associated with pregnancy like labour pains. She will be given traditional medicine by her
mother that will make her deliver without complications. The diet of the pregnant woman is monitored
and okra is given as her main diet during this period because it is believed that okra enables smooth and
quick delivery of the baby.
Soon after birth, the mother and the infant are kept in seclusion in a hut for about a week until the
umbilical cord drops. This was done to protect the child from evil spirits. During this period the child is
given medicine to strengthen it against evil spirits. The infant’s used bath water is secretly thrown away
to protect the child from witches. When the umbilical cord drops, medicine is smeared and the dropped
umbilical code is safely buried in soil by the father or grandmother but for some cultures they tie it on the
child’s waste during the seclusion period before it is thrown away. Before returning to her marital home
the child is named. At the naming ceremony the child is given gifts and the midwife is given a goat by the
father as an expression of gratitude. When the mother returns to her marital home she is welcomed by
gifts from relatives.
(b) Naming ceremony
In some indigenous cultures, naming of the child is a ritual that is done where the child is given the name
that has a close link with the family. For example, the naming ritual is done among the Shona people and
it is accompanied by dedication to ancestors. The naming of the child is done by the parents of the father.
The family members and relatives attend the naming ceremony who will hear the name of the child which
was given after a careful consideration by the grandparents. It is done to give identity to the child so that
the child will be recognised by the family, community and ancestors. In Venda, the father’s parents name
the baby, the baby is usually named after the things that the family or the community are concerned about
at that time. Furthermore, naming in Ndebele has a social significance. The name has to be meaningful and
the parents are the ones who give the name. Sometimes the child is named after his or her grandparents.
How children are given names in Indigenous Religion
Names are chosen from a wide number of situations which include:
•• Names reflecting the feeling of the parents. For example, Pedzai, Vengai, Svotwai.
•• Names relating to the time of birth. For example, Svondo, Mugovera, Friday.
•• Names which show religious feelings. For example, Anenyasha, Blessing, Sibongile.
•• Names which describe the child. For example, Ruvarashe, Beauty, Thandekile.
•• Names which describe the family’s background. For example, Nhamo, Shupikai, Tambudzai.

10
(c) Puberty rites
Puberty rites comprise of different initiation
ceremonies depending with the different societies
across Africa. It is conducted at different stages of a
person’s life. These rites are practiced by both young
boys and young girls. This is a rite of passage which
marks the changing of one’s social status.
This is a ceremony which marks the entry of
young boys and girls in the adolescent period to
adulthood. Puberty rites are marked by initiation
ceremony. Initiation is a process where the young
men and women goes through physical, emotional Fig. 2.3 Young girls at puberty age
and psychological changes.
Initiation ceremonies
Initiation in Zimbabwe is commonly practiced by the VaRemba, a Karanga ethnic group dominant in
Mberengwa, Chivi and Nyajena. Among the Xangani and the Remba people initiation of boys is Murundu
and that of girls is called khukhomba. It is a rite which marks the great transition from childhood to physical
maturity and boys and girls are separately taken to a secluded place for four weeks or more.
The initiation happens in a bush or at the house of
the traditional leader who conduct the initiation.
Initiation is done in winter (June and July) so that
boys would become physically fit. Boys’ initiation
is conducted by elderly males while that of girls is
conducted by elderly women.
It should be noted that the initiation of boys and girls
are done separately to explain issues of manhood
and womanhood. Boys are educated on how to be
good husbands to their wives, to provide for the
family and to make their wives happy. Boys are also
taught about the traditional history and cultural
songs. Before the completion of the initiation, boys
are circumcised using razor blades and knives.
After the healing of the circumcised wound, boys
are taught traditional education, various skills Fig. 2.4 Young Xangani men who have completed
like hunting, thatching and blacksmith. After the the initiation ceremony known as ngoma
completion of the initiation process the boy is given
a new name.
As for girls, they are transformed from a state of girlhood to womanhood. Initiation helps girls to understand
the process of menstruation and what it entails in terms of hygiene. Girls are also taught life skills and the
basic roles of a woman in society. Moreover, they are taught about issues of sexuality.
Girls are taught about the life of womanhood by elderly women. Virginity tests are also conducted. After the
initiation is complete, the young boys and girls would have graduated into adulthood life and a ceremony
would be done.

11
Importance of initiation include that:
•• an individual is recognised as an adult.
•• the boys and girls will now have the right to marry.
•• it bridges the youth stage and the adult stage.
•• it brings people together.
•• it offers education to the young people.
•• the boys will also have the right to acquire wealth in their name.
(d) Marriage rites
Marriage is the union between two adults, a male
and female for the reason of having children. It marks
the change of one’s status from single to married life.
It is an important stage of life which every individual
is expected to pass through whether male or female.
In traditional indigenous society there were various
ways in which one could get married. One could
get married through a formal marriage proposal
known as kukumbira, elopement, musengabere,
service marriage (kutema ugariri), child marriage
(Kuzvarira) and levirate marriage (chimutsa mapfiwa
and chigadza mapfiwa). However, today the forms of
marriage which are still being practiced is marriage
proposal and elopement. Other forms of marriages
have been abandoned because of human rights Fig. 2.5 Modern wedding ceremony for a newly
issues, HIV-AIDS scourge as well as cultural changes married couple
due to the influence of Christianity.
(i) Marriage proposal
The marriage process especially using the marriage proposal (kukumbira) way in Indigenous Religion has
various stages which are supposed to be followed. This marriage is the most respected and accepted form
of marriage which was done mainly by those with enough resources to propose for marriage because the
marriage is very expensive. It begins with the two young man and a woman proposing each other. If the
young man was not able to approach the girl whom he wants to marry he would send her sister or aunt
to propose on his behalf. When the lovers agree to marry, the young woman would visit the young men’s
family so that she makes an informed decision about the marriage in which she is ready to commit herself.
She was accompanied by her aunt in most cases.
(ii) Visiting the girl’s aunt
In indigenous societies, aunts are the one who played a role in the love affairs of their brother’s daughters.
Therefore, when a girl found a man who proposed to marry her, the boy or suitor is supposed to visit the
girl’s aunt. The aunt is the one who assess whether the boy is good or bad and would approve the proposal.
The aunt’s decision had a lot of power in these matters. So, a boy was supposed to please the aunt as well
so that the proposal may be accepted.
(iii) Payment of lobola
After the girl is satisfied together with the aunt, a date for marriage is planned and is informed to all
interested people. The boy would then find a go between mediator who was usually close to the family of
the bride. The go between would be the link between the groom’s family and the bride’s family. It is not

12
allowed to approach the parents of the bride directly as it is equivalent to lack of respect. So, the go between
will be told about the bride price which included beasts and one of which belonged to the mother and
negotiate on behalf of the groom. Before being told the bride price, a fee known as vhuramuromo is paid
for the parents of the bride to say out the bride price. After the payment of the portion of the bride price
which also included the beast which belonged to the mother, the two will then be joined as husband and
wife at a gathering known as mutimba. This is how the marriage proposal is done in Indigenous Religion.
When it comes to another common form of marriage known as elopement (kutizisa or kutizira), the
marriage was done by those with insufficient bride price as well as when the girl is pregnant without
formal proposal for marriage. In this marriage, a girl who is pregnant or who feels she wants to get married
elopes from her home to the home of her boyfriend. In her elopement the boy would send her sisters and
aunt to assist in the elopement of the girl. The parents of the girl were not supposed to know anything
about the whereabouts of their child until the go between (munyai) is sent with a message that the girl is at
her husband’s place (tsvakirai kuno). After the sending of the go between formal marriages arrangements
are made.
It is important to note that in indigenous society, marriage creates spiritual bonds between two people
who will be getting married. The bond can stretch beyond death of the married people. The different ways
of marriage reflect the importance of marriage in the Zimbabwean traditional societies.
What is the importance of marriage?
•• For setting up a family. The main goal for marriage in Indigenous Religion is to have children and
have a family which will help in the extension of the ancestral lineage. As such marriage becomes
more fruitful when there are children produced. It the role of marriage to set up a family through
bearing of children.
•• To create new relations is the other importance of family in Indigenous Religion. Through marriage
new relations are made between the husband’s family and the wife’s family. This means that one is
now related to all his or her spouses’ relatives.
•• Marriage connects the past, the present and the future generation. This means that the past who
are our forefathers are traced through children born in marriage and the future of the clan is also in
the hands of children born. Failure to marry means the end of the clan.
•• Marriage also serves the purpose of regaining the lost generation through mortality. If no children
are born the features and traits of the departed members of the family would not be seen again.
•• Improving one’s status is another significance of marriage in Indigenous Religion. For example, if a
girl is married she is no longer called by her name but by female praise name like Mandlovu.
•• Marriage improves the behaviour and personal attributes of the person. Attributes of Unhu like love,
hard work, caring and respect are inculcated because of marriage. The person becomes virtuous.
•• Enables one to become an ancestor if he or she dies after having children.
(d) Death
Death is the transition from the physical to spiritual life and there are rituals done associated with this
transition. There are several rituals which are conducted during the death of a person. The rituals begin as
soon as a person dies up to the time that particular person is buried.
(i) Folding
Soon after death, the corpse is placed in the right posture for burial. If one is confirmed dead, the dead
person is folded in a ritual which is called folding. Eyes are closed, hands and legs are straightened placing
them in the right posture for burial. This prepares the dead for the new journey to the world of the ancestors.

13
(ii) Washing
The corpse is washed, anointed with oil (chinu) and dressed in the best clothes. The washing and
anointment of the body is done because the Indigenous people believe that death is a journey and for one
to be welcomed into the world he or she is going one has to be presentable. Among the Karanga people,
the washing ceremony represent the cleansing of all the dirty of this world. One must go into world of
ancestors whilst looking smart. The body is placed in the coffin and a night vigil is performed in memory
of the deceased where mourners will sing and dance. Usually the vigil is done in a kitchen because of its
connection with the ancestors.
(iii) Killing of a beast
During the funeral a beast is killed, the beast is known as nhevedzo. The beast can be a cow or goat. The
animal is dedicated to the ancestors and is paving way for the deceased into the world of the ancestors.
It accompanies the deceased as he or she will be meeting the ancestors in the new world. The beast also
serves the purpose of feeding the people. People are encouraged to eat the food to ensure that they
are in solidarity with the ancestors. Failure to eat the food at the funeral will anger the deceased and the
ancestors.
(iv) Burial
What starts is the marking of the grave which is
known as kutema rukawo which was done by a close
relative. This is done by a relative since they believe
that a relative is given a place to stay by a relative not
by a stranger. After the completion of the digging
of the grave, burial would be possible to take place.
Among the Shona people burial is done either in the
morning or late afternoon and it is a taboo to bury
someone at midday. This is because the indigenous
people believe that ancestors have a timetable as
they operate between 4 am and 12 noon as well as
from 2pm to 10pm. So, it is a taboo to bury someone
between 12 noon to 2 pm because the ancestors
would be far away. Burying the deceased outside
the stipulated time result in the punishment of the
culprit by the chief for offending the ancestors who Fig. 2.5 Burial Proceedings
are the owners of the land in which one is buried.
Before going to the burial site, ancestors are informed that the deceased is now being taken for burial and
should be welcomed by the ancestors. The body is taken outside the hut where mourners will take turns
to view the body. When body viewing is over the coffin bearers lead the procession to the grave site and
they stop at intervals. This is done because in Indigenous Religion the dead person can also get tired hence
stopping at intervals. The carrying of the coffin is done by close relatives. Songs are sung as people make
a procession to the grave site. The daughters in laws perform a ritual called nzveura where they imitate the
deceased.
Before the covering of the grave with soil, the ancestors are informed as men clap hands and women
ululate. Selected people will make some speeches testifying the goodness of the deceased as well as
briefing mourners on how the deceased died. After some speeches at the grave site, preparations are made
to lower the corpse into the grave. A reed mat (rupasa or rukukwe) is in some places cut into halves and
laid on the floor of the grave as bedding for the corpse. This shows the dignity of the sleeping person to be

14
buried. Close relatives throw a handful of soil into the grave as a way of casting away evil and misfortune
saying, ‘zorora murugare or famba zvakanaka’ which literally means rest in peace or have a safe journey
to the spirit world. During burial various items or objects are put into the grave. These objects include
weapons, tools, tobacco, beads and utensils. All these objects are meant for use by the deceased on his
journey to the spirit world.
After burial mourners return to the homestead of the deceased for feeding but before entering into the
homestead, all mourners who took part in the burial proceedings are ritually cleansed with medicated
water. This is done because the Shona believe that the dead corpse defiles the living because its not yet
tamed and it’s dangerous as well as evil such that all mourners and equipment used during burial should
be ritually cleansed. All mourners except close relatives will then be allowed to leave.

Activity 2.1 Research Assignment

Ask the elders from your village how different rites of passage were conducted in your culture. What are the
changes in the contemporary practices? If there are changes, what are the causes of the changes?

Activity 2.2 Role play

Imagine you are an elderly person in your community, write a speech to address the young boys who will be
attending the initiation period in your community. Highlight the importance of the process they will be going
through.

Exercise 2.1
1. Define rites of passage [2]
2. List any 3 rites of passage in Indigenous Religion. [3]
3. Where do indigenous people in Zimbabwe find names to name their children? [2]
4. State the importance of masungiro (first pregnancy ritual). [2]
5. Describe the death rituals in the Indigenous Religion. [8]

UNIT 2.2 ATTIRE IN INDIGENOUS RELIGION

Attire refers to clothes of a special kind that are worn on a special occasion or formal occasion. The interface
between religion, culture, and attire is fascinating. Attire can be a window into the religious and social
world, which is bound by a tacit set of rules, customs, conventions, and rituals. In many religions, clothing
is an important symbol of religious identification. Religious identity is seen through attire because people
use self-presentation and self-promotion to visually present identity that is congruent with their belief
systems.

Generally, the attire associated with Indigenous Religion shows the status of one in Society. Chiefs, healers,
elderly men and women wear clothing which resemble their status in society as well as their religious
significance. Mediums wear black and white clothes accompanied with some beads. Some wear animal
skins like those of a leopard, lion, python and as well as a staff. There is attire used by healers and mediums
which is put on during spirit possession and is usually stored in a hut because a hut is sacred in Indigenous
Religion. As for chiefs they are always in their attire as it shows status and position. As such, attire in
Indigenous Religion can be classified into three classes which include royalty attire, religious attire and the
general attire for men and women.

15
(a) Royalty attire (Chief’s attire)
A chief is a representative of ancestors. The attire of
the chief is unique as it shows the status or position
of the Chief in society. It is because of this that the
chiefs in Indigenous Religion have attire which is
symbolic and distinct. The attire of the chief in Shona
include Lion skin, leopard skin which symbolised
power and royalty as well as a staff or walking stick
which symbolised authority. The Shona chief also
wear a head gear known as ndoro. In Ndebele the
chief or king wears a leopard skin, a head band and
an induku (staff ) completes the attire.
However, the current inherited colonial attire of
chiefs is composed of red and purple gown, a white Fig. 2.6 Chief Rekai Tangwena in traditional chief’s
helmet, a breast plate, a name badge and walking attire comprising of a leopard skin and a hat
stick.
This attire for the white people symbolised a lot of
things. The red and purple gown represent royalty,
helmet symbolise the crown or rule of the chief, the
breast plate represented confidentiality, the name
badge is for self-identification while the walking
stick represent power.
The attire of chiefs is important for various reasons
which include the following:
•• Attire of chiefs is a symbol of power and
authority. This is cemented by the idea that
they wear animal skins of a lion or leopard
which are authoritative animals.
•• It also shows the dignity of the chief: the
attire of the chief is very important as it
depicts the dignity of the chief. His attire is
full of dignity and it is not ordinary. Fig. 2.7 Chiefs in modern day dressing
•• It ensured respect from the community.
(b) Religious attire
This is the attire worn by religious practitioners such as traditional healers and spirit mediums. They
wear clothing with animal skins, adornments of snakes, hyenas, birds and supernatural objects as well as
ornaments to signify their spirituality. Their modern clothes include white and black clothes. Diviners and
mediums are prohibited to wear metal ornaments like watches, necklaces and bracelets and sometimes
shoes.
The attire which is worn by traditional healers has a lot of significance which include the following:
•• Black represents the indigenous people, this shows an identity of being Africans and Zimbabwean
in particular.
•• White represents the purity of the soul, this reflects the purity of the traditional healers.

16
 •• Animal’s skins represent the sacredness of those animals as they represent ancestors.
•• A staff is symbol of authority.
•• It ensured spirit possession, for example if a medium is in his or her attire that is when the spirit may
possess her. This shows the link between attire and spirit possession.
•• It also shows the authenticity of the religious practitioner. Attire of religious practitioner makes
people to believe that he or she is religious personnel.
•• It makes diviners and mediums respected by the people.

Fig. 2.8 Religious people during a ceremony in their religious ceremonial attire

(c) Occasional dressing in Indigenous Religion

Shona dressing
Attire has a deeper meaning to occasions
associated with Indigenous Religion. It means more
than an attire as it is not used only to remember
historical events and assert social identity but to
pass an information about the special occasion.
In Indigenous Religion the attire of women differs
with age and marital status. Married women are
supposed to put on a wrap-around cloth (zambia)
and a veil or head wrap (dhuku) for dignity as well as
necklaces and bracelets for beautification.
During mourning rituals women are supposed to
put on a wrap-around cloth and a veil as a sign of
respect. To add more, the spouse of the deceased is
supposed wear black which symbolises mourning.
On wedding occasion, the indigenous people have
adopted white colour as a symbol of purity. During Fig. 2.9 Attire worn by women in Indigenous society
other normal life activities, a married woman is which comprises of a wraparound cloth and
supposed to be put on a veil and a wraparound head wrap
cloth while girls do not put on such an attire to
symbolise that they are not attached to anyone.

17
Ndebele dressing

Fig. 2.10 Sandra Ndebele in Ndebele attire which is Fig. 2.11 Attire of married women
beaded

Ndebele people also have indigenous cultural practices with distinct attire. Women’s attire is characterised
by ornaments and beads to symbolise the status of a member in the society. Beads were used as a form of
money during ancient times and wearing them is a symbol of wealth. After wedding women in Ndebele
wear copper and brass rings around the arms, legs and neck symbolising bond and devotion to their
husband.
Women whose husbands have not been provided
with a house after initiation ceremony wear brass
circles of woven grass with beads called isigolwani.
The birth of the first child is celebrated by Ndebele
women by wearing a special apron called ijogolo.
Married women wear a blanket (nguba) on their
shoulders which is decorated with beads.
A headgear is also put on by married women in
Ndebele. Little girls wear beaded apron or skirts.
Men in Ndebele wear animal skin aprons, beaded
breast plate which hangs from the neck known
as iporiyana which is a symbol of manhood and is
given to the young men by his father after he had
undergone an initiation. The head bands and ankle
bands also complete the attire of the Ndebele men.
To keep warm animal skin is put on the shoulders.
Animal attire for men is significant among the
Ndebele because each Ndebele group is associated
with different animal. It is because of this that Fig. 2.12 Attire of a warrior in Ndebele
animals are of great value in Indigenous Religion.

18
Xangani
Zimbabwe is home to Xangani people who are
found in the South-East of the Lowveld. They wear a
chibabela or xibelana skirt which is heavily gathered
and beaded worn under bright colours and
displayed on dancing occasions. They also put on
an attire which is comprised of veil (duku), necklace
(vuhlalu) which is usually more than one, the shirt
(yele), earrings, the stomach belt (nkhamu) and the
queens (ti queen).
Activity 2.3 Practical Exercise
Sew or make some attires which are used in the
indigenous communities. Present your products in
class. Fig. 2.13 Xangani attire

Exercise 2.2
Answer the following questions with either True or False
1. Attire helps in religious identity. [1]
2. Wearing of leopard’s skin or lion’s skin by the chief symbolises power and royalty. [1]
3. Diviners and mediums are not prohibited to wear metal ornaments like watch, necklaces and bracelets
and sometimes shoes. [1]
4. Married women in indigenous society should wear whatever they want. [1]

UNIT 2.3 SACRED DAYS IN INDIGENOUS RELIGION

A sacred day is a day set aside for veneration of the ancestors or the Supreme Being or considered as
worthy to accord ancestors respect or devotion. Sacred days are chosen by the elders of the land. Most
sacred days in Zimbabwean communities were selected by the ancestors. On sacred days, indigenous
people respect the owners of the land by avoiding any form of work that is deemed as offensive to the
ancestors like tilling the land and fetching.
There are several days which are regarded as sacred among different groups in Zimbabwe. These days
must be respected by all the members of the community or visitors of that particular community when
they visit. This shows reverence to the ancestors as well as the chiefs in those areas. In Indigenous Religion
there is no single pattern in terms of the sacred days which are followed. Therefore, sacred days in IR differ
from one tribe to the other depending with the geographical locations of a particular group of people.
(a) Chisi (Ancestral rest day)
Chisi is an indigenous Sabbath day which is observed in different communities across the Zimbabwean
cultural boundaries. People in different communities celebrate the day on different days. The ancestral
spirits (midzimu or amadlozi) of a particular group of people determine when chisi is supposed to be
observed. Chisi is a day of traditional rest day, people show respect for the land by not working on the
fields. Many Shona groups observe chisi on Thursday.
Among the people in Gutu, Thursday is a day which was instituted by Gutu the great ancestor of the

19
Madyira people after he had conquered the area now known as Gutu. Some observe it on Friday while
others for instance in Zaka observe it on Friday.
Working on a sacred day is not only a sign of disrespecting ancestors but also chiefs who are the custodian
of the land. Therefore, working on a sacred day would result in one being brought before the chief’s court
and made to pay a fine in form of goats and beer “mupeta wedoro”. Beer is part of the fine because it is used
to appease the ancestors who would have been offended by the offender who worked on the sacred day.
(b) Day of chief’s death
The day when the chief dies people are exempted from work as they mourn the chief. This makes the day
sacred since the deceased is believed to be a new ancestor for the tribe. A chief is also considered as a
traditional leader who was installed by the ancestors. The chief may be mourned for several days which
means the days of mourning are sacred. Considering the mourning days as sacred shows reverence to the
religious institutions in the traditional days.
(c) The day when the member of the family dies
The day when a family member dies is a sacred day for a particular family of the deceased. People in
Indigenous Religion do not go to work as they mourn the deceased relative. They do what is known as
mahakurimwi, this is a period considered sacred in Indigenous Religion. This is common in all tribes in
the different Zimbabwean communities. Nowadays, the sacredness of the mourning days is still being
observed. People who go to work are given days-off at their work place so that they mourn the deceased
until the day of burial. In Zaka, this is observed on the day of burial.All members of the community are not
allowed to go to work in the fields.
(d) A day when there is a funeral in the community
When there is a funeral in the community, the days of the funeral are considered as sacred. All members of
the community are expected to attend the funeral. They are supposed to mourn together with the family
of the deceased person. Respecting the days of a funeral shows that, the members of the community are
in harmony with the deceased as well as the relatives of the deceased.
(e) Days when people hold ceremonies such as rainmaking ceremony
Rainmaking ceremony (mukwerera) is an important sacred ceremony in the Zimbabwean communities.
As such the day rainmaking ceremony was done is considered as a sacred day. There is no specific day the
ceremony will be held such as Monday or Tuesday, the day is selected by the elders in a community and
people have to respect that day respectively. On this day people should focus on asking for rain from the
ancestors and Mwari. In cases where people had defiled the environment or land, people had to ask for
forgiveness so that the rain may come. As such observing rainmaking ceremony day as a sacred day profits
the whole community and would avoid famine.
It will also unify the ancestors and the people in a particular community due to the fact that there will be
in harmony.
(f) The first day of eating first fruits or fresh fruits
In indigenous communities, the day when people gather the first fruits is sacred. Among the Kalanga people
the first fruits are called zhezha. On this particular day, the community collects different types of fruits and
crops from different individual fields together. They gather and eat these together as a community in the
fields.

20
 Activity 2.4 Further Research
Ask the elders in your community about the other sacred days which are important in your traditional societies

Exercise 2.3
1. A day of rest in Indigenous Religion is called___________ [1]
2. A sacred day was selected with __________of the land. [1]
3. The custodian of a sacred day in Indigenous Religion is the _______. [1]
4. What is the importance of rainmaking ceremony? [2]
5. What is the importance of the first day of eating first fruits in Indigenous Religion? [1]

Interesting facts
1. African Indigenous Religion has no missionaries.
2. Some traditional healers can heal and at the same time harm people.
Summary of the chapter
• Indigenous Religion is the religion of the native people.
• There are various rites associated with birth, puberty, marriage and death in Indigenous Religion.
• Rites of passage in Indigenous religion vary from one culture to the other.
• Names given in Indigenous religion have a meaning and historical significance.
• Initiation is a rite of passage which marks the transition from childhood to adulthood.
• Attire in Indigenous Religion is symbolic.
• The chiefs’ attire symbolise power and royalty.
• Dressing or attire has a link with life situation for instance, dressing for a wedding, mourning and
rituals.
• There are sacred days in Indigenous Religion and they vary from place to place.
• Sacred days were chosen by ancestors through mediums and the chief is the custodian of the
sacred day.
Glossary of terms
Attire – is the dress code associated with a particular religion.
Chisi (sacred day) – i t is a holy day associated with a particular clan or tribe. They vary from place to
place.
Fontanelle – is the soft spot that is found on top of the newly born baby known as Nhova.
Head wrap – is a cloth that is put in the head of a woman as a sign of being married.
Khukhomba – is an initiation ceremony of girls in Xangani and Remba cultures.
Medium – is the person who acts as a link between the spirit world and the human world.
Naming ceremony – i s an event where children are given names in Indigenous Religion soon after
birth.
Post marital rite – these are practices which are done after the marriage of a woman.
Royalty – it is the power and rank given to the chief.

21
Revision Exercises
Structured Questions
1. Rites of passage involves the participation of people in ceremonies that mark their induction
into new roles.
(a) What are rites of passage? [2]
(b) List any four stages in indigenous communities which require a rite of passage. [4]
(c) Give four reasons why rites of passage are important in Indigenous Religion. [6]
(d) Explain rites of passages associated with death in Indigenous Religion. [8]
2. Religious practitioners are seen with distinct attire in Indigenous Religion.
(a) Define attire. [2]
(b) List four items associated with Indigenous Religion attire. [4]
(c) Explain the significance of the staff as part of the attire. [6]
(d) Describe the role of attire indigenous religion. [8]
3. Indigenous religion value sacred days.
(a) Define a sacred day. [2]
(b) List any four events which can create sacred days in Indigenous Religion. [4]
(c) Explain the reasons why sacred days were put in place in Indigenous Religion. [6]
(d) Describe how sacred days are observed in Indigenous Religion. [4]
4. Mourning rituals require a distinct attire.
(a) Define mourning rituals. [2]
(b) List any four items put on during mourning. [4]
(c) Describe the importance of attire in mourning. [6]
(d) Explain message presented by attire in Indigenous Religion. [8]
5. Dedication to ancestors marks the beginning of birth rite in Indigenous Religion.
(a) Define a birth rite. [2]
(b) List four thing which are done when a baby is born in Indigenous Religion. [4]
(c) Explain the role of the mother during various birth rites. [6]
(d) Describe the importance of various birth rites in Indigenous Religion. [8]

Essay Questions
1. Describe different rites of passage in Indigenous Religion. [25]
2. Analyse the importance of rites of passage in Indigenous Religion. [25]
3. Discuss the symbolism of attire in Indigenous Religion. [25]
4. Describe the attire of women in Indigenous Religion. [25]
5. Discuss the significance of sacred days in Indigenous Religion. [25]

22
 Chapter
JUDAISM
3
Chapter Objectives
By the end of the chapter, you should be able to:
• identify the rites of passage in Judaism.
• Identify sacred attire in Judaism.
• describe the significance of sacred attire in Judaism.
• state sacred days in Judaism.
• describe the importance of sacred days in Judaism.

Introduction
Judaism is the religion of the patriarchs and is monotheistic. It is one of the Abrahamic religions which has
distinct rites of passage, attire and sacred day. In this chapter we discuss Judaism by focusing on three
important components of Judaism namely; rites of passage, attire and sacred days. These are important
things which make Judaism a distinct religion.

UNIT 3.1 RITES OF PASSAGE IN JUDAISM

As previously explained a rite of passage is a practice which marks the transition from one stage of life to
the other. In Judaism there are rites passage associated with birth, puberty, marriage and death. These
rites have a lot of significance which makes them an essential aspect in the Jewish traditions.
(a) Birth of a son and ritual circumcision (Brit Milah)
Birth rite refers to a ceremony or rituals done to welcome a child into the family and society. As such, a
birth rite is a sacred ceremony done as a reception to the new born baby. In Judaism, male circumcision is
done to mark the ceremony. In Judaism it is a religious requirement, based on a divine command: “This is
my covenant which you shall keep; every male among you shall be circumcised, and you shall be circumcised in
the flesh of your foreskin” (Genesis 17:10 - 11).
It is the first life-cycle ritual that is mentioned in the Torah. It signifies a commitment by the Jewish people
to the divine being, recorded as a physical sign on the body. The circumcision is carried out on the eighth
day after birth, or later if medical reasons make postponement advisable. The operation takes place in the
midst of family and friends, symbolising the community’s welcome to the new-born child. Prayers and
benedictions are recited, a Hebrew name is bestowed on the child, and all present express the wish that
he may progress from one sacred moment of his life to another, particularly to marriage and good deeds.

23
A Jewish baby boy is rarely left uncircumcised, even among those who are not strict in their observance of
other Jewish practices. The child is circumcised on the eighth day from birth. For example John the Baptist
was circumcised on the eighth day as per the Jewish religion.
(b) The Birth of a Daughter
The birth of a daughter is celebrated as an entrance
into the covenant of the Jewish people and its
known as the b’rit bat. This was done either at home
or in the synagogue on the eighth day when a rabbi
or cantor led the service by reading the Torah. The
daughter will be blessed by the mother and the
father. The reading of the Torah in the synagogue
on the first Sabbath (or Monday or Thursday -
when the Torah is read) after the birth. A blessing
is pronounced and the baby’s name is announced
and the blessing from the rabbi or cantor follows.
Some drops of wine or grape will be given to the
child and after which the cup is shared by the
parents and relatives. A festive meal may follow the
b’rit bat which is a ceremony where celebration is Fig. 3.1 The circumcision ritual in Judaism
done to mark entrance into the covenant of the
Jewish people.
(c) Purification ritual after giving birth in Judaism
After giving birth, a woman is considered as ritually unclean or contaminated through child birth. According
to Leviticus 12:1-8, a woman is ritually unclean for seven days and it requires 33 days of purification when
she gives birth to a son. If she gives birth to a girl, it makes a woman ritually unclean for 14 days and it
requires 66 days of purification.
(d) Bar Mitzvah
‘Bar Mitzvah’ literally mean ‘son of the mitzvot’ (commandments). When a Jewish boy reaches the age of 13,
whether he ‘celebrates’ it or not, he is now bound to live by the commandments of the Torah. His obligations
include personal responsibility for observance of these, and his privileges include the right to be called to
read the Torah, the right to be counted as one of the ten adult males required for full synagogue services
in Orthodoxy Judaism.
The bar mitzvah event is marked by the boy being called to the reading of the Torah in the synagogue.
He reads the weekly portion from the scrolls of the Torah (the Five Books of Moses) and usually also reads
that week’s lesson from the Prophets (called the Haphtarah). The reading is in the Hebrew language and
is chanted in the ancient melody, the phrases of which are shown as symbols in the printed version of the
Bible in Hebrew. Sometimes the bar mitzvah boy also leads part or all of the service. In order to fulfil these
duties, the boy usually studies for approximately a year before his Bar mitzvah.
(e) Menstrual purification (Mikvah)
Leviticus 15 serves as the basis of understanding the Jewish menstrual rites. In Judaism mensuration is
viewed negatively as such women are separated from others. So, a woman is not allowed to enter the
temple. Any woman who is in mensuration condition is required to perform some rituals for her to be
considered as pure or holy. This ritual is done when a woman is dipped into natural water for seven days
after the completion of her menstrual cycle. This ritual will enable women to go the temple and synagogues
so as to worship. Without this ritual one is regarded as defiled hence the need for purification.

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(e) Marriage rites
Marriage is a contractual bond commanded by
God in which a man and a woman come together
to create a relationship in which God is directly
involved. Judaism has two marriage ceremonies
and these are betrothal and the actual wedding.
Betrothal ceremony (Erusin or Kiddushin)
Betrothal is a legal requirement for marriage in
Judaism and it can only be dissolved through a
formal divorce proceeding yet the woman remained
in her father’s custody at the father’s house. It
involves the payment of Mohar (bride price) which
would later necessitate the woman to move to her
groom’s house. Betrothal celebration is followed by Fig. 3.2 The wedding of a Jewish couple
the signing of the marriage contract (ketubah).
The signing of the marriage contract is characterized by the groom giving the bride a valued thing like a
small coin known as the prutah and declare in the presence of two witnesses, “Be thou consecrated to me,
be thou betrothed to me, be thou my wife”. After betrothal one is considered a property of the groom and
cannot fall in love with the other man.
Actual Wedding (Chuppah)
The second ceremony in Jewish marriage is the actual wedding. It happened after a year from betrothal.
It started with the procession escorting the bride to the groom’s house. Upon arrival the seven blessings
“Sheva berekot” are recited over a cup of wine. The reception in honour of the bride and groom is done
known as kabbalat panim. This begins by the reception of the bride. The friends and family approach and
offer their heartfelt wishes and words of encouragement. The groom’s reception is characterised by songs
and words of the Torah are delivered. They conclude the ceremony by reading the tenaim, the mother’s
bride and groom break a glass plate.
The veiling ceremony (badeken) is done after the Kabbalat panim in which a procession headed by the
groom goes to the bridal reception room where the groom covers the bride’s face with a veil. The veil
emphasize that the groom is not interested in the external beauty of the bride which does not last but
on inner beauty. The bride’s face remains veiled for the duration of the ceremony, affording her privacy at
this holy time. After the groom veils the bride, the parents of the bride and groom approach the bride and
bless her. The groom’s relatives and friends who form the entourage then retreats from the room.
Importance of marriage in Judaism
Marriage is an important institution in Judaism. It is not only a personal undertaking but a religious and
communal undertaking as well.
As such marriage is important in Judaism because of several reasons which include:
•• Companionship is the first importance of marriage in Judaism. Jews marry for friendship and
fellowship. The idea of friendship between husband and wife is of paramount importance in
Judaism. This is the reason why Adam was given Eve as a helper and friend.
•• Intimacy is when the two, husband and wife offer love to each other. Sexual intimacy is only catered
for in Judaism through marriage. As such marriage is important in offering couples the opportunity
to be intimate with each other.

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 •• Creation of family: according to the Jewish tradition, children are made in marriage and not outside
marriage. The family is important in Judaism as it resembles God’s relationship with his chosen
people is modelled around the family. As such, the family is made through marriage. According to
Genesis 1:28, “be fruitful and multiply” shows that the purpose of marriage is for procreation.
•• It is a contribution to religious obligation. Marriage is not personal but also sacred among the
Jewish people. It is because of this reason that marriage is a religious command by God.
(f) Death and mourning rites
In Judaism they believe that death is a result of sin. As such before a person dies he has to confess his sins
because they believe that death is caused by sin. The last words of the dying person are respected. The way
a person dies determines the kind of life to come. For example, if a person dies in laughter or on the eve of
the Sabbath day it is believed that he or she will be going to paradise while the person who dies weeping
and at the close of the Sabbath day symbolically represent a bad omen. So, the following rites are done.
•• Eyes and mouth of the deceased is gently closed by the son or close relative.
•• The hands are aligned to the body. That posture is done to stimulate the allusion of being sleep as
well as ensuring that the body is placed in the coffin without any difficult.
•• The body is ritually cleansed and anointed with oil. This symbolises consecration because Jews are
God’s chosen people which makes them the holy people of God.
•• Wrapping and binding is done according to gender. This implies that, the male is wrapped and
banded by the males and females by females.
•• After wrapping and binding the body should not be left unattended.
•• Mourners make a procession to the burial site which was usually a rock cut site.
•• The corpse is carried by the bier.
•• The body is laid into the grave by close relatives especially male relatives.
•• The grave site could be guarded.
•• Relatives should mourn the deceased for seven days known as Shiv’ah. During this period relatives
would abstain from sex.
•• Immediate family members continue with mourning for thirty days known as Shloshim.

Activity 3.1 Drama

Dramatize the marriage process in Judaism. Your drama should have the two families, one of the bride and the
other of the groom, a religious official, the wedding couple and other relatives. Your drama should not exceed
fifteen minutes.

Activity 3.2 ICT Tools

Visit YouTube and find videos with different rites of passage in Judaism.

Exercise 3.1
1. Circumcision is done after how long from the birth of a boy in Judaism.
A. Two days B. fourteen days
C. eight days D. One day.
2. How is the birth of daughter celebrated in Judaism?
A. Killing of that baby.
B. Reading of the Torah on the first Sabbath after birth.
C. Eating and drinking.
D. Staying away from home.

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3. Bar Mitzvah is celebrated at which age?
A. 1 Year. B. 7 years.
C. 18 years. D. 13 years.
4. What is the main purpose of menstrual purification?
A. Enable women to go to the temple and synagogues to worship.
B. Enable women to sleep well.
C. Enable women to have sexual relationships.
D. None of the above.
5. The signing of the marriage contract is known as __________.
A. Shiddukim. B. Mikvah.
C. Ketubah. D. Haphtarah.

UNIT 3.2 ATTIRE IN JUDAISM

Attire are clothes worn by religious practitioners at religious ceremonies. As such, attire has long played
a significant role in Judaism, reflecting religious identification, social status, emotional state and even
the Jews’ relation with the outside world. Basically, there are three basic items worn by male believers in
Judaism. The head covering (Kippah), prayer shawl (tallit) and phylacteries (tellifin).
1. Head covering (Kippah)
Kippah means dome and it is a head covering put
on Jewish men’s head. The other name for this head
covering is skull cap. This head covering is made of
cloth and it is a brimless cap. It is worn by Jewish
men to fulfil their customary traditions. To add on,
the skull cap is put on all the time except when
sleeping and bathing. When eating, reading the
Torah and scriptures, praying as well as entering a
sacred place like the synagogue. It is worn as a sign
of inner respect for God. The Kippah also reminds
Jews that God has a higher authority. Fig. 3.3 Kippah (head covering) in the head of Jew in
2. Prayer shawl (Tallit) Zimbabwe

It is a fringed garment worn by Jewish males under or over the clothing of a male Jew. A prayer shawl is
rectangular. It is sacred attire which is never worn in a bathroom and it should be worn by people leading
prayer services in a synagogue. The significance of wearing a prayer shawl is to remind the Jews of the
commandments of the Torah.
Numbers 15 vs.37-40 says “speak to the people of Israel and bid them to make tassels on the corners of their
garments throughout their generations…you shall remember and do all my commandments…” So, a prayer
shawl is a reminder of the commandments of God.

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 Fig. 3.4 A prayer shawl

3. Phylacteries (Tefillin)
These are two small leather boxes that contain
the verses from the Torah that are put on the head
between the eyes and upper arm near the elbow
of a Jew every weekday. According to Deuteronomy
6 vs.8 “And you shall bind them as a sign upon your
hand and they shall be as frontlets between your
eyes…” The phylacteries are sacred and they are
worn to remind the Jews of the law.
Religious personalities in Judaism wear unique
clothes from each other. Prophets, priest, high
priests, scribes, rabbis, men and women have their Fig. 3.5 Jewish men wearing Phylacteries (Tefillin) on
own specific clothing. the forehead and the left arm

Attire of religious practitioners

(a) Prophets
Prophets wear robes which are known as addereth. It is made of wool, linen, animal skins and sometimes
silk. This robe symbolise the glory of God and great dignity. John the Baptist wore such type of attire.
(b) Priests
Priests are considered important in Judaism. The ephod, breastplate and tzitz form part of the basic attire
of the priest in Judaism. An ephod is a vest which has two stones on which the names of the twelve tribes
of Israel are written. The second component of the priest’s attire is the breast plate known as the hoshen
ha-mishpat which the priest wore on the chest. The breast plate has twelve stones arranged in four rows
of three. On the breast plate are features of Urim and Thumim stones which function as a way of learning
God’s will. Lastly the tzitz is part of the attire of the priest. It is a small metal plate which was put on the
forehead of Aaron.

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 Gold Plate Turban
‘Holy to the LORD’

Two Onyx Stones

Tunie

12 Stones with Breastpiece

names of twelve
tribes of Israel Sash

Ephod

Bells and Blue Robe

Pomegranates

Fig. 3.6 The attire of a priest

Symbolism of the attire of the priest

The attire worn by the priest is symbolic in nature. Every component of the attire meant something.
•• Tunic boxed stitches symbolise readiness to reach the final goal.
•• Belt symbolise preparation.
•• Turban meant one is forgiven for hidden thoughts.
•• Blue clock meant that one is highly spiritual.
•• Bells symbolise cleansing of sins made by proclamation of speech.
•• Breast plate symbolise that one has united with the various tribes of Israel.
•• Stones symbolise the importance of the twelve tribes to Yahweh (God).
•• Gold plate symbolise the atonement of corrupted thoughts.
1. High priests
The high priests have two garments which are part of their regalia. These two garments were put on
different occasions. The first garment is known as the golden garment which was made of purple, blue,
scarlet and fine lines as well as gold (Exodus 28 vs. 1-35 and 39 vs. 1-26).
The second type of garment is the plain (white) linen garment which was put on by Aaron and his sons
(Exodus 28: 39-43 and 39:27-29). This garment was worn when priests were officiating in the atonement
service on the Day of Atonement. It was considered proper and modest not to wear golden garments
when asking for the forgiveness of sins for the people (Leviticus 16:4).
This garment symbolised humility before God. Both garments worn by priests are considered sacred. Just
like the priest, the high priest also put on an ephod, breast plate, small metal plate, robe and a diadem.

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 Mitre Blue Lacer
Exodus 28:38-39 Exodus 28:38-39

Golden Clasp
Exodus 28:7,9 -14 Breastplate
Exodus 28:15-29
Urim-Thummin
Exodus 28:30

Linen Cirdle
Linen Breeches
Exodus 39:29
Exodus 28:42 - 43

Curious Girdle Upper Robe

Exodus 28:8 Exodus 28:31-35

Ephod
Exodus 28:5-7 Golden Bells
Pomegranates
Exodus 28:31-35
Linen Robe
Exodus 28:4

Fig. 3.7 The attire of a high priest

2. Rabbis and canters

These are teachers and they wear skull caps, prayer shawl (tallit) and tefillin.
(a) Men
The attire of men in Judaism reflects religious identity. They wear a garment called a Kittel which is white in
colour which they wear at occasions like weddings, during Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur. They also cover
their head with skull caps while some cover with black hats which is also called shtreimel. Prayer shawl and
tefillin complete men’s attire in Judaism. Some men especially of the Hasidic communities put a belt called
a gartel during prayer.
(b) Women
The attire of women is well stipulated in the Torah. The dressing has to be modest (Tznius dressing) which
is seen by hair covering. The hair should be covered by the veil for married women as a sign that they are
no longer single. Jewish married women wear a scarf, a hat, a beret or a sheitel (wig) which shows that they
are married. This dressing should have sleeves which cover the elbows and the skirts covering knees. Only
the face and hands should be exposed. The rest of the body parts should be covered.

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Meaning of colours worn by religious practitioners
The colours of attire are different and had deeper meaning in Judaism.
•• Gold represent the purity of the heart.
•• Red represent the animal aspect of men or physical nature of men.
•• Blue represents the spirituality of heaven.
•• Purple represent that men is both physical and spiritual.
•• White represent pure and untarnished or that the person has no sins.
Significance of attire in Judaism
Attire in Judaism is not only for religious identity but also a sign of modest and submissiveness to God. As
such attire in Judaism is significant in that:
•• It differentiates religious office. This means that prophets wear clothes which are associated with
prophetic office while priests also wear garments which are in line with priestly office. Priestly
office which has its origins from the house of Aaron has attire which has a close association with
Aaron.
•• It helps in identitying religious personnel. There are various religious practitioners who are
identified with attire which is unique.
•• It enables one to communicate with God. Attire has some sacredness associated with it and it is
put on when one is performing a religious function. For example, when a priest is in the temple
asking for the remission of sins of the Jews, priestly attire is put on.
•• It makes one committed to the work of God. Attire worn by religious personnel in Judaism has
spiritual significance. When a religious practitioner is wearing the religious attire, it makes him to
be committed to the task at hand.

Activity 3.3 Group Work

In small groups of 5, discuss about the significance of religious attire in Judaism

Exercise 3.2
1. The attire of men in Judaism reflects religious identity.
(a) What is religious identity? [2]
(b) List any four items put on as attire by men in Judaism. [4]
(c) Explain what Jews teach about attire. [6]
(d) Discuss the role of attire in Judaism. [8]

UNIT 3.3 SACRED DAYS

There are so many sacred days and months in Judaism which are set aside for remembrance as well as a
sign that they are God’s chosen people. Below is a reflection of the sacred days and months in Judaism.
These holy days are scheduled according to the Jewish calendar.
The Jewish calendar is not based on the earth’s revolutions around the sun, as the secular calendar is.
Instead, the Jewish calendar is made up of moon cycles, each month beginning with the time of the new
moon. Jewish holidays fall each year on different dates according to the secular calendar, but on the same
date according to the Jewish calendar. However, Jewish holidays always fall in the same season each year.

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(a) The High Holy Days
The Jewish year begins with the celebration of the High Holy Days of Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur.
Rosh Hashanah (“Head of the Year”) is the official Jewish New Year’s Day, on which Jews look back over the
year just passed and forward to the year about to come. The blowing of a ram’s horn in the synagogue or
temple announces the coming of the new year in a memorable way. This ram’s horn is called a shofar. The
shofar was used in ancient times as a call to battle against the enemy. It is used in the synagogue today, it
calls Jews to battle against evil.
Jews believe that, during the days between Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur, God judges each person’s
deeds, deciding who shall live and who shall die in the year to come. Therefore, Jews pray fervently, fasting
for the entire day of Yom Kippur, the “Day of Atonement.” This day is devoted to praying for forgiveness
for any sins which a Jew may have committed, or which the community may have committed. As the day
comes to an end, the shofar is again sounded in one long, clear blast. Then with a feeling of having a slate
wiped clean and a fresh beginning, Jews enter into the New Year. This day is significant in that it makes all
Jewish people engage in a process of self-moral assessment. They seek for forgiveness from others who
one would have offended, making amends appropriate as well as resolving to do better in the future.
(b) Sukkot Feast of Booths or Tabernacles
Five days after Yom Kippur comes the weeklong Festival of Booths, Sukkot. On Sukkot traditional Jews
each build a small open-roofed booth-like building in which they may take their meals or even sleep. The
roof of this “booth” (Hebrew: sukkah) is covered with green branches taken from trees and shrubs. The leafy
covering does not completely cover the booth in order that the stars may be seen at night. The sukkah is
said to be a reminder of the way in which the ancient Israelites lived as they crossed the wilderness under
the leadership of Moses. (More likely, though, the Children of Israel used tents rather than booths in the
wilderness.). This day has a historical significance in that it makes the Israelites remember their history.
They commemorate their history in the wilderness on their way from Egypt. It reminds them that God is
the provider of all things in the life of the Jews.
(c) New moon or month (Rosh Chodesh)
The word used for New moon in Judaism is Rosh
Chodesh which literally means “beginning, head
or renewal”. This means the beginning of the new
month and the first day of the month is sacred.
Celebrations are done to thank God for having
finished the previous months as well as asking for
God’s guidance. For Jews, it is a day for spiritual
renewal. Just like the Sabbath day, the new moon
is holy and set aside by God. The celebration of this
day is based on the belief that God is the luminary
of the world who gives light to the whole world.
As such, the day is significant in that it makes Jews
reflect upon the purpose of life. Fig. 3.8 Jews worshiping on a Sabbath
(d) Day of Atonement (Leviticus 23:26-32)
Day of Atonement is also known as Yom Kippur in Judaism. This is the most sacred day in Judaism in the
calendar of the Jews. It is held on the tenth day of the seventh month which is characterised by fasting
and prayer as well as asking for the forgiveness of sins. No work is done on this day, sexual intimacy is not
allowed as well as putting on fancy clothes. The sins of the whole life and the previous year are cleansed
on this day.

32
This day is significant in that it is a time for Jews to make up for the wrongs of the past year and make a
firm commitment not to commit the same sin again. The High priest is regarded as the mediator between
God and the people on the Day of Atonement. He entered the Holy of Holies and offer animal sacrifice
along the ordinances which would help the erasing of people’s sins. The High priest had a duty every year
because Jews came to the temple in Jerusalem for the removal of their sins.
(e) Hanukkah Festival of the Lights
As winter sets in, the time comes for the holiday of Hanukkah, which celebrates the victory of the Maccabees
over the Syrian army of Antiochus Epiphanes (165 B.C.E.). Hanukkah is really an eight-day celebration of
religious freedom. A Jewish legend tells that when the Maccabees drove the Syrian Greeks from Jerusalem,
they cleansed and purified the Temple. When time came to light the Temple Menorah (the seven-branched
golden candelabrum God instructed the Children of Israel to design) only a small jar of pure olive oil could
be found. This small jar of oil should have burned for only one night, but the legend states that it burned
for eight nights instead of one, giving the Jews time to prepare new oil. The significance of Hanukkah is
that it celebrates the military victory against the Greek invaders who sought to wipe out the Jewish people
and Judaism. It celebrates the rededication of the temple following the victory that was needed because
the Greek conquerors had desecrated the Jewish temple.
(f) Spring Festivals -- Tu B’shevat and Purim
A minor festival, Tu B’Shevat, “the fifteenth day of [the month of ] Shevat,” the New Year of the Trees, was set
aside in ancient times to mark the beginning of springtime in the Holy Land. Today it’s a day for celebrating
nature, to recall God’s commandment calling on human beings to care for the world, and to donate money
for the planting of trees in Israel. The spring festival is significant in that, it ensures that human beings are
stewards of the environment thereby improving care on environmental protection and preservation.
(g) Pesach (Passover)
The major spring festival is Pesach or Passover. During the enslavement period of the Israelites in Egypt,
God decided to destroy the Egyptians whilst passing over the Israelites. Blood was put on the doors of the
Israelites and the angel would pass over the door with blood. This is how the Passover concept started. As
such, Passover celebrates the Exodus from Egypt when the Jews were led out of slavery and into freedom.
For eight days (seven in Reform Judaism), Jews eat no normal bread but only the flat, unleavened, cracker-
like bread called matzah. Passover is very significant historically and religiously in Judaism. Firstly, it shows
that God was involved in the history of the Jews as the chosen people of God. Secondly, it shows the love of
God for his people, it marked the end of slavery, it also helped the Jews to be united, it as well strengthens
the faith of the Jewish people to believe in their God.
(h) Shabbat (Sabbath)
Jews have long revered Shabbat, the Sabbath, as a “taste of the world to come,” a time of rest, of peace,
and of contentment. From sundown on Friday night until sundown on Saturday night, observant Jews set
aside time to pray and study, it is a day to refrain from work.
•• Jews attend synagogue on Friday evening, where they welcome the Sabbath as if it were a visiting
monarch, calling it “the Sabbath Queen.”
•• At home, candles are lit on Friday evening, and the Kiddush, “Sanctification,” the blessing over wine,
is sung, welcoming the Sabbath and its sense of peace into the family circle.
•• Parents bless their children; and thank God for providing sustenance by pronouncing a blessing
over a loaf of twisted egg-bread called a hallah (often spelled challah).
•• The celebration continues on Saturday morning with a worship service that includes the reading

33
 and study of the entire Torah portion for the week, along with an accompanying portion taken from
the Prophets (the Haftarah).
•• Shabbat has become the most popular day for welcoming young Jews into adulthood.
•• A ceremony called Havdalah, “Separation,” is held as stars appear on Saturday evening.
•• The Sabbath has a spiritual significance for the Jews, it celebrates God’s rest from work after creation
of the world. The other significance is that, it has a legal importance because it binds all Jews to
rest as a way of honouring God. This is also the reason why it is part of the commandments of God.

Activity 3.4 Educational Tour

Visit a Jewish Temple nearby, ask the elders there about the importance of sacred days in their religion.

Exercise 3.3
1. State any 4 sacred days in Judaism. [4]
2. Describe the importance of the sacred days you have chosen in question 1. [8]

Interesting facts
1. The Kippah is customary dressing and not a religious dressing.
2. The most sacred day in Judaism is the Day of Atonement.
Summary of the chapter
•• Judaism has some rites of passage which are important in the life of the Jews.
•• The birth of a son is more valued than the birth of a daughter.
•• They are menstruation rites associated with female sexuality.
•• The way a person dies in Judaism has symbolic meaning.
•• A Hebrew or a Jew is identified with a particular attire namely the head covering (Kippah), prayer
shawl (tallit) and phylacteries (tellifin).
•• Women are always expected to put on modest dressing.
•• Colours put on by religious practitioners have a deeper religious meaning.
•• The Sabbath day is the weekly observed sacred day in Judaism.
•• The Day of Atonement is the most sacred day in Judaism.
•• Passover is a major spring festival which was done to commemorate the liberation of the Israelites
from Egyptian bondage.
Glossary of terms
Addereth – the robes put on by prophets in Judaism.
Bar Mitzvah – the son of the commandment, one who follows the Torah.
Circumcision – a mark that was given to the Jews where by the male Jew foreskin of the
sexual organ is removed.
Hebrew – a Jew or one who follows Judaism as a religion.
Prayer shawl – fringed garment worn by Jewish males under or over the clothing of a male
Jew.
Sabbath – the seventh day which followers of Judaism rests. This day is Saturday on
the contemporary calendar.

34
Torah – five books of Moses in the Hebrew bible or Old Testament.
Urim and Thumim stones – the stones used for revelation purposes in Judaism by the high priest.

Revision Exercises
Structured Questions
1. Jews observe specific sacred days.
(a) What is a sacred day? [2]
(b) Identify any four sacred days in Judaism. [4]
(c) Explain the importance of sacred days in Judaism. [6]
(d) Describe the Sabbath as a special day in Judaism. [8]
2. Circumcision is an important rite of passage in Judaism.
(a) Define a rite of passage. [2]
(b) List any four rites of passage in Judaism. [4]
(c) Explain rites of passage associated with death in Judaism. [6]
(d) Describe the importance of rites of passage in Judaism. [8]
3. Men and women in Judaism have distinct attire.
(a) Define attire. [2]
(b) List any four items put on by men in Judaism. [4]
(c) Describe the three items put on by men in Judaism. [6]
(d) Explain the importance of attire for women in Judaism. [8]
4. A high priest wore distinct attire.
(a) Define a high priest. [2]
(b) Outline four garments of the high priest. [4]
(c) Describe the symbolic meaning of the attire of the High priest. [6]
(d) Explain why the high priest did not wear golden attire in the holy of holies. [8]
5. Day of Atonement is an important sacred day in Judaism.
(a) What is a day of atonement? [2]
(b) Explain the importance of sacred days in Judaism. [4]
(c) Describe what happens on the Day of Atonement. [6]
(d) How does sacred days preserve the religious heritage in Judaism? [8]

Essay Questions
1. Explain the rites of passage in Judaism. [25]
2. Explain the importance of rites of passage of believers in Judaism. [25]
3. Illustrate the significance of five sacred days in Judaism. [25]
4. Describe the attire of the high priest in Judaism. [25]
5. Discuss the importance of religious attire in Judaism. [25]

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 Chapter
CHRISTIANITY
4
Chapter Objectives
By the end of the chapter, you should be able to:
•• identify the rites of passage in Christianity.
•• identify sacred days in Christianity.
•• describe the significance of sacred days in Christianity.

Introduction
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ which
came out of Judaism. It is a religion with the largest followers in the world. This chapter is focusing on
Christianity by identifying and explaining the rites of passage, attire and sacred days in Christianity. The
importance of rites of passage will also be explained. The chapter conclude by discussing the meaning and
significance of common sacred days in Christianity.

UNIT 4.1 RITES OF PASSAGE IN CHRISTIANITY

Christianity as a religion also has a number of rites which are practiced. These rites are practiced at different
stages of life from birth up to death of a person. However, it is important to note that, the rites in Christianity
do not follow the same pattern. They are practiced differently depending with the Christian sect which one
belongs to. The rites gives significance to a person from the day a person is born up to the day of his or her
death.
(a) Birth rites
When a child is born in Christianity, they follow different rites. These rites differ according to the Christian
sect. In the Zimbabwean community, most Christians also have elements from the Indigenous religious
practices which they follow particularly concerning the rites of passage including birth rites.
(i) Naming ceremony
Naming ceremony is another important ritual which is practised in Christianity. Naming is done to give the
child a unique identity. Among the Roman Catholics during the naming ceremony, the family and relatives
of the new born baby gather at the church to celebrate the newly born. Prayer is done being led by the
pastor and a Bible reading is also done. During this rite the parents may choose a verse to read from the
Bible. Luke chapter 2:21-28 supports the naming ceremony in Christianity.

36
The naming of the child is done by the parents and gifts will be offered by the parents as well as the family
who would have attended the ceremony.
(ii) Dedication
The second step under birth rite in Christianity is dedication. This is when the parents dedicate the future
of the child into God’s hands. They pray to God asking for protection and guidance of the child from evil
spirits. The child is dedicated to live in accordance to the will of God. After dedication the parents have a
role to educate the child to grow in a way that is pleasing to God. Parents will make vows and this marks
the end of the dedication process. Among the believers in The Salvation Army, they dedicate the newly
born child under the flag of fire and blood.
(iii) Infant baptism
In the Roman Catholic Church, the last step after the
birth of a child is baptism. The child is baptised with
holy water which is poured three times over the
head. This signifies the holy trinity that is the Father,
The Son and The Holy Spirit.
Sometimes the child is immersed in water. The baby
is anointed with oil as a sign that he or she is the
chosen child of God. Lastly, a candle is passed on
over the child symbolising that Jesus is the light
of the world. In churches like the Roman catholic
church and the Anglican, the baby is given the
candle. Babies who are baptised would become
members of that church. The baby will be dressed
in white clothes to symbolise purity of the child.
During baptism the baby would be dedicated to
Fig. 4.1 A baby being baptised and dedicated to God
God.
There are a number of reasons which led to infant baptism. The reasons include the following:
•• to cleanse the child from the sins of the forefathers. Christians believe that, people are sinners not
because they have committed sin but also because of the fact that people are born of parents who
are sinners. Through Adam the father of all humanity all people are sinners in Christianity
•• to show that they are members of God’s family from the beginning. A true Christian family is the
one which believes in God. When a child is baptised, it strengthens the belief that family in which
the child is born is Christian oriented.
•• to allow the child to choose to be confirmed when older. Infant baptism gives the child a platform
to agree with what the parents would have done during the infant stages when the child grows up.
(b) Confirmation
Infant baptism lead to a second rite of confirmation. It is common in the Anglican Church and the Roman
Catholic Church. This is when a grown up person who had been baptised during infant stage has become
an adult in a Christian community. As such, confirmation is when adult children “confirm” for themselves
the vows of membership (conversion) that had been said on their behalf as infants. This rite usually takes
place at puberty, somewhere between the ages of eight and thirteen. It is a public rite that takes place
before the assembled members of the church. It is usually performed by the bishop or priest. It begins with
classes where the child is educated about the meaning of Christian life.

37
Prayers and Bible reading is done. A sermon is done explaining the meaning of confirmation. The candidate
then declares his or her faith and make for themselves the vows before God that they will serve Him. A
prayer is done that the gift of the Holy Spirit will come upon the candidate.
The priest then lay his hands upon the confirmed candidate. Lastly the candidate of confirmation will
choose a spiritual father or mother who will guide them in their faith and will be anointed with oil to show
that they are chosen by God. Children are given names of saints as well as names which do not have an
attachment to the ancestors. These names include Peter, James, Mary, Elizabeth and Martha among other
religious names.
(c) Adult baptism
The term baptism is derived from the Greek word
“baptiso” which means immersion. Baptism is a
Christian rite which is marked by repentance and
acceptance of Jesus Christ as the saviour. The first
stage in this rite is repentance where one leaves his
or her previous life, then confesses that he or she is a
sinner by accepting Christ as the saviour. The pastor
or priest will then baptise with water in a river and
the believer would now assume a new life different
from the old one. However, urbanisation, modernity
and non-availability of rivers has led some churches
to construct water ponds for baptising people while
other churches use just a cup of water to pour on
the head as a sign of baptism. However, today there
are various ways of baptising people. Baptism marks
a transformation from old life to new life and it also Fig. 4.2 Christians being baptised
symbolises the death and resurrection of Jesus
Christ as well as repentance and cleansing of sin.
During baptism, some people change their names for example in the Roman Catholic church, a christian
name which is usually a name of a saint, for example Saint Peter, Luke, and Theresa. The late vice president
of Zimbabwe Vengesai Muzenda was baptised in the Roman Catholic church and was given the name
Simon and became Simon Vengesai Muzenda. Mamvura Mwazha was baptised in the Roman Catholic
Church and his name was changed to Paul Mwazha.
In Johanne Masowe people change their names when they are given names of the dead people like the
grandfather or aunt. They are given new names for example men are given names like Shepherd, Andrea,
Grastage, Peter and Razaro while women are given names such as Dorcas, Gredinage, Meritence, Magdalene
and Maria. For example, the prominent church leader of Johanne Masowe is born John Goromondo but
changed the name to Razaro after baptism. The believers believe that these new names come from the
Holy Spirit and they have spiritual significance.
Forms of baptising in Christianity
It is important to note that there is no single way of baptising people in Christianity. Several churches or
denominations use different ways of baptising people which include:
Immersion – being dipped in water. For the Seventh Day Adventist church dip the convert once to
symbolise Christ’s death and resurrection while other churches like Apostolic Faith Mission in Zimbabwe,
Marange Apostolic Church and Ruvheneko dip three times to symbolise the Father, the son and the Holy
spirit.

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Sprinkling of water – In some churches like the Roman Catholic and Lutheran they sprinkle water as a
representation of immersion. Sprinkling is done in some instances to people who are critically ill and in
circumstances where baptism is necessary but water is not readily available for immersion.
Pouring of water over the head – Some pour water over the head using a cup as a mark of baptism. For
example, protestant churches like Anglican Church, Methodist church and Baptist church use this method
when there is no river or pool to baptise people.
Case Study: Baptism in the Salvation Army
In the Salvation Army there is no formal baptism
of immersing people into water which is common
in many Christian sects. They believe that they are
baptised by the Holy Spirit after believing. The
believers who are known as soldiers acknowledge
that he or she is a sinner and accept Jesus as
their saviour. People convert into The Salvation
Army Church study the church doctrine as well as
principles first before they are sworn in during a
Sunday service. They stand under the army flag
acknowledging Jesus publicly as the saviour and
state their belief in the army doctrines and make
promises to abide by the standards found in the
articles of war. They then sign a copy of articles of
war and a prayer is done asking for God to help
in keeping the promises. The person is declared a
soldier amidst celebrations from other congregants.
Fig. 4.3 Captain Njiru presenting articles of war to
newly commissioned juniour soldiers of
The Salvation Army at Glen View Citadel in
Harare

Baptism is important due to various religious reasons which include that:

•• It is a sign of repentance showing that one has chosen a new path, which is the path of following
Jesus Christ.
•• It symbolises the washing away of sins. By being immersed into water it symbolises one’s death in
sin and resurrection in righteousness.
•• It makes one to be accepted as a Christian.
•• Allows one to participate in Jesus’ death and resurrection sacraments.
•• It shows a sign to show forgiveness of sins.
(d) Marriage
Marriage is a sacred sexual union of two people and it is an important stage where one graduates to
adulthood. Marriage, the state of Holy Matrimony, is the joining of two adults, one male and the other
female, into a permanent state of unity. Marriages among different Christian sects follow the pattern of
the Indigenous Religion. Christians can do traditional marriage ceremony as well as the modern ceremony
which is common among Christians. The idea of making a man and woman husband and wife has its origins
from the creation where God declared that “A man shall leave his father and mother and unite with his wife
and the two shall become one flesh” (Genesis 2 vs. 24). In the New Testament, the same idea is propagated as

39
Ephesians 5 vs. 31 says, “For this reason a man shall leave his father and mother and be joined to his wife and
the two shall become one flesh”.
Most Christian sects encourage people to have a wedding where they exchange their vows in front of many
people. Firstly, a wedding is announced in the church where people will be told to object the wedding
before the actual wedding day. On the wedding day, the priest or pastor welcomes the congregation
and then read out what Christians believe about marriage. The bride is dressed in white garment and the
groom in a suit. Declarations are then made by the couple making their promises in front of God that they
will love, comfort, honour and respect each other as long as they are alive.
After the declarations vows are made in which both the couple say, “to have and to hold from this day
forward, for better, for worse, for richer, for poorer, in sickness and in health, to love and cherish, till death do us
part”. The couple will then exchange rings saying, “with my body I honour you, all that I am I give you and all
that I have I share with you, within the love of God, Father, Son and the Holy Spirit”. The priest or the pastor will
then declare the couple as husband and wife. Prayers will be made so the couple will have children.

Case Study: Marriage in Johanne Masowe apostolic church

In the Johanne Masowe apostolic sect, the young
men and the young woman of marriageable age
agree to marry. They notify what is known as vadare
meaning men of wisdom in the church. Bride price
is looked for by the young man who will go and pay
the bride price to the parents of the young girl. When
paying bride price, the young man is accompanied
by selected church members. A wedding is then
organised and announced in the church. On the
wedding day, people gather at the home of the
young man for wedding reception.
Firstly, they go to the wilderness (renje) where they
sing hosanna a song sung to signify the importance
of the event. Then the leader of the church will speak Fig. 4.4 A wedding ceremony of Tawanda Mahofa
on behalf of the spirit on the marriage of the couple and Violet Shumbanhete in Johanne
and future things which may disturb the marriage. Masowe Apostolic Church in Gutu, Ndawi
He will pray for the success of the marriage and they
return home.
The wedding couple will remove their garments and wear suits with any colour except black and red. They
will spread a white cloth on the ground which will be stepped over by the wedding couple on their way
to the podium. Relatives of the groom will give gifts to the couple starting with the blood parents of the
couple who will also emphasise what they expect in marriage and relatives of the bride will also do the
same. Friends, visitors and other church members follow suit. The bride will be unveiled after the payment
of a fee by one of the relatives of the groom. For the sake of more money being given, parents of the bride
may deny the unveiling of their daughter by paying a higher amount.
Unveiling will finally be done and women of good repute in the church known as vasadare or tete together
with the aunts from the bride and groom’s family cut the cake. The bride will give the cake to the groom
and vice versa. This is done for three times to symbolise the holy trinity as well as a sign of true love.

40
Symbolism of wedding rite
•• Vows made affirm the Christian belief that marriage is a long-life commitment.
•• The giving of the ring symbolises the commitment of the couple that they will also be committed
to each other.
•• The ring symbolises that love has no end but it is everlasting.
•• The lighting of the candle during the wedding symbolises the light of Christ which come through
the Bible.
•• The garment worn by the bride is white to symbolise purity and virginity.
Importance of marriage in Christianity
•• It prevents sexual sins like adultery and fornication. When a person is married, his or her sexual
desires are controlled as one will get sex within the holy matrimony. Having sexual relationship
with people outside marriage is regulated.
•• It encourages mutual companionship. Mutual companionship involves affection, love and being
there for each other.
•• It ensures procreation. Marriage is done for having children. Children cannot be made outside the
marriage institution. According to God’s commandment, “Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth
and subdue it…” Genesis 1vs.28. This implies that the primary goal of marriage is to have children.
•• Marriage is also done for intimacy. It is done for physical enjoyment where sex is enjoyed by two
couples who are one flesh.
•• The spouses form unity together. They unite to solve family problems as well as to support each
other in times of need. There is mutual support for each other between the husband and the wife.
•• Marriage is a means for couples to demonstrate their love for God. Christian marriage is important
in serving and glorifying God. Both husband and wife must pursue love as defined in Ephesians
5:25-30. Love should be sacrificial, purifying and steadfast.
(e) Funeral rite or death rite
Funeral rites vary from one church to the other. In
the Roman Catholic Church, the priest will come
to pray and mourn with those bereaved. First the
priest will anoint the corpse with anointing oil as
preparation for the last death. Generally, when
a Christian dies the corpse is placed in the coffin
and the coffin is taken to the church or chapel
where the priest read the Bible. The priest will give
a short sermon to comfort mourners and then say
prayers with the hope that the dead person will go
to heaven. However, some Christian churches like
the Johanne Masowe apostolic church do not use
coffins when burying the deceased. They argue that
on resurrection day a coffin will prevent people
from resurrection.
In the Roman Catholic Church, a special mass known
as the Requiem is done where the soul of the dead is Fig. 4.5 
United Methodist church priests leading
committed into God’s hands. At burial the pastor or funeral proceedings
priest will say, “We commit this body to the ground,
earth to earth, ashes to ashes and dust to dust”.

41
This reminds human beings that they die and they are God’s creation. The body is then lowered into the
grave and the grave is filled with soil or covered. Later a tomb stone is placed giving the details of the
deceased person.
Among all Christian sects, the burial proceedings are led by the religious leaders. They are the ones who
pray before the coffin is laid into the grave.
Importance of death rites
•• It ensures that the spirit of the dead rests in peace. Christians believe that if proper death rites are
done through prayer, the deceased‘s spirit will rest in peace than come hovering around on earth.
•• To commit the spirit to God. The spirit of the person is what makes a person a living human being
and Christians believe that God is the provider of the spirit and upon death that spirit returns to
God. It is because of this reason that the spirit is committed back to God.
•• For the deceased to be forgiven of his or her sins. For example, in the Roman Catholic Church the
deceased can be forgiven due to this rite.
Mourning proceedings
Christians believe that death is a get way to heaven and they mourn with hope (1 Thessalonians 4:13). This
is because Christ conquered death and it shapes Christian mourning rites and procedures. Expression of
mourning on behalf of the beloved one who is lost is done and mourning depends on the relationship with
the deceased. While it is natural to feel sad because of the loss of the beloved through death, Christians
believe that God has an ultimate purpose in the taking their beloved one. Christianity is not a monolithic
body as they are a diversity of Christian denominations with varying mourning procedures, the following
is the basic procedure of mourning in Christianity.
•• Visitation is done on the eve of the funeral to pay last respect to the deceased. Visitation is done at
a funeral home where they sing comforting the bereaved family. They also display photographs of
the deceased.
•• Preaching is the other procedure of mourning the dead in Christianity. The purpose of the sermon
is to comfort the grieving family and show hospitality to those who would have come to attend the
funeral service.
•• There is no prescribed mourning period in Christianity. The period of death to burial is the time
which is considered as time of mourning.
•• The grieving family wear black clothes as a sign of grief and sadness.

Activity 4.1 Drama

In pairs, think of Christian wedding and prepare a drama on a marriage rite in Christianity. Two students one a
groom and the other a bride enter into a stage where the minister and the congregation are seated in a church.
The priest leads the wedding and the congregation celebrate as the drama is presented to the class. The drama
should not exceed ten minutes.

Activity 4.2 Further Research

Research about how burial is conducted among different Christian sects.

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Exercise. 4.1
Answer the following questions with either true or false.
1. Christians do not dedicate the newly born baby to God.
2. A child is baptised after being born in Christianity.
3. Baptism also involves the changing of a name in Christianity.
4. Immersion is the only form of baptism that is used in Christianity.
5. Marriage is a holy sacrament in Christianity.
6. The Johanne Masowe apostolic sect does not value weddings.
7. Prayers are offered when a person dies in Christianity.
8. Christians do not mourn the dead.

UNIT 4.2 SACRED DAYS IN CHRISTIANITY

In Christianity, there are a number of days which they consider as sacred. The church members of various
sects are supposed to respect these days.
(a) Easter
Easter is the most important holy day of the Christian
Church. Easter is composed of Good Friday, Easter
Saturday, Easter Sunday and Easter Monday. On
Good Friday people will be remembering the death
of Jesus Christ on the cross. On Easter Sunday people
will be celebrating the resurrection of Jesus Christ
which is a central event in Christianity and on Easter
Monday Christians celebrate the ascension of Jesus
to heaven. To Christians, the resurrection backs up
Jesus’ claim that he had the authority to die for the
sins of the world and the power to come back to
life again. It also gives hope to Christians that they
too will experience a resurrected life in heaven. The
Friday before Easter commemorates Jesus’ passion
(suffering) on the cross. The importance of Easter
holy days is that it marks the remembrance of Jesus’
death and celebration of Jesus resurrection which Fig. 4.6 Christians (Catholics) commemorating the
are all the foundation of Christian belief. death of Jesus Christ with an olive branch

(b) Christmas
Christmas is the observance of Jesus’ humble birth to a virgin in a stable in Bethlehem. The holiday also
celebrates the events surrounding his birth, such as an angel’s appearance to shepherds, telling them to
visit the new-born king. The Church consider Christmas as the most important Christian holiday which
marked the coming of salvation to the world. Christmas is certainly the most popular, at least in terms
of cultural and social significance. Most of the traditional customs of Christmas, such as gift giving, tree
decorating, light hanging, and feasting, come from sources other than the Church.

43
(c) Sabbath
The Sabbath is the seventh day of the week on which people have to rest and dedicate their time to
worshipping God. The Sabbath originated from the creation story in the Old Testament and was a day
for Jewish worshiping. Christianity is an offshoot of Judaism and this is the reason why some Christians
adopted it and made it a day of worshiping. People observe this day because they believe it is a blessed day
instituted by God and it is also part of the commandment given to humanity by God. On this day people
rest from work and worship God on this day. Some of the churches which observe this day as a sacred day
include the African Apostolic Sabbath church which was founded by Paul Mwazha, the Marange Apostolic
Church and the Seventh Day Adventist church. This day is observed on a Saturday which is the seventh day
following the Jewish calendar. Sabbath is important as it is day of worshiping as well as fellowship among
Christians. It is a day which is important for acknowledging the role of God in the creation of humanity and
the world. It follows God’s way of resting after creation of the world.
(d) Sunday
This is a day which has Roman history as the Roman emperors worshiped the Sun god on a sun day. When
the emperors particularly Emperor Constantine was converted into Christianity they changed the day of
worship from the Sabbath to Sunday and the other reason to change from Sabbath to Sunday was to make
Christianity a unique religion different from Judaism. As such, Sunday was a civil rest day for Constantine
which was later adopted as a Christian worshiping day to differentiate Christianity from Judaism. Lastly
some value it as a sacred day when Jesus resurrected from the dead an event symbolising victory. Christians
on this day rest from all works and worship God. It is an important day for Christians which marks victory
for Christians. Sunday is an important day of fellowship and worshiping God for Christians.
(e) Pentecost
It is a day when Christians celebrate the gift of the Holy Spirit. It is celebrated after fifty days from Easter.
Pentecost marked the descending of the Holy Spirit upon the apostles, which began the work of the
Church. On this day pastors or church ministers in the Episcopal church of England wear red robes with
a design of the symbol of flame of fire which represent the Holy Spirit. A hymn with the Holy Spirit as a
theme is sung. This day is important for Christians as they believe that the Holy Spirit has a direct influence
in the church activities.
(f) Days of Fasting
Fasting days are also considered as sacred for some Christians. For example, the Roman Catholic and
protestant churches have what is known as Ash Wednesday which begins the liturgical season of lent
by proclamation of fasting days and a period of repentance. The forty days of lent are a time of spiritual
renewal and preparation of the most solemn feast holy day Easter. They fast and refrain from eating meat
on this day because it is a sacred day when they mark total commitment to God. They fast on Wednesday
to remember the betrayal of Jesus. They fast for the whole period of lent which last forty days annually. In
ZAOGA FIF they have 10 days of prayer and fasting which they also consider as sacred days. They do not eat
and drink during the day. Fasting is also important in various Christian sects in Zimbabwe, they however
fast on different days. Fasting days are sacred and they are significant in that it is time for fellowshipping
with God as well as testifying and thanking God for life.

Activities 4.3 Research

In groups research on the history of the observance of Sunday and Saturday as days of worshiping in Christianity.
Use the internet and text books to make notes. Prepare a presentation on the research findings in class.

44
Exercise 4.2
1. Easter is one of the sacred days in Christianity.
(a) What is a sacred day. [2]
(b) Identify any other four sacred days in Christianity. [4]
(c) Explain the significance of Easter holy days. [6]

Interesting facts
1. Christianity started after the death of Jesus.
2. Many Christians worship on a Sunday all over the world despite Saturday being regarded as the Sabbath
day.

Summary of the chapter

•• Christianity has rites of passage associated with birth, conversion, marriage and death.
•• Birth is celebrated in the church by thanks giving offerings.
•• Rites of passage in Christianity differs from one denomination to the other.
•• Baptism is an important rite of passage which marks one’s turning point in life by embracing Christ
as the saviour.
•• Salvation Army as a church has no formal baptism.
•• Sabbath is the original day of worship which was later abandoned because of imperial influence.
•• Many Christians observe Saturdays and Sundays as sacred days.
•• Sunday is a worshiping day for many Christians which has a pagan origin.
•• Christianity has no clearly designed attire meant for it.
•• Apostolic churches have different attires with different symbolism.

Glossary of terms

Attire – is the dressing.

Baptism – it is the practice when Christians are dipped in water as to symbolise the death and
resurrections of Christians as well as new life in Christ.
Catholic – means universal.
Christmas – it is a day when Jesus was born.
Immersion – to be dipped in water.
Marriage – it is the union between an adult male and female with the purpose of having a
family.
Pentecost – the day when Christians celebrate the gift of the Holy Spirit.
Sabbath – is the seventh day of the week in which God rested from all works.
Vadare – men of wisdom in the Johanne Masowe Apostolic Church.
Vasadare – women of wisdom in the Johanne Masowe Apostolic Church.

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Revision Questions
Structured Questions
1. Baptism is an important Christian rite.
(a) What is baptism? [2]
(b) Identify four ways in which people are baptised in Christianity. [4]
(c) Explain two reasons why people are baptised today. [6]
(d) Describe various forms of baptism. [8]
2. The marriage rite marks the transition from puberty to adulthood in Christianity.
(a) Define marriage rite. [2]
(b) Give four reasons why Christians marry. [4]
(c) Describe the marriage process in Christianity. [6]
(d) Compare the marriage rite in Christianity and Indigenous Religion. [8]
3. Descent attire is important in Christianity
(a) Define attire. [2]
(b) Identify attire worn by apostolic churches. [4]
(c) Demonstrate the importance of modest dressing in Christianity. [6]
(d) Describe the attire worn by apostolic church members of the Johanne Masowe. [8]
4. A priest wears a distinct attire in main line churches.
(a) Define a priest. [2]
(b) List four items worn by a priest in the Roman Catholic Church. [4]
(c) Describe the importance of the attire of a priest. [6]
(d) Analyse the importance of attire in Christianity. [8]
5. Christians have several days of worshiping.
(a) List two days which are days of worshiping in Christianity. [2]
(b) Outline any other sacred days in Christianity. [4]
(c) Describe Easter as a sacred day in Christianity. [6]
(d) Explain the significance of sacred days in Christianity. [8]

Essay Questions
1. Describe any five rites of passage in Christianity. [25]
2. Explain the importance of rites of passage in Christianity. [25]
3. Describe the role of attire in Christianity. [25]
4. Using examples explain the importance of sacred days in Christianity. [25]
5. Write explanatory notes on the sacred days in Christianity. [25]

46
EXAMINATION I
Paper 1: Structured Questions
Time: 2 hours 30 minutes
Answer five questions
Choose at least one question from each section
Each question carries 20 marks

Section A: Indigenous Religion

1. Puberty rites marks the transition from childhood to adulthood.

(a) Define puberty rites. [2]
(b) Outline any four rites of passage in Indigenous Religion. [4]
(c) Describe the importance of initiation among the indigenous people. [6]
(d) Explain how marriage proposal is done in indigenous communities. [8]
2. There are sacred days in Indigenous Religion.
(a) Define a sacred day. [2]
(b) Identify any four sacred days and dates in Indigenous Religion. [4]
(c) Explain the importance of day of rest in Indigenous Religion. [6]
(d) Describe the taboos associated with sacred days in Indigenous Religion and their significance. [8]
3. Attire has a deeper meaning to occasions associated with Indigenous Religion.
(a) State any two occasions which require distinct attire in Indigenous Religion. [2]
(b) List any four components of attire put on in Xangani culture. [4]
(c) Describe the attire put on during mourning. [6]
(d) Discuss the significance put on in Indigenous Religion. [8]

Section B: Judaism

4. Priests in Judaism were identified with distinct attire.

(a) What is an attire? [2]
(b) List any four religious practitioners who wear distinct attire. [4]
(c) State the meaning of any three colours of the Jewish attire. [6]
(d) Describe the symbolism of the attire of the priests. [8]
5. In Judaism there are rites of the passage done to welcome a child into the family and society.
(a) Name the first rite of passage done on a male child. [2]
(b) State any other four rites of passage in Judaism. [4]
(c) Explain the significance of circumcision in Judaism. [6]
(d) Describe the rite of passage that is done to welcome a baby boy in Judaism. [8]
6. Jews observe the Sabbath as a sacred day.
(a) What is a Sabbath day? [2]
(b) Identify any other four sacred days in Judaism. [4]
(c) Explain the importance of any three sacred days in Judaism. [6]
(d) Demonstrate how sacred days promote unity in Judaism. [8]

47
Section C: Christianity

7. Marriage is sacred in Christianity.

(a) What is marriage? [2]
(b) Mention any other four Christian rites besides marriage. [4]
(c) Describe the marriage rite in Christianity. [6]
(d) What is the importance of marriage in Christianity? [8]
8. Baptism is an important Christian rite.
(a) What is baptism? [2]
(b) Identify any four churches which practice infant baptism. [4]
(c) Explain three reasons why people are baptised today. [6]
(d) Describe any four rituals in Christianity. [8]
9. Christianity value Christmas.
(a) What is Christmas? [2]
(b) List any four sacred days in Christianity. [4]
(c) Describe the importance of Christmas for Christians. [6]
(d) Suggest reasons why sacred days are significant for Christians. [8]

Section D: Islam
10. Islam has rites of passage.
(a) What is a rite of passage? [2]
(b) State any other rites besides the five pillars found in Islam. [4]
(c) Explain the importance of rites of passage in Islam. [6]
(d) Describe death rites in Islam. [8]
11. Confession of faith is at the centre of birth rite in Islam.
(a) State the confession of faith that is made on the birth of Muslim child. [2]
(b) List four items given to the child at birth in Islam. [4]
(c) Describe the birth rite in Islam. [6]
(d) Explain reason why birth rite are important in Islam. [8]
12. Ramadan is an important sacred day in Islam.
(a) What is Ramadan? [2]
(b) State four sacred days in Islam. [4]
(c) Describe Ramadan as a holy day in Islam. [6]
(d) Explain the significance of Ramadan as sacred day in Islam. [8]

48
Paper 2:
Essay Questions
Time: 2 hours 30 minutes
Answer four questions
Choose at least one question from each section
Each question carries 25 marks
Section A: Indigenous Religion

1. Describe rites of passage in Indigenous Religion. [25]

2. Write explanatory notes on any five taboos associated with sacred days. [25]
3. Explain the significance of the attire of the chief in Indigenous Religion. [25]

Section B: Judaism

4. Describe the significance of religious attire in Judaism. [25]

5. Explain the rites of passage associated with birth in Judaism. [25]
6. Discuss any five sacred days in Judaism. [25]

Section C: Christianity

7. Discuss the importance of baptism as a Christian rite. [25]

8. Describe any five rituals in Judaism. [25]
9. Why is the Easter holiday important for Christians? [25]

Section D: Islam

10. Describe any five sacred days associated with Islam. [25]
11. State the rites of passage associated with puberty and marriage in Islam. [25]
12. Explain the significance of dress code in Islam. [25]

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 Chapter
ISLAM
5
Chapter Objectives
By the end of the chapter learners should be able to:
•• identify the rites of passage in Islam.
•• describe the regalia in Islam.
•• identify sacred days in Islam.
•• describe the significance of sacred days in Islam.

Introduction
Islam means to surrender or submit to the will of Allah. As such, there are some Islamic rites of passage
which mark the transition from one stage to the other, from birth up to death. These rites of passage show
that one is submitting to the will of Allah. This chapter identify rites of passage associated with every stage
in Muslim life. Furthermore, Islam is a religion with a distinct attire which is of great significance and as
such this chapter will identify and explain attire in Islam. The chapter will conclude by identifying sacred
days in Islam as they are important in understanding Islam as a religion.

UNIT 5.1 RITES OF PASSAGE IN ISLAM

(a) Birth (Adhan)

Muslims have some very simple rites for welcoming
a child. The Muslim call to prayer or Adhan (“God
is great, there is no God but Allah. Muhammad is the
messenger of Allah. Come to prayer.”). These are the
first words to a new born Muslim baby that he or she
should hear. The words are whispered in the ears of
the newly born baby. The baby’s first taste should
be something sweet, so parents may chew a piece
of date and rub the juice along the baby’s gums
(honey can also be used). This is done to follow the
practice of Muhammad and it is also believed that it
helps the digestive system of the baby.

Fig. 5.1 A newly born baby being prayed for during

a birth rite

50
(b) Naming Ceremony (Tasmiyah)
This is the same naming ceremony as in Christianity and Judaism. The naming ceremony of a Muslim born
child is simply an order of Allah. The belief is that if the worshipers ask for a child, then the child will be
nourished with the words of Allah. The newly born baby should also be given a good name. Traditionally,
the baby should be named on the seventh day. To accept the name, parents might take suggestions from
their families, friends and the priest. The baby does not need to be named on the seventh day, it may be
named before like different scriptures say but the maximum amount of days taken should be seven.
(c) Aqeeqah (Shaving of the hair ceremony)
During the seven days of naming, another ceremony
called Aqeeqah takes a big part. To thank Allah, the
child is shaved and the hair is weighed. The family
must give at least the same weight of gold to charity
and at least two livestock should be sacrificed. After
this ceremony, it is important to have a communal
meal in which relatives, friends and neighbours are
invited to partake in the ceremony.
(d) Circumcision (Khitan)
Circumcision is a ritual when a Muslim boy’s
foreskin of the male organ is removed and it is a
practice which they borrowed from Judaism when
Muhammad came into contact with the Jewish Fig. 5.2 A child being dedicated to Allah
tribes in Saudi Arabia.
Muhammad instructed all Muslims to be circumcised as well following the example of Prophet Ibrahim
(Abraham) who is also regarded as a great personality in Judaism. The main reason for this is to display
purity and cleanness. When the foreskin is not removed, one is exposed diseases. When the foreskin is not
removed from the baby, it is easy for urine to be trapped inside and adulterate the baby. Muslims believe
that if the clothes are soiled with urine the prayers will not be heard by Allah. Therefore, to avoid all risk the
baby boy’s foreskin is removed to ensure that the child is free from diseases as possible. This rite of passage
happens any time before puberty (preferably in the first seven days) but it is ideal that it happens before or
else the damage and harm may alter the child’s ways of thinking and resist the ritual.
(e) Initiation stage
Initiation is a rite which marks the transition of a child from childhood to adulthood. It is the bridge between
childhood and adulthood when a boy or girl reaches the age of fourteen he or she is accountable for his
or her actions. Initiation rites are done to teach young boys and girls who are growing into adulthood to
behave well, respect others, have dignity as well as practicing charity. During this stage the child is taught
to read the Quran as well as following what is in the Quran. Girls start to wear a Hijab in order to protect
the woman’s modest and boys are also taught how to dress as well as to recite the Quran. Therefore, the
initiation rite is about helping children to become responsible adults guided by Islamic principles.
(f) Wedding rites (Nikah)
Muslim weddings vary enormously according to the culture of the people involved. For many Muslims, it
is the Islamic ceremony that counts as the actual wedding and not the confirmation of that wedding in
a registry office. In Islam, a person should be properly married and this should include both the religious
ceremony and the legal requirements of the law of the land. However, Muslims who marry without legal

51
registration are putting their womenfolk at some
risk, and their children are not legitimate according
to Islamic tradition. Marriage changes the status of
the boy and girl to fully grown adults.
The importance of marriage in Islam include the
following:
•• It safeguards one’s faith. Marriage is
the institution in which Islamic faith is
propagated and through a wedding
Muslim faith is safeguarded as vows also
involve a religious commitment to Allah.
•• It ensures that family as an institution is
Fig. 5.3 A wedding ceremony in Islam
valued and protected.
•• It helps in the erasing of sins. This is because adultery and homosexuality are sins which are
committed as a result of not marrying. So, through marrying one is guaranteed of avoiding
sexual sin. In Islam they believe that doing good erases sin so living a righteous life free from
sexual sin helps in the erasing of sins.
•• It shows that one is following the example of the prophet (Sunnah). Muhammad a prophet who
is believed to be the last prophet by Muslims married. So, marrying is following the example of
the prophet whose deeds are greatly imitated by Muslims.
•• It unites people together. A husband and a wife are united together as well as the two families
from which the two come from.
•• It makes the couple achieve mutual affection, mercy and love.
•• It makes the couple have a righteous offspring. Since marriage is sacred children who are born
within the proper ways in Islam are considered as righteous.
•• To get blessing from Allah. Marriage is religious in Islam and when couples marry they are
blessed by Allah for fulfilling a religious mandate. The blessing from Allah is also seen through
having children.
(f) Islamic funeral rites in Islam
Death is a question of ultimate concern for every
human being, and Islam has a very vivid portrayal
of the stages of death and the afterlife. Death is
similar to sleeping in Islam; interestingly, sleeping
in Arabic is called “the little brother of death.” Death
is a stage of life but in the invisible world. As such
there are some rites associated with death in Islam
which include:
•• The body is buried as soon as possible after
death. Muslims are buried without a coffin
because there is a report that the prophet
did that together with his companions. On
the contrary, burying using a coffin means
copying people of this world. Burying in a
coffin is only done in extreme cases when
the body is severely damaged as well as Fig. 5.4 A dead Muslim

52
 when there are some strong healthy reasons.
•• The body be turned to face towards Mecca in the east, the holy centre of Islam. This is because
Mecca is the holy shrine for Muslims. Muhammad is the role model of all Muslim and every practice
is linked to the prophet’s life.
•• Mourners of the same sex should greet each other with a handshake and hug.
•• A person sitting next to the body reads from the Quran. An Imam presides over the service.
•• The deceased’s eyes and mouth are closed so that it does not sag. The arms, legs, and hands of the
body are stretched out in alignment with the body. This is done so that the tying of the arms, legs
and hands are done easily
•• Death is immediately announced to all friends and relatives.
•• The body is bathed with clean water in a secluded and private place. This is known as Ghusl in
Arabic. Washing is done for three to five times and the body is covered in white cotton. This is
because white is a symbol of simplicity in Islam.
•• After the body is buried, all mourners go to the house of the family of the deceased. A meal is
prepared and guests usually stay for the entire day. Family members may stay for the whole week.
•• During this time, the family members socialize. It is believed that socializing helps to ease suffering
•• Under Islamic funeral customs, the mourning period officially lasts for 40 days. During that time,
family members wear only black clothing. For one full year, the wife of the deceased continues to
wear black. Black is worn as a sign of bid’ah (innovation) and expression of grief.
Importance of rites of passage in Islam
•• Remind Muslims about the teachings of Islam
•• Unite Muslims and strengthen links between them as they worship only Allah and follow the
example of the Prophet
•• Support the development of consciousness of Allah and taqwa (piety) of Him
•• Help Muslims to put Allah first in everything they do
•• They promote self-control.

Activity 5.1 Group Work

In groups, list the rites of passage in Islam and explain the significance of these rites of passage.

Exercise 5.1
1. Describe any four rites of passage in Islam. [8]
2. Describe Adhan. [4]
3. Give any 2 reasons why a newly born baby is given an Islamic name. [4]
4. What is the importance of funeral rites in Islam? [4]

53
 UNIT 5.2 ATTIRE IN ISLAM

Islam does not require Muslims to wear a certain type of clothing but to wear modest clothes. It considers
all types of clothing lawful as long as such clothing serves the required purposes without exceeding the
bounds set by Islam in this respect. Muslims do not allow the wearing of clothes which leave private body
parts outside for public view.

(a) Women’s Hijab

A hijab is a head covering worn in the public by
Muslim women. The purpose of this hijab is to
cover the awrah (private body parts) and awrah
varies in different situations and amongst different
groups of people. The cloth that is put on to cover
Muslim women’s face is known as the niqab while
the Burka is the most concealing veil in Islam. The
Hijab is considered as sacred because the one who
is wearing it is submitting to the will of Allah. It
shows women’s connection with the creator and
it is a religious obligation which a woman must
undertake.
The conditions of wearing a hijab for a woman in
public are varied. If these conditions are fulfilled a
woman may wear whatever she pleases. Fig. 5.5 The dress code women with a Hijab in Islam

•• The hijab (covering) must conceal the entire body except the face and the hands.
•• It should not be translucent or tight. Tight clothes, even if they conceal the colour of the skin,
still describe the size and shape of the body or part of it and create vivid images.
•• It should not attract the attention of the opposite gender; so, it should not be extravagant or
excessively attractive, nor should jewellery and makeup be on display.
•• It should not be a garment worn because of vanity or to gain popularity or fame. The female
companions were known to wear black and other dark colours but other colours are permissible;
a woman must not however wear colourful clothes because of vanity.
•• It should not be perfumed. This prohibition applies to both the body and the clothes.
•• It should not resemble the clothing worn by men.
•• It should not resemble the clothing that is specific to the non-Muslims.
(b) Men’s Dress code
In Islam the believing men should lower their gaze and protect their private parts (from sins). That is purer
for them. And Allah is well acquainted with all that they do. (Quran 24:30) Although they are sometimes
overlooked or not well understood there are conditions of dress code for men as well. Some of the
conditions are the same as the conditions for woman but others relate particularly to men. Therefore, the
attire:
•• Should cover the body from the naval to the knees.
•• Should not resemble the clothing that is specific to the non-Muslims. Western clothing that
does not represent a certain group or sect is normally permitted. This is because non-Muslims
are regarded as infidels and imitating the dressing of non-Muslims is forbidden. It is a sign of

54
 weakness and lack of confidence in the truth that is found in Islam.
•• Should not resemble the clothing worn by women. This is because Islam recognise biological
differences between men and women. Wearing attire which resemble that of women result in
the curse from Allah.
•• Should not be tight or see-through. This is because see through clothes tempt women and may
lead to people committing sin.
•• Should not be made of silk, or jewellery made of gold. This is because silk and jewellery made of
gold is associated with pride and conceit. Clothing should not attract the attention of the public
and wearing such clothes result in one being humiliated on judgement day.
•• Attire should not classify people.
The scholars of Islam overwhelmingly agree that
for men everything between the navel and the
knees (including the knees) must be covered in
the presence of anybody. The only exception to
this is a man in the presence of his wife. Finally, it is
recommended for men not to wear garments that
fall below the ankles. This is regarded as a religious
sin which result in being judged on judgement day
because it is regarded as a sign of pride to wear
garments below the ankle. According to the hadith,
“there are three whom Allah will not look at or praise
on the day of judgement and there shall be a painful
punishment; the one who wears his garment below
ankles, the one who reminds others of his favour and
the one who sells his product by means of making
false oaths”. This is clear that wearing garments that Fig. 5.6 A Muslim man praying in white clothes an
fall below the ankles is a sin (haram) attire for praying

Activity 5.2 Research

In pairs research on the attire of women in Islam. What do women in Islam put on in the Mosque you have once
visited? Make some notes and present it in class. You may present pictures of women in Islamic attire

Exercise 5.2
1. Define a Hijab. [2]
2. Explain any four functions of a hijab in Islam. [4]
3. Give three reasons why attire is important in Islam. [6]

55
 UNIT 5. 3 SACRED DAYS IN ISLAM

The Islamic religious year is known as Hijra year. It began with the Hajj of the Prophet Muhammad from
Mecca to Medina in the year 622 A.D. The twelve-month year is based on a purely lunar cycle of 354 days.
Islamic dates have no fixed relation to the seasons of the 365 days solar year. Over the course of years all
Islamic events may occur in spring, summer, autumn or winter.
(a) Friday
This is the main day of weekly religious service in Islam. Mosques are usually filled to capacity with Muslim
congregants on this day. Worship service which consists of a sermon and congregational prayer is held
around noon time. In most Muslim countries Friday is also a weekly holiday. Government offices and
schools are closed on this day. Muslims respect Friday because, according to Islamic tradition, Friday is the
first day of creation when God created the heavens and earth. It is also believed to be the day when the
resurrection will take place and so it will be the Day of Judgment. Muslims believe that Friday has a special
cosmic significance and it is a very blessed day of the week. In Zimbabwe Muslims observe Friday by
closing their business from 12 o’clock to 3 o’clock in the afternoon. Friday is an important day for Muslims
because it is a day of receiving blessings from Allah, fellowship as well as worshiping the creator.
(b) Ramadan (9th month)
Ramadan is the ninth month of the Islamic lunar calendar. Muslims consider this whole month a blessed
month. They fast during the days of this month and make special prayers at night. People also give more
charity and do extra righteous deeds. During the month of Ramadan, Prophet Muhammad received the
first revelation. The angel Gabriel came to him while he was in the cave of Hira, near Mecca and told him
that God had appointed Muhammad as His last Messenger and Prophet. Muhammad began his prophetic
mission from that time and started preaching the divine message that continued coming to him at different
intervals during the rest of his life for 23 years. Ramadan is the month of celebration as well as the month
of discipline and self-control. This month is important because it reminds Muslims of when and why was
Prophet Muhammad called by Allah.
(c) Laylat al Qadr (Night of Power)
This is a special night of the month of Ramadan. The Qur’an has spoken about this night in Surah 97, al
Qadr. It is mentioned that the Qur’an was sent down in the Night of Qadr. The Night of Qadr is better than
one thousand months. The whole night is blessed, it is full of peace and angelic presence. Although it is not
told exactly which night of the month of Ramadan is the Night of Qadr. Muslim make special prayers in the
last ten nights of the month of Ramadan, hoping that one of it is the blessed Night of Qadr. Popularly the
night of the 27th of Ramadan is celebrated with special prayers and vigils. Mosques are full of worshippers
and special prayer services, readings from the Qur’an and religious chants are performed in mosques or
private gatherings. This day is important as it brings Muslims together to worship Allah as well as receiving
blessings from Allah.
(d) Eid-ul-Fitr (1st of Shawwal, 10th month)
At the end of the month of Ramadan, on the first day of the 10th month of Islamic lunar calendar occurs
Eid-ul-Fitr. This is one of two main festivals of Islam and is celebrated by all Muslims throughout the world.
The ceremony of Eid-ul-Fitr starts early morning with a worship service. This service is generally held in a
large open place and is attended by thousands of Muslims. After the prayer the leader of the prayer (Imam)
delivers a short sermon and then people greet each other. The rest of the ceremonies are held generally
privately with families and friends. The significance of Eid is that it is a day of thanksgiving to Allah that He
gave the opportunity to Muslims to benefit from and enjoy the blessings of the month of Ramadan.

56
(e) The Day of Hajj (9th of Dhul Hijjah, 12th month)
Pilgrimage (Hajj) is one of the five pillars of Islam. Every adult Muslim who can afford it physically and
financially must perform the Hajj at least once in his or her life. The Hajj takes about five days, beginning
from the eighth day until the twelfth. The twelfth month of the Islamic year is named after Hajj and is
called Dhul Hijjah. On this day all pilgrims must gather in the valley of `Arafah from mid-day until sunset.
Muslims in other places who are not on pilgrimage often observe this day of `Arafah with fasting. It is an
optional fasting and is considered very meritorious. This day is important as it makes Muslims experience
the presence of Allah as well as bringing them closer to Allah.
(f) Eid-ul-Adha
Following the day of Hajj comes Eid-ul-Adha. It begins from the 10th day of the 12th month of the Islamic
lunar calendar. This is the second main annual festival in Islam. On this day also exactly like the previous
celebration, festivities begin with a prayer service held in an open place in the morning of the first day. This
prayer is attended by a large number of Muslims. Since this festival occurs immediately after the Day of
Pilgrimage those who go to make pilgrimage celebrate it in Mina, near Mecca. Other Muslims around the
world also join with the pilgrims in their joy and thanksgiving.
Another significance of Id ul Adha is that it is a time of sacrifice. Muslims commemorate Prophet Abraham’s
willingness to sacrifice his son, Ishmael. Since God gave Prophet Abraham a lamb to sacrifice instead of
sacrificing his only son, Muslims also offer the sacrifices of animals. The sacrifice can be done after the
prayer on the 10th until the 12th before sunset. The meat of the animals is given to needy people and
friends and a portion of it is also kept for one’s own consumption. Often people cook this meat during the
holidays, make feasts and enjoy the celebration. The day is important in instilling religious beliefs like the
importance of sacrifices in life.
(g) Zakat day
Zakat means obligatory almsgiving or giving to the needy. This is a day when Muslims are supposed to
give to others and its a day normally chosen from the beginning to the middle of the month of Ramadan.
It is a religious obligation for every Muslim to give to the poor as they believe that wealth is given by
Allah and should be given to the poor. The Ramadan month is where this day is found to ensure that the
beneficiary of the Zakat receive their dues at the end of the Ramadan month. This day is very important in
making sure that the needy in society are remembered as well as making every Muslim fulfil his religious
duty of caring for the poor.
Other important days
The above days are universally recognized by all Muslims. There are some other important days that are
often celebrated by Muslims with varying degrees of enthusiasm and devotion. Some Muslims do not
consider them as religious holidays at all.
1. New Year Day (First day of Muharram, 1st month)
The New Year Day of the Hijira reminds Muslims of the Hijira (migration) of the Prophet Muhammad peace
be upon him – from Mecca to Medina in the year 622. It is well known that the Hijira did not take place
on the first day of Muharram, it probably occurred in the month of Rabi’ul Awwal (3rd month). Also, the
Hijri calendar was instituted sometime in the reign of Caliph ‘Umar (634 644 C.E.). However, due to the
association of the Islamic calendar with Hijira, New Year day becomes an important day to remember the
meaning and significance of the Hijira. In modern times, some Muslims also began using it to send greeting
cards and celebrate New Year. There are, however, no religious services associated with this day.

57
2. Ashura (10th of Muharram, 1st month)
After his arrival in Medina in the year 622, Prophet Muhammad instituted fasting on the 10th of Muharram.
A year later this fasting was replaced with the mandatory fasting in the month of Ramadan. However,
fasting on `Ashura’ remained a voluntary fasting. Many Muslims usually fast on this day also. This day is
also associated with the martyrdom of Prophet Muhammad’s grandson Hussain ibn Ali. He was killed in
the battle of Karbala on the 10th of Muharram in 61 A.H. (October 10, 680 C.E.). It is a day of sadness for
all Muslims. Shi’ahs in particular attach a great significance to this day and mark this day and the whole
month of Muharram with mourning. Special gatherings (majalis) are held to remember the suffering of the
Imam and his family and the events that led to Karbala. It is a day with a historical significance for Muslims.
3. Maulid al Nabi (12th of Rabi’ul Awwal, 3rd month)
This day is remembered as the Birthday of the Prophet. It is a very popular day of celebration. It, probably,
began early in the Fatimid Egypt (beginning of tenth century C.E.) where people began distributing sweets
and making special chanting and festivities on this day. There are no special prayers or religious services
associated with this day, but many Muslims use this day to talk about the Prophet, his life and example.
They use it as a time to express their love and devotion for Prophet Muhammad. It is now celebrated with
varying degrees of enthusiasm throughout the Muslim world and wherever Muslims live. Some people,
however, criticize it because it has no sanction in the Qur’an and the Sunnah of the Prophet and the early
community (salaf ) did not mark this day with any special festivities. It’s a day that is important in celebrating
the legacy of prophet Muhammad.
4. Night of Isra’ and Mi’raj (27th of Rajab, 7th month)
The night journey of the Prophet Muhammad Mecca to Jerusalem and then his ascension to Heavens
occurred in the year 620 C.E. It is mentioned briefly in the Quran (Surah 17 and 53). The Hadith literature
gives much more details of this experience of the Prophet. Muslims remember this day as a day of great
miracle and honour of the Prophet. On the eve of the 27th of Rajab, gatherings are held in the mosques
and homes to remember the event and the whole story is told in poetry, chants or lectures. Sweets are
distributed and great happiness and joy is expressed. There are also no special prayers associated with
this night. Muslims remember this day with varying degrees of enthusiasm and devotion. Some people do
not celebrate it at all. There is a historical significance attached to this day as it is associated with the life of
Muhammad.
5. Night of the Middle of Sha’ban (15th of Sha’ban, 8th month)
There are all kinds of legends associated with this night. In some countries it is celebrated with fireworks.
People make special prayers at night and consider it a “night of destiny”. There are no authentic hadith about
this night. There are, however, a number of weak (da`if ) hadith that mention that the Prophet Muhammad
used to make special prayers on this night. He used to visit the Cemetery of Muslims and pray for those
who passed away and used to fast the following day. The cumulative effect of these hadith makes them
acceptable to some. Based on these reports some consider fasting on this day a blessed act. Again, this
night and its following day are not universally accepted by all Muslims. It is an important day for Muslims
as it allows Muslims to remember people who contributed to the success of Islam.

Activities 5.3 Power Point Presentation

Divide yourself into groups. Choose one of the rites of passage in Islam. Prepare a presentation on rite of
passage in Islam and present it using power point.

58
Exercise 5.3
1. Why is Friday a sacred day in Islam? [2]
2. Suggest any other four sacred days in Islam. [4]
3. Explain the practices of Ramadan. [6]
4. Describe the pillars of Islam which are practiced in during Ramadan. [8]

Interesting facts
1. Islam is a religion which came out a historical situation in the Arab world.
2. A Muslim is buried without a coffin.
Summary of the chapter
•• Islam has some rites of passage of life associated birth, marriage and death.
•• Circumcision is the most important rite of passage in Islam which happens at the age of twelve.
•• Rites of passage are important in Islam as they are a form religious expression and a way of
communicating with the supernatural world.
•• Men and women are expected to put on modest dressing in Islam.
•• Veiling of women is known as hijab in Islam.
•• Friday is the day of worship in Islam.
•• The month of Ramadan is the most sacred month.
Glossary of terms
Adhan or adhara – t hese are the first words to a new born Muslim baby that he or she should
hear.
Aqeeqah – is a ceremony done to thank Allah, the child is shaved and the hair is weighed.
Hijab – a covering which conceals the entire body except the face and the hands of
woman.
Khitan (Circumcision) – is when a Muslim boy’s foreskin of the sexual organ is removed. The main
reason for this is to display purity and cleanness.
Ramadan – is the ninth month of Islamic lunar calendar.
Tasmiyah – is the naming ceremony in Islam.

Revision Exercises
Structured Questions
1. Islam has rites of passage.
(a) What is a rite of passage? [2]
(b) Outline any other rites besides the five pillars found in Islam. [4]
(c) Explain the importance of rites of passage in Islam. [6]
(d) Describe death rites in Islam. [8]
2. Confession of faith is at the centre of the birth rite in Islam.
(a) Outline the confession of faith that is made on the birth of a Muslim child. [2]
(b) List four items given to the child at birth in Islam. [4]
(c) Describe the birth rite in Islam. [6]
(d) Explain the reason why birth rites are important in Islam. [8]

59
3. Attire of women in Islam is modest.
(a) Give two things put on by women in Islam. [2]
(b) List the importance of attire in Islam. [4]
(c) Describe the attire of an Imam in Islam. [6]
(d) Compare the attire of women and men in Islam. [8]
4. Ramadan is an important sacred in Islam.
(a) What is Ramadan? [2]
(b) Outline four sacred days in Islam. [4]
(c) Describe Ramadan as a holy month in Islam. [6]
(d) Explain the significance of Ramadan as sacred month in Islam. [8]
5. Friday is a sacred day in Islam.
(a) What is a sacred day? [2]
(b) Why is Friday a sacred day in Islam? [4]
(c) Describe the activities which are done on Friday. [6]
(d) Explain importance of sacred days in Islam. [8]

Essay Questions
1. Describe the rites of passage associated with puberty and marriage in Islam. [25]
2. Explain the importance of rites of passage in Islam. [25]
3. Explain the dress code in Islam. [25]
4. Describe the significance of sacred days in Islam. [25]

60
 Chapter RELIGION, FAMILY AND

6
IDENTITY

Chapter Objectives
By end of the chapter, you should be able to:
•• identify the various agents of cultural change.
•• explain how change in culture is affecting the nature of the family.
•• describe the role of the family in promoting national values.
•• illustrate the significance of religion in promoting national values and good citizenship.
•• explain the role of IR in fostering African identity.

Introduction
A family is a vital social unit and its structure is not uniform. Religion has influenced family structure as well
as family identity. In this chapter the definition of family and cultural change will be explained. Secondly,
identifying and explaining agents of cultural change which has affected the family is dealt with in this
chapter. Thirdly, how family helps in promoting national values and good citizenship will also be explained
in this chapter. This chapter conclude by describing how Indigenous Religion fosters African identity.

UNIT 6.1 FAMILY AND THE CHANGING CULTURE

Family
A family can be defined as a social group made up
of people who come from the same ancestor. A
family is group of people made up of parents and
their children.
A family from an Indigenous Religion perspective
is a group of people which comprises of the father,
mother, children, grandfather, grandmother, the
father and mother of both husband and wife,
nephews, cousins, uncles, aunts and other relatives.
The family has been threatened by cultural change
due to several factors. Culture refers to the way of
life of the people within a community and culture
include components such as language, dressing, Fig. 6.1 A family of Mr Tamai in Ndawi area of Gutu
religion, food, values and norms.

61
On the other hand, cultural change refers to the transformation of the societal values and norms due to
contact with other groups of people.
Family structure
The word structure refers to the way parts of a family is arranged into a whole. As such, the family structure
is made up of father and mother, children, grandfather and grandmother.
Polygamy
Polygamy is a practice of having more than one wife at the same time or it is a practice of marrying multiple
spouses. The Shona marriage is greatly valued and there are two institutions of marriage accepted among
the Shona namely polygamy and monogamy. Polygamy is accepted provided the man has the capabilities
of supporting many wives. It is allowed in indigenous society for men to have more than one wife but
women are not allowed to have several husbands. In marriage, women are taught to accommodate a
husband who brings a second wife or any other extra-wife.
Monogamy
Monogamy is where there is one husband for one wife. The coming of Christianity made polygamy more
evil and monogamy more ideal and monogamy has overtaken polygamy as an ideal form of marriage
institution. Monogamy has become part of the Christianised and westernised culture of the indigenous
people. Therefore, the Shona people have embraced monogamy as the ideal marriage because of Christian
influence
Types of families
There are several types of families in the contemporary world.
(a) Nuclear family

This is a family that is composed of the husband and wife or wives living at the same house. As such,
nuclear family can either be monogamous or polygamous. In monogamy, it consists of the father, mother,
and children whilst in polygamy it consists of the father, several wives and their children.
(b) Extended family

This is a type of family which extends beyond the nuclear family. It includes father, mother, children, and
relatives of the mother who include the father, grandfathers, uncles, aunts and nieces. Relatives of the
husband who include his father, grandfather and grandmother, aunts, nieces, aunts are also part of the
extended family system.
(c) Single parent

This is a family which consist of a one parent either a father or mother with their children. This type of
family is common these days and is attributed to widowhood, divorce or economic challenges. The single
parent family is a type of family which is now being recognised in indigenous communities because the
extended family system which used to cover for this predicament of being widowed is no longer being
valued.
(d) Child headed

This is a type of family in which the child is the head of the family. This happens when all parents die,
divorce or can be due to neglect. This results in the elder child taking care of the family. Such families can
be as a result of war, disease and economic challenges.

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(e) Blended family

This is the type of family where either parents are married to each other but have children from previous
relationships who come and live under one roof. The children in this family regard their father as step
father or step mother. Step family or blended family is caused by divorce and death.
(f) Cohabiting
Cohabiting refers to a prolonged stay of two people, a man and a woman who are not formally married
as husband and wife. It is a type of marriage union that has been widely condemned in the indigenous
society but it has now gained some social acceptance. This type of family is preferred by some who fear
legal commitment that comes with marriage which involves sharing of property. Moreover, it is easier to
get into this relationship as they are no formal ceremonies and social recognition required.
Agents of cultural change and how it is affecting the nature of the family
Cultural change is the change of the culture when something new opens up new ways of living and when
new ideas enter into the culture of people. New ways of living and new ideas have affected family relations.
The family has largely been weakened than strengthened by agents of cultural change by affecting the
stability of the family. It has affected the family bond as the extended family system.
1. Media
People access various aspects which affect their culture from Televisions and Radios. Some of the things
that can be taken from the media is language and dressing which can lead to the changing of one’s culture.
The media can affect family relations negatively as people can no longer unite as a family at funerals
and other important gatherings. Family members may pay their condolences through social media like
WhatsApp and Facebook. Child-parent relations have changed as children feel that what they see and
listen to on media is worthy emulating ignoring parental guidance. However, it also promotes interaction
between family members as they discuss family issues even from different locations using social media.
2. Music
Listening to foreign music genres also impact on the changing of one’s language. Music affects family
relations as it leads to the use of bad language by the young when they communicate with their relatives.
So music has led to erosion of Unhu which has led to the division between the young and old within the
family. For example, the Zim dancehall music has to some extent affected the young people. In as much as
music has good messages, some of the dancehall music today portrays issues of drug and alcohol abuse.
This has affected young people who have turned into drugs and alcohol abuse just as a way of living
according to the message spread in the songs. This has therefore made a negative impact on the morals of
the young people of today. However, there are some songs which have good message, hence music is also
a good channel to spread good news to people in various communities.
3. Schools
This institution has impacted negatively as learners through interaction with people of diverse backgrounds
at school can lead to the change of culture. For example, one can change his or religion after enrolling
at an educational institution which has some religious inclination in its day to day running. This impact
negatively on family relations as young boys and girls of school going age will bring new things learnt at
school which threaten indigenous family unit. It is through schools that family language, dress and culture
can be affected by embracing the language, dress code and culture from other families. This has had a
negative impact as it affects the stability of the family as some of the copied ways of life are against family
values.

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For example, interaction with other learners from Xangani culture may lead to the change of language
as well as dress code. However, schools have also helped in the appreciation of other cultures from other
families like Unhu which may cement family relations.
4. Religion
Religion contribute to cultural change by regarding other people’s culture as backward and evil. For example,
many indigenous people have abandoned their culture like the kurova guva or umubuyiso ceremony which
has been abandoned leading to cultural change. Churches have also affected family relations as some
family members may refuse to go to indigenous diviners when the family is affected by problems such as
avenging spirits. The African belief systems and practices concerning the family have been condemned
by churches as evil thereby straining family relations. Christianity is also another religion which has led to
cultural change by affecting family relations. To add on, in some churches like the Roman Catholic Church
and the Seventh Day Adventist have some spiritual fathers or church parents who guide the new believer
and this affect family relations as paternal and maternal parents are given less value. However, Christianity
has improved on the ethical and moral principles of so many people which has improved family relations
through the principle of loving one another.
For example, the teachings of Christianity about associating with unbelieving parents affects family
relations as some Christians choose parents in churches thereby ignoring the biological parents on the
grounds of being unbelievers. In Judaism cultural change for indigenous people through the observance
of the Sabbath day as a sacred day while abandoning the indigenous sacred days. Furthermore, Islam can
lead to cultural change by making one very radical because of the Jihad concept found in Islam. This will
occur when one start to believe in radicalism than negotiating and compromising thereby leading to a
society engulfed with conflicts.
5. Information Communication Technology (ICT)
ICT can be defined as technologies that provide
access to information through telecommunications.
It is similar to Information technology (IT).
Technology has led to the coming of WhatsApp,
Facebook, Viber and Skype which have impacted
on family tradition and value systems. It has led
to the development of individualism in the African
family system forgetting the oneness of the African
family. Elders and aunts used to be the source of
knowledge when one needs advice but today ICT
has taken that role. ICT has affected family relations
in that nieces in the family may seek advice from
social media platforms and ignoring the role of
the aunt in advising girls on issues affecting them. Fig. 6.3 Information and Communication
However, parents no longer spend enough time Technology components
with their children due to the fact that they spend
most of the time on their cellphones surfing on the internet.
It has removed the bonding system which characterises the indigenous family. Furthermore, technological
advancement in agriculture has led to the abolishment of family functions like work parties (nhimbe or
ilima) there by affecting family solidarity.
However, ICT has also helped in promoting solidarity among family members as they communicate
problems affecting the family in an effective manner considering the fact that nowadays people of the

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same family live in different geographical locations. ICT has therefore led to family members to be in touch
with their rural counterparts.
6. Human rights
They have also impacted negatively on culture.
Some people now dress in a manner that is not
African but are protected by the human rights
issues. Furthermore, the issue of lesbianism in some
African countries is regarded as a constitutional right
but it is against African culture. Human rights have
influenced relations in the family as children may
refuse to respect parents and take instruction from
family members. For example, parental disciplining
of children is considered as a violation of human
rights in contemporary societies. This result in lack
of discipline in children as they no longer listen to
parental guidance and advice. This has resulted in
cultural change where some legislative instruments Fig. 6.4 Campaign for Human Rights
have overridden the sense of Africanhood.
Furthermore, human rights also lead to the coming of foreign culture which is against family beliefs and
practices. For example, the issue of sexual rights affect the purpose of marriage in Indigenous Religion,
Christianity as well as other religions because married women will deny their husband conjugal rights on
the basis of sexual rights.
7. Urbanisation
This is another agent of cultural change which has
affected family relations especially the extended
family relations. Many family members have gone
to urban areas in search of jobs and this has affected
unity in family as the essence of the extended
family system has been ignored. This has led to
the development of nuclear family unit a concept
foreign in African society. It has created new social
classes of family members who are rich and those
who are not. Relatives at rural homes have been
ignored because of urbanisation as the urbanites
now focus on their families in town forgetting or
paying less attention to the extended family in rural Fig. 6.5 People crowded in the urban area
homes.
Urbanisation has affected the family by weakening the kinship ties associated with the traditional family in
African set up by making related people live in different places which are far. It has displaced many people
who are related. However, urbanisation has led to further cementing of family relations as relatives are
helped by their family members in the urban areas.

Activity 6.1 Research

Research about factors which have affected family relations, give a speech describing how change in culture is
affecting the nature of the family in Indigenous Religion.

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Exercise 6.1
1. The family in Indigenous Religion include _____________.
A. mother, Father and their children
B. mother, father, their children and the relatives of the father
C. mother, father, their children and relatives of the mother
D. mother, father and their children together with the relatives of the mother and the father
2. Marrying more than one wife is regarded as ____________
A. Monogamy B. Endogamy
C. Polygamy D. Exogamy
3. Which one is not a type of family?
A. Nuclear B. Extended
C. Single parent D. Monogamy
4. Which one is an agent of cultural change?
A. Media B. Sports
C. Entertainment D. Hobbies
5. Which one is not a component of ICT as an agent of cultural change?
A. Computer B. Cell phone
C. Solar panel D. Television

UNIT 6.2 FAMILY, NATIONAL VALUES AND GOOD CITIZENSHIP

National values
National values are important for the development of any nation and national values can be defined as
convictions and standards by which particular actions are judged as good or desirable for the nation. They
give general guidelines to the behaviour of Zimbabweans. Values helps in giving the nation the path on
how we live and what we value as the nation. The basis of national values is formed and propagated in
the family.
The role of the family in promoting national values
The family socialises children to be responsible citizens and it provides core values for every child which
are important in the development of national values. As such, the family has a significant role in promoting
national values and good citizenship as it shapes Unhu. Family values define the acceptable behaviour,
morals, beliefs, conduct, attitude and capacity to work as united nation.
1. Promote Unity
The family promotes national values by encouraging
unity among family members. Family gatherings
like marriage ceremonies where various family
members are involved promote unity among family
members. Unity can also be fostered through rituals
which are done in a family. Family rituals unite
all family members and it is obligatory for family
members to be involved in rituals such as libation
and home bringing ceremony. It is during rituals
such as libation and home bringing ceremony that Fig. 6.6 Robert Mugabe and Joshua Nkomo after the
signing of the unity accord in 1987

66
are done at family level that people are united for one common goal which also lead to unity of the whole
society as a whole.
For example, the 1987 unity accord between Joshua Nkomo of PF ZAPU and Robert Mugabe of ZANU PF is
a unity pact which led Zimbabwe to move forward from tribal politics as it united the indigenous people
as Zimbabweans than tribal groups. Further, the formation of the Government of National Unity in 2007 is
also an example of unity at national level which made the country move forward. As such unity is valued
as a national value and good citizenry which comes from family. This is the reason why Zimbabweans are
regarded as one family.
2. Instils morality into citizens
The family plays an important role in defining the personhood by stressing that one is human. Morality is
derived from the family teaching as it teaches about permissive sexual relations, honest and sincerity. This
value is put into the young through taboos which forbid incest and bestiality among the Shona people
and other ethnic groups and may result in social problems like drought and hunger. It is because of this
that morality is encouraged in indigenous society. In fact, it is a criminal offence to do immoral acts like
bestiality and incest in Zimbabwe which shows that morality is a national value that is important. This
shows how morality as a family value has shaped national values because of its recognition in the laws of
the country.
3. Respect for others and property
The family teaches about the need to respect one another as well as other people’s property. This value
is imparted through the indigenous knowledge systems and taboos. For example, the indigenous family
inculcate the belief that married women and men should be respected through a taboo. Indigenous
proverbs are also used teach young people about respecting the elderly and people in authority. “Gudo
guru peta muswe kuti vadiki vagokutya” which literally means an old baboon should respect young baboons
to avoid embarrassment from the young is a Shona adage which promotes respect for everyone.
Furthermore, failure to respect other family members result in the anger of ancestral spirits. For example,
failure to respect one’s mother result in the anger of maternal ancestral spirits. It is through respecting
family members that the national value of respect is brought out. This promotes the national value of
respect as people will value property that belongs to others. For example, a person with respect for others
and property can also value workmates and the property of the company where he or she works.
4. It makes citizens resilient
Resilience refers to the ability to recover quickly from difficulties or problems. As such, the family has
a role in making members of the family resilient. This is the reason why totems are used to encourage
people to be resilient. For example, those of the lion totem will be able to be resilient when the nation
faces problems. So, totems are a way used to instil national values through imitating attributes from the
totemic animals which are important in cultivating national values. Zimbabwean citizens are known for
the resilient for example the 2008, the political and economic crises did not make Zimbabweans revolt
against the government as they soldiered on during the economic hardships.
5. It promotes tolerance
Tolerance is defined as fair, objective and permissive attitude towards those with opinions, beliefs, practices,
ethnic or racial which differ from one’s own beliefs, practices and opinions. Failure to accept other people’s
ideas and beliefs is also regarded as a sign of lacking an attribute of Unhu. The family therefore encourages
people to be tolerant. Tolerance is a vital national value and the family teaches family members to be
tolerant thereby leading to the acceptance of other people’s beliefs, practices and views.

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For example, the family teaches about differences in totems and ancestors between families and it
encourages tolerance. Tolerance is also taught through indigenous knowledge systems used in the family.
The existence of several religions and political parties is a sign of tolerance in the nation as people respect
other people’s beliefs and choices by not condemning them. For example, the 2018 national elections had
few cases of political violence because of tolerance which is cultivated within the family institution. To add
on, the absence of interreligious conflict is another example of how tolerance is promoted in Zimbabwe
by the family.
6. It inculcates a sense of hospitality into citizens
It is expected that an African should call others when eating “uyai tidye” (come and eat with us). This means
people should share anything which they have. The Shona ethnic group has also the proverb ‘mweni
haapedzi dura’ (a stranger cannot make food reserves empty) which calls for everyone to accommodate
strangers and to give them food. This value is instilled in children through the indigenous practices of
inviting others when eating. This is value seen nationally in the tourism sector where tourists are well
treated. The Zimbabwe Tourism Authority for example has the concept known as welcoming visitors by
giving them all the support they need to feel at home.
7. It instils patriotism
Patriotism is a term which means devoted love,
support and defence for one’s own country which
is expressed through loyalty. Patriotism is a value
that does not come on its own but it is instilled in
children at family level. Loving one’s own family
cascades into one loving his or her community and
nation at large. The family plays an important role
in instilling patriotism in Zimbabwean citizens. For
example, nationally some Zimbabweans donate
to the nation like Walter Magaya during the 2018
Cholera national disaster. The sense of helping
the nation which has meagre resources in curbing
national disasters is a sign of patriotism which starts
from the family. Fig. 6.7 Patriotic Zimbabweans

8. It improves caring for others

Caring for others is a national value that is imparted into the young through the spirit of Unhu or Ubuntu.
A good family with sound Ubuntu is seen by caring for others like the sick, disabled, orphans and widows.
It is this caring for others which helps makes good citizens. Caring for one another includes helping each
other in times of need and cheering each other when things are good. It is a sign of lacking African values
that one ignores the poor or the people in need.
For example, caring for others is seen through donations which are made by all Zimbabwean to help one
another. This is supported by the donations made to victims of floods, hunger and drought by Zimbabweans
from across the whole social spectrum. Orphanage homes like Sally Mugabe Children’s home, Midlands
Children’s hope centre, Rose of Sharon and Chiedza Child care just to mention a few also care for other
people in need like orphans .
The establishment of institutions which care for children without parents is clear indication that caring for
one another is a national value which comes from the family which cares for orphans within the family.

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9. It promote respect for the elderly
Taboos on respecting the elderly is another way
used to impart national values at family level. It is
a taboo to insult an elderly person or a parent as it
may lead to avenging spirits haunting the person
who lacks the value of respecting the elderly. The
family encourages people to respect the elderly
and failure to do so will result in curses as well as
retrogressive life.
Respect for the elderly is a national value which is
promoted by the family through the establishment
of centres which take care of the elderly in
Zimbabwe like Society for the Destitute Aged
(S.O.D.A) in Harare, Idawekwako Old aged home in
Marondera, Rimuka Old People’s Home, Bumhudzo
Old People’s Home, Pioneer Lodge Home for the Fig. 6.9 Elderly people enjoying a meal at Bumhudzo
Aged in Masvingo and Mucheke Old People’s home old people’s home
in Masvingo.
The significance of religion in promoting national values and good citizenship
Religion plays an important role in the promotion of good citizenship and national values. National values
are morals and standards of what is good for a country. Morals and standards which citizens are known
for are formed and inculcated at family level. This is because the family is the first agent of socialisation. As
such, the family is integral in imparting national values like Unhu, tolerance, respect, cooperation, unity,
acceptance, honest, good work ethics, peace, diligence and discipline. These national values make a national
identity. Religions like Indigenous Religion, Christianity and Islam help in the formulation of national
identity of Zimbabweans through a number of religious beliefs and practices.
Rituals help in the formation of national values. For example, in Indigenous Religion unity is promoted
when people come together to offer libation to their ancestors. It is because of rituals like national biras
and reburial of dead liberation war heroes that brings out the identity of Zimbabwean. This unites people
and helps in nation building.
•• Taboos in religion assist in the promotion of national values as social vices like stealing, violence
and respect of property are discouraged. For example, in Judaism and Christianity the Ten
Commandments help in the promotion of national values like work, tolerance and respect. This will
lead to good citizenship. In Indigenous Religion it is a taboo to beat one’s own parents as it leads
to avenging spirits. The taboos promote respect of parents and the elderly which is important in
making people good citizens.
•• Morals derived from religion play an important role in the formation of national values. Religion
is characterised by moral principles of fairness, justice and equality. For example, it is unreligious
in Indigenous Religion, Christianity, Islam and Judaism to oppress the poor because the poor are
also human beings created by God. In Indigenous Religion the poor are catered for through the
king’s granary while in Judaism the poor should be protected through provision of goods as well
as defending the rights of the poor (Deuteronomy 15 vs 7). Furthermore, in Christianity, the poor
are regarded as the inheritors of the kingdom of God while in Islam they protect the poor through
one of the pillars of Islam called Zakat where each and every Muslim has a religious obligation of
contributing 2,5% to 10% of his or her wealth towards the welfare of the poor.

69
 •• Unhu is a component of Indigenous Religion which forms national values such as non-violence
and tolerance. This helps citizens to value peace and to manage conflicts in non-violent ways. The
principles of ubuntu which promote values include the recognition of other human beings. The
maintenance of harmony and the spirit of sharing cultivate the values of non-violence and tolerance
are also essential in unhu. One would view another human being as human and aspire to live in
peace and harmony with a fellow human being. As such Ubuntu encourages good citizenship and
this is supported by the Shona adage, “kugara hunzwanana” which means life is worth living when
there is peace and harmony. In this proverb one is admonished to be a good citizen who does love
to live with others in peace and harmony.
•• Religion regulates the behaviour of people thereby leading to good citizens. In Indigenous
Religion the behaviour of the people is regulated by the spirit of Unhu while in Judaism the Ten
Commandments are there to guide humanity to be well behaved. In Christianity, for example, the
Bible is there to regulate people’s behaviour as it provides what is supposed to be done and what
is not supposed to be done in living a Christian life. In Islam, the Sharia assists in the promotion of
good citizenship by regulating the behaviour of Muslims by discouraging vices such as stealing,
corruption, murder and covetousness.

Activity 6.2 Group work

In groups of fives, identity values in Indigenous Religion and explain how the family promotes national values.

Exercise 6.2
1. Assess how the family promotes national values and good citizenship in Indigenous Religion. [20]

UNIT 6.3 INDIGENOUS RELIGION AND AFRICAN IDENTITY

There are many races in the world and their beliefs as well as practices differ from one place to the other.
The African belief systems and practices help in giving Africans an identity. Religion plays an important role
in determining who we are and what we are supposed to do as Africans. African identity is not complete
without religion and religion helps in shaping who the Africans are.
What is African Identity?
Identity is a condition or character that distinguishes
a person or a thing. As such, African identity refers to
the African values and aspirations which characterise
an African as a unique person different from others.
It defines who the African is by differentiating an
African from other races.
The identity is embedded in beliefs and practices of
the African people. Africans are identified with their:
Dress code: the dress code is supposed to be
descent so that one earns respect from the society.
Men are supposed to dress modestly and it is a social
anathema for men to dress in shorts. Women are Fig. 6.10 Traditional Mbira group
supposed to dress by putting on a head wrap and
a wrap-around cloth. However, the distinct African attire has been diluted with the coming of Europeans

70
to Africa.
Language: the language of an African makes him or her unique from other people. It is the language
of the ancestors which is used at rituals. This language is passed on from one generation to the other
through the family. In Zimbabwe there are sixteen official language and fifteen are indigenous languages.
These include Karanga, Ndau, Manyika, Zezuru, Korekore, Sotho, Xangani, Venda, Nambya, Tonga, Chewa,
Khoisan, Tswana, Xhosa and sign language a unique language that is found among the official languages.
The inclusion of sign language shows that there is inclusivity in the Zimbabwean society and that people
with disabilities are also have an African identity.
Socialisation: is done by the family and the whole society. A child does not belong to an individual but to
the whole community. As such issues of the nuclear family system and schools which are the modern ways
of socialisation are not African. Put differently Africans were educated informally from the elders and the
education was based on practicals than theory.
Food: the food eaten stems out of African identity.
Africans in Zimbabwe are identified with natural
foods. For example, munyevhe, muboora and sadza
made from rapoko and millet. Genetically modified
foods are alien to African food. However, there is a
distinct food associated with different indigenous
groups of people. For example, the Manyika people
and Ndau people are identified with madhumbe or
magogoya, while the Karanga in Masvingo in Bikita
and Nyajena eat Harurwa.
Additionally, for the BaTonga fish is their main
diet. In modern day, in health sector people are
encouraged to eat traditional food such as sadza
rezviyo, black jack, okra and vegetables because
they are nutritious, they improve health and fight
against non-communicable diseases like cancer
and diabetes. Furthermore, indigenous farmers
like those in Chibika in Uzumba Maramba Pfungwe
(UMP)are adding value to indigenous food by
Fig. 6.11 Sadza rezviyo (rapoko) and vegetables
making buns, bread, pies and biscuits from small
grains, tubers and other vegetables.
Way of greeting: it is un-African to meet a person and fail to greet that person. Greeting is done at morning
when one wakes up, in the afternoon and in the evening. For example, in Venda in the morning they
say ndimatseloni which means good morning, in the afternoon they say ndimasiari which means good
afternoon and in the evening, they say ndimadekwana which means good evening. If one is meeting
the person for the first time in Shona one says makadii which means how are you and in Venda they say
rhivhuwa while in Xangani they say munjani and in Ndebele they say Linjani which all means how are you.
Respect: Africans are known for respecting each other depending on the relations which are there. For
example, if one is older than the young brother of his own parents that person is respected and referred
to as the father.
Ways of promoting African identity
Indigenous Religion promotes African identity through various means. These include rituals, family, totems,
symbols, taboos and dressing among other ways.

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(a) Rituals
An African is identified by making rituals to his or her ancestors. During birth ancestors are thanked, during
marriage ancestors are informed, at death ancestors are also involved and during the time of drought
rainmaking ceremonies are done. Africans are always religious as they conduct rituals in every aspect of
life. It is through these rituals that attributes of African identity like unity and tolerance are promoted.
(b) Family
Indigenous Religion is based on the role of the family
in ancestor veneration. The family plays an important
role in determining who we are as Africans. The
name of the family (surname) is a name that assist in
the identity of Africans as Africans. Names given to
Africans have a historical relevance to the family and
situations. For example, names such as Nyaradzai,
Muroiwa, Shanangurai, Rumbidzai and Marwei
are Shona names while in Ndebele names such as
Thabani, Thando, Simangaliso and Sichengisiwe are
given to explain the African experiences.
The family helps in socialisation which helps in
instilling African identity by teaching the young how
Fig. 6.12 A ritual being performed by a healer in
to greet the elders and socialise with others. Food
Indigenous Religion
preferences is taught by the family. For example,
the family encourages the eating of indigenous
food which is vital for their health and wellbeing.
The family also promote tolerance and respect by
socialising children about Ubuntu as an African
virtue.
(c) Totems
An African is largely identified with totems. Totems
are important in African identity as indigenous
people are identified with totems. White people
are regarded totem-less people while Africans are
people with totems. As such totems like elephant,
lion, zebra, heart and monkey play an important
role as a feature of Indigenous Religion in fostering Fig. 6.13 An extended family in indigenous society
African identity as unity, empathy and respect is
promoted in African people.
(d) Symbols
There are different symbols which are common in different Zimbabwean societies. These symbols also help
in African identity. For example, the natural world which include mountains, rivers and trees symbolically
represent ancestors for example Save River, Nyangani Mountain, Muhacha and Mutarara trees. Furthermore,
dreaming of green vegetation is a symbol of life while the hut is a symbol of being African. Indigenous
Religion is based on symbols which help in African identity. There are also artefacts which are dedicated to
ancestors, these include calabashes, carved stones, and walking sticks among others. These are important
symbols which have a clear message in the Indigenous Religion.

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(e) Taboos
Taboos on marriage relations prohibit incestuous relationships and this helps in protecting African
identity. An incestuous relationship is whereby blood relatives have a sexual intimate relationship. Proper
marriage relations ensure that African identity is maintained. Furthermore, taboos associated with food,
like avoidance of eating one’s own totem maintains the identity of Africans as well as the environmental
taboos which prevent the erosion of the African identity.

Activity 6.3 Discussion

In pairs, discuss things which are affecting African identity and give solutions to problems affecting African
identity.

Exercise 6.3
1. The African beliefs systems and practices shapes African identity.
(a) What is African identity? [2]
(b) Identify any four ways of identifying an African. [4]
(c) Explain how African identity can be promoted. [6]

Interesting facts
Mbira music is a category associated with African spirituality.
Summary of the chapter
•• Technology has impacted on family relations.
•• Most rituals done in Indigenous Religion have been ignored because of Christianity.
•• The family is an important social institution.
•• The family in Indigenous Religion include the father and the mother with their children, all relatives
of the father and relatives of the mother.
•• The family values and norms have been affected by agents of cultural change.
•• Human rights and ICT are major agents of cultural change.
•• National values and good citizenship can be promoted by the family.
•• Religion shapes national identity and good citizenship.
•• Unhu or Ubuntu is symbol of national identity in Zimbabwe.
•• Good behaviour and conduct is regulated by religion.
•• Africans have an identity which is unique.
Glossary of terms
Ancestor veneration – the respect given to the living dead (ancestors).
Cultural change – the changing of societal values and norms.
Culture – the way of life of the people.
Monogamy – the marriage where there is one husband and one wife.
Morals – character and behaviour which is regarded as good by the society.
National values – these are things which are cherished by the country.
Rituals – customs or ceremonies repeated for a religious purpose.
Taboos – avoidance rules which regulate people’s behaviour.
Totems – t hese are animals, body parts of animals or other essential things valued by the
clan as sacred.

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Revision Exercise
Structured Questions
1. The family is an important basic social unit in indigenous society.
(a) Define family. [2]
(b) List four agents of cultural change which have affected the family. [4]
(c) Explain how the family has been affected by cultural change. [6]
(d) Describe the effects of cultural change on family relations. [8]
2. The family has been affected by globalisation.
(a) What is globalisation? [2]
(b) State four members of the family in Indigenous Religion. [4]
(c) Explain how the role of the aunt promotes family values. [6]
(d) Describe how religion has been affected by globalisation. [8]
3. Values are at the centre of Indigenous Religion.
(a) Define values. [2]
(b) State any four values derived from family. [4]
(c) Describe how family promote national values. [6]
(d) Explain values that come from family. [8]
4. Religion promote national values.
(a) Define national values. [2]
(b) State four national values of Zimbabwe. [4]
(c) Describe the national values of Zimbabwe. [6]
(d) Explain the role of religion in the promotion of national values. [8]

Essay Questions
1. Describe how the family has influenced by cultural change. [25]
2. Using examples, discuss the role of the family in promoting national values. [25]
3. Describe the role of religion in the promotion of national values. [25]
4. Show how Indigenous Religion promote good citizenship. [25]
5. Examine how Indigenous Religion helps in promoting African identity. [25]

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 Chapter RELIGION AND

7 EDUCATION

Chapter Objectives
By the end of the chapter, you should be able to:
•• assess the role of religion in nation building.
•• explain the role played by various religions in the development of educational and human
resource capacity building.
•• examine the negative impact of religion on education.

Introduction
The previous chapter has dealt with religion and the family. This chapter is focusing on religion and
education. The definitions of education and nation building are going to be given and a description on
how education is involved in nation building will be given. This chapter will also explain the role played
by various religions in the development of educational and human resource capacity building. Lastly this
chapter will examine the negative impact of religion on education.

UNIT 7.1 RELIGION AND EDUCATION

Religion has played an important role in the development of education. Educational institutions were first
introduced by religion and were later adopted by the secular world. Education is defined as the process of
facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits. This happens in both
formal and non-formal education. Education is one of the most important foundations towards building a
strong and vibrant nation. As such, it is an investment which ensures that the nation has knowledgeable
and skilled manpower. Educated citizens of the country bring fame, wealth and prosperity to the country
which help in the development of a country. This leads to nation building.
Nation building is defined as constructing a national identity with which it is known by the world like having
a flag, national anthem, values and ethos. Nation building is important for unity, peace and development.
The role of religion in nation building
Religion is a binding force in any society in which beliefs, actions and principles are important in nation
building. Religious values have high ethical and moral demands which are critical in nation building.
Zimbabwe is home to various religions which are important in nation building. Christianity is the religion
with the largest followers, followed by Indigenous Religion while Islam is steadily growing in Zimbabwe
and Judaism has an insignificant number of followers.

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The adherents of these religions enjoy freedom of worship in establishing and practicing their religions.
Of interest is that all these religions in Zimbabwe have common values which are beneficial to the nation.
They all believe in one Supreme Being, the Creator of the nation as well as the Sustainer of the nation.
These religions have norms like hard work, morality, peace, justice and equity which are common and
have a positive bearing on nation building. The reward and punishment in these religions in Zimbabwe
are meant to encourage responsible behaviour which is important in nation building. So religion has many
roles to play in nation building.
1. Religion reduces conflicts by promoting peace
Peace is a term which is derived from the Latin word pax which means freedom from civil disorder. It
is within this context that religion plays an important role in cultivating peace which makes people live
in peace and harmony. It reduces conflicts in society. For example, Christianity played an important role
during the 2017 political crisis in Zimbabwe by encouraging dialogue between the former president
Robert Mugabe and the former army General Constantino Chiwenga. This is because in Christianity they
believe in national healing. Christianity uses the teachings of Jesus and his commandments to instil the
value of cherishing peace. Judaism has the Ten Commandments while Islam uses the Quran and the hadith
to encourage peace. Therefore, all religions in Zimbabwe encourage peace.
2. Religion promotes justice in society
Justice is a concept based on ethics, law and equity. Justice is a virtue of all national institutions. Religion
encourages fairness and truthfulness in dealing with each other. For example, the land issue in Zimbabwe
shows the role of religion in nation building by encouraging fairness in the distribution of resources.
Indigenous Religion through its view of land as a sacred inheritance helped in the empowerment of the
black indigenous people through support of the land reform program. Religions in Zimbabwe conform to
the notion of justice for example Indigenous Religion has traditional courts, Judaism and Christianity use
the Bible to condemn injustice and Muslims have the sharia law. All these courts are there to ensure justice
in society. The religious concept of justice is connected to the concept of reward and punishment. Those
who are fair and just in their dealing contribute to nation building. The Catholic Church has the Catholic
Commission for Justice and Peace which fosters peace and justice in the country.
3. Promotion of love and tolerance
Love is a strong affection towards something while tolerance is willingness to recognise and respect
beliefs or practices of others. Tolerance ensures that one accepts diversity in thinking and practices. The
two concepts are related and have a connection to nation building as they ensure the existence of a stable
society. Key attributes which lead to nation building like co-existence, forgiveness and peace are also
derived from tolerance. Therefore, love and tolerance are critical components in nation building as they
cultivate peace and harmony among citizens.
4. Religion encourages obedience to the law
Religion plays an important role in nation building as it encourages obedience to the law. In Indigenous
Religion failure to obey laws of the land result in one being given punishment by the traditional court. In
Judaism obedience to the law is part of the covenantal obligation. In Christianity they also believe that
obedience is better than sacrifice and in Islam the Sharia requires total adherence to it. Failure to obey the
law in all religions result in judgement and punishment. As such, religion plays a role in nation building by
creating a society that is law abiding than a lawless society.
5. Respect for human life
Nation building is realised when human life is valued. It is because of religion which condemns murder

76
or killing of each other which makes society a better place for all. In Indigenous Religion killing another
person results in avenging spirits which affect the murderer and it is because of the existence of avenging
spirits in Indigenous Religion that nation building is encouraged. Judaism also condemns murder or
trivialising murder as the Decalogue stipulate that killing is a religious offence. In Christianity human life
is also valued as they use the Decalogue and the purpose of Jesus’ life in ensuring eternal life as the basis
of understanding respect for human life. In Islam killing another human being is punishable by death
according to the Sharia law. So, valuing human life as encouraged by religions promote nation building
through prevention of unwarranted loss of human life.
6. Religion encourages forgiveness
Forgiveness is an act of pardoning an offender or a voluntary process by which the victim changes positively
towards the offender. Religion plays a key role in ensuring the forgiveness of others. For example, after the
liberation struggle, the national reconciliation and truth commission was established to ensure that the
society move on without the past hindering progress of the society. It is an attribute taught in all religions
which helps in promoting unity.
7. Religion encourages social responsibility
Social responsibility is doing something for the benefit of the community in which one lives. Religion
encourages social responsibility as it encourages its followers to help the family, community and nation
in which one lives. In Indigenous Religion helping the needy is social responsibility which pleases the
ancestors. This is supported the by the Zunde Ramambo initiative which is a facility used by chiefs to
support poor families under the chief’s jurisdiction. It is even supported by the government by distributing
agricultural inputs and equipment to chiefs in Zimbabwe.
In Christianity social responsibility is seen through helping the needy and construction of educational
institutions like Mukaro Mission of the Roman Catholic Church, Anderson Adventist High of the Seventh
Day Adventist (SDA) and Gutu High of the Reformed Church in Zimbabwe (RCZ). The Roman Catholic
Church constructed health institutions like Musiso Mission and Driafontein. Islam has also established
the Muslim youth organisation to cater for the unemployed youths. As such through social responsibility
religion plays an important role in ensuring that the marginalised are supported and poor communities
are assisted with construction of institutions which can uplift their status.
8. Religion promotes good governance
Religion provides a role model for good governance and by so doing play a role in nation building.
Governance is a concept which means the performance or conduct of the government. It deals with how
leaders govern people. All religions recognise a system of electing a leader, rule of law and order, unbiased
unaccountability and a system of public welfare which are all features of governance. In Indigenous
Religion, the concept of traditional leadership provides a role model in which the modern society can
emulate in nation building by ensuring respect for leaders and having interest in the welfare of the people.
In Christianity, paying tax is a religious mandate and tax is important in nation building. According to
Romans 13 vs. 1 says, “Let every person be subject to the governing authorities. For there is no authority except
from God…”. To add on, Romans 13 vs. 7 says, “pay all of them their dues, taxes to whom taxes are due, revenue
to whom revenue is due…” . These two verses show the role of Christianity in nation building as it encourages
citizens to respect those in authority and to pay tax. In Islam, the political system is controlled by religion
and as such governance is a religious issue.
Religion and the development of educational institutions
Religions which include Judaism, Christianity and Islam have managed to establish educational

77
institutions which have helped in nation building and capacity building. Indigenous Religion has no
formal educational institutions because its education system is more of informal than formal. Thus, other
religions in Zimbabwe have educational institutions which are critical in the development of the country.
These educational institutions range from primary schools, secondary schools, vocational training centres,
colleges and universities.
Educational institutions in Judaism
Judaism because of its fewer followers has not managed to establish many educational institutions in
Zimbabwe. The establishment of educational institutions shows the acceptance of responsibility of Judaism
in giving education to the nation. Judaism has two established educational institutions in Zimbabwe.
1. Sharon Primary School
This is a school which was established in 1961 in
Harare. It began to offer education in the building
meant for the congregation. It is a school which
enrol all people regardless of gender, race, religion
or ethnicity. The school offers a robust Jewish
religious, historical and national education. At this
school, a Jewish Youth Centre is housed where
youth empowerment activities are done to assist Fig. 7.1 The logo of a Jewish educational institution
school leavers and communal leaders. Sharon High School in Harare

2. Camel Primary School

This is a school of Jewish orientation found in
Bulawayo. It was established in 1958 where
students are studying Hebrew and the Old
Testament alongside other curriculum subjects in
the national curriculum. It is a school which is now
offering education to diverse students of all religious
affiliations. At this school all students celebrate the
Sabbath, observe Jewish festivals and holidays and
study the Old Testament.
Educational institutions in Christianity
The Zimbabwean educational sector is awash with Fig. 7.2 Students at Camel School in Bulawayo
educational institutions of Christian orientation.
Some of the schools were established during colonialism by missionaries who belonged to various
denominations like the Roman Catholic Church, Reformed Church in Zimbabwe, Anglican Church,
Evangelical Lutheran church, Baptist church and the United Methodist Church. Establishing a school in the
country was a requirement of registering a church during the colonial era. This led to the establishment of
many missionary centres and schools. Other educational institutions were established by indigenous black
people who formed their own churches and these include the Zion Christian Church, African apostolic
Sabbath church and the ZAOGA.

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Schools of Christian orientation
(a) Catholic educational institutions

•• St Bernard High School in Pumula Bulawayo. •• Dominican Convent in Harare

•• Kutama Mission •• Gokomere High School in Masvingo
•• Christian Brothers College in Bulawayo •• St Georges College is Jersuit Boys School in
•• St Dominic High School in Chishawasha Harare
•• Bondolfi Teacher’s college
•• Catholic University
(b) Adventist educational institutions

•• Mundondo Adventist High School in Gutu, Masvingo

•• Mashapa Adventist Secondary School in Nyajena, Masvingo
•• Francis Aphiri Primary School in Mucheke, Masvingo
•• Anderson Adventist High School in Midlands
•• Solusi University in Bulawayo
(c) Methodist educational institutions

•• Sandringham High School in Mashonaland West

•• Kwenda Mission in Hwedza
•• Waddilove High School in Marondera
•• Africa University
(d) Church of Christ educational institutions

•• Dewure High School in Gutu Masvingo

•• Mashoko Christian High school
•• Masvingo Christian College
•• Chiredzi Christian College
•• Dayadaya High School in Zvishavane
•• Mushaviri Church of Christ secondary school in Gutu
(e) Anglican educational institutions

•• St James Mission in Nyamandlovu

•• Peterhouse in Marondera
•• Daramombe High School in Mashonaland East
(f) Lutheran evangelical fellowship Zimbabwe

•• Chegato High school in Mberengwa

•• Munene Primary and High school in Mberengwa
•• Masase High School in Mberengwa
•• Musume High School in Mberengwa
•• Manama High School in Gwanda
(g) Apostolic Sabbath church

•• St Noah Secondary School in Buhera

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Educational institutions in Islam
Islam has established educational institutions which provide education to Zimbabweans. These educational
institutions include:
(a) D
 aarul ilm Islamic Educational Centre in waterfalls, Harare. It has a boys’ training centre and an academy
for secondary education, Girls training centre and a children’s home.
(b) M
 ubeena Ibrahim Primary School in Belvedere which teaches the curriculum offered by the Ministry of
Primary and Secondary Education.
Activity 7.1 Research
In groups, conduct a research on the role of religious organisations in educational infrastructure development
in Zimbabwe

Exercise 7.1
Answer the following questions with True or False.
1. Religion plays an important role in education.
2. Human resource is the only core business of education.
3. The reward and punishment in religion is meant to encourage responsible behaviour which is important
in nation building.
4. Islam does not contribute meaningfully to nation building.
5. Religion promotes tolerance.
6. Bad governance is a result of the failure of religion to cultivate good behaviour.
7. Religion has helped in the establishment of educational institutions in Zimbabwe.
8. Indigenous religion has schools and universities which contribute to nation building and capacity
building.

UNIT 7.2 RELIGION AND ESTABLISHMENT OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS AND

CAPACITY BUILDING

Religion and human resource capacity building

Educational institutions are areas where learning can take place for example in schools, colleges and
universities whereas capacity building can be defined as a process by which individuals and organisations
get, improve and retain skills, knowledge and resources needed to do their jobs competently. In simple
terms capacity building can be defined as the development and cementing of human and institutional
resources.
There are many educational institutions which are religious oriented, they help in the development and
strengthening of human and organisational resources. These institutions help so much in capacity building
as well as providing the country with competent human resource.
1. Judaism
Judaism is also another religion which has been involved in nation building. In Zimbabwe for example it is
involved in then provision of education by having two schools namely Carmel in Bulawayo and Sharon in
Harare. These schools have the mandate to provide education which is critical for Zimbabwe’s development.
Judaism therefore has led to human development through the training of Zimbabwean citizens which has
helped the empowerment of the people to become self-reliant.

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Role of Judaism in capacity building
•• Imparting of knowledge and skills, for example, Carmel school in Bulawayo is an educational
institution which imparts knowledge and skills in Zimbabwe.
•• Construction of schools is another role of Judaism in capacity building as it has constructed Carmel
Primary School in Bulawayo and Sharon Primary School in Harare.

2. Christianity

There are several Christian institutions in Zimbabwe that have contributed to capacity building. For
example, the Roman Catholic Church has schools which include Gokomere, St Antony, and Mukaro among
others which provide primary as well as secondary education. There are also colleges and universities of
catholic orientation like Bondolfi Teachers’ College as well the Catholic University. The same can be said of
when looking at the Reformed Church in Zimbabwe, Seventh Day Adventist and the Anglican Church. All
these educational institutions have been critical in Zimbabwe’s nation building through education. These
institutions do not only assist people of that religion or faith but assist the whole nation.
There are also nurse training institutions run by churches. The church has also been instrumental in
educating those who are disabled for instance Capota School for the blind run by Reformed Church in
Zimbabwe (RCZ).
Role of Christianity in capacity building
•• Imparting of knowledge and skills. Mukaro Mission of the Roman Catholic Church for example
offers education which is important in capacity building. There are several Christian oriented
schools which have played a major role in capacity building like St Noah of Marange Apostolic
Church, Chegato High school of Lutheran Church, Rufaro High School of the Apostolic Faith Mission,
Dewure high school of Church of Christ, Gutu mission of Reformed Church in Zimbabwe as well as
Anderson high school of the Seventh Day Adventist church.
•• Training of human resources. Bondolfi Teachers’ College for example trains primary school teachers
who are employed to serve the nation. The Roman Catholic Church has managed to establish
a human resource training institution in form of a college. Other teachers’ colleges of Christian
orientation include Morgenster Teachers College of the Reformed church in Zimbabwe and Nyadire
Teachers’ College of the United Methodist Church.
•• Construction of educational institutions. For example, the Reformed Church University in Masvingo
is being constructed in Masvingo as well as Africa University of the United Methodist Church in
Manicaland was constructed by the church. Solusi University of the Seventh Day Adventist church
is also an educational institution established by the Seventh Day Adventist Church.
•• Instilling values. Christianity has assisted in instilling values like honest, respect, tolerance, humility
and peace in believers through its teachings which has helped in the production of good citizens.

Activity 7.2 Educational Tour

As a class, visit a religious institution of your choice which has enhanced capacity building. Make some notes on
the role of religion in national development.
Activity 7.3 Discussion
In groups, discuss the role of religious institutions in human resource capacity building in Zimbabwe. Your
illustration should be supported by examples.

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Exercise 7.2
1. Socialisation is a process of internalising norms and values of the society.
(a) What is socialisation? [2]
(b) List any four agents of socialisation. [4]
(c) Describe the role of the family in Islam in socialising children. [6]

UNIT 7.3 NEGATIVE IMPACT OF RELIGION ON EDUCATION

Religion gives hope to the people as it explains the purpose of life and binding the fabric of the society.
It is within this context that religion has played a role in education. However, despite the importance of
religion in society it has impacted heavily on education. This impact can be explained in terms of positive
and negative. In this case the negative impact will be examined.
1. It creates conflict
Religion impact negatively on education by providing fertile ground for conflict formulation where people
end up disagreeing on issues. For example, students from a Christian institution may end up fighting
Muslims because of differences in beliefs and practices. Furthermore, conflicts may also happen between
members of different Christian denominations because of sharp differences in beliefs.
2. It creates stigma and discrimination
Stigma can be defined as the shame or disgrace attached to something regarded as socially unacceptable.
Discrimination refers to an unjust treatment of different people on the ground of race, age, sex and beliefs.
Religion may end up leading to discrimination as learners from a religious institution may discriminate
those who are not part of the religion which he or she is a member. For example, if one is from a Christian
institution and happen to meet with believers of Indigenous Religion the learner may feel uncomfortable
to mix with believers of Indigenous Religion and in turn may have certain prejudices against believers of
Indigenous Religion leading to discrimination. Labels will be given to others who are not followers of that
religion. This creates classes in society.
3. It leads to religious indoctrination
Indoctrination is a process of teaching a person or a group to accept a set of beliefs uncritically. As such
religion can lead to indoctrination as learners are educated to accept beliefs without reasoning. The
religious educational institution will lead to the indoctrination of students. This may lead to religious
conflict as indoctrination is not good for promoting tolerance and inclusivity.
4. It leads to some prejudice
Religion can lead to people to have preconceived ideas that are not based on facts. Favouritism is a prejudice
of religion on education as people may have a bias against people who are not believers of their religion.
For example, Christians have some prejudice against members of Indigenous Religion. There is prejudice
in the learning environment which emanates from religion. For example, a learner maybe prejudiced of
assistance by the teacher because of his or her beliefs.
5. It leads to cultural change
Religion can lead to cultural change because of education. A learner may change his or her culture after
enrolling at an educational institution inclined to a particular religion. For example, one changes his
indigenous language to Arabic after enrolling at an Islamic educational institution or one may deny the
name he or she is given by adopting a new name in relation to the religion which he or she now believes

82
in after enrolling at a religious institution. This also leads to the change of culture as the learner may shift
from his or her culture to the culture that is advanced through religion that is dominant at the educational
institution.
6. It promotes lack of tolerance
Learning at an institution where one religion dominates leads to lack of tolerance as the student may
fail to accommodate other religious views from other people. For example, if a student is learning at a
Roman Catholic institution if he or she meets students from a Pentecostal institution, the student will fail
to tolerate the value of speaking in tongues.
7. It leads to demonization of other religions
Regarding other religions as evil or bad is another impact of religion on education. For example, if one
is learning at a Christian institution he or she may end up demonising Indigenous Religion beliefs on
ancestral spirits. There is a general treatment of the other religions as the “other” and it is through such
labels that some religions will be regarded as bad for people to follow.

Activities 7.4 Research

Conduct a research on the role of religion in capacity building in your community. Compile a presentation on
how these religions enhance capacity building through their educational institutions. Present your findings in
the class.

Exercise 7.4
1. Explain the impact of religion on education. [12]

Interesting facts
1. Zimbabwe has high literacy rate in Africa than any other nation.
2. Indigenous Religion has no formal institutions which offer education.
Summary of the chapter
•• Religion contributes a lot in educating the nation.
•• Religion is a catalyst in nation building.
•• Development is driven by religion in so many ways.
•• In Zimbabwe there are educational institutions of Islamic orientation, Christian orientation and
Judaism affiliated institutions.
•• Indigenous Religion contribute in nation building through its informal education imparted at
home and in the community.
•• All religions contribute to the gaining and improvement of knowledge and skills of Zimbabwean
citizens.
•• Christianity dominates in terms of contribution in the educational sector in Zimbabwe.
•• The family is the basic unit of socialisation in all religions which contribute to the education of
children.
•• Important values are taped from various religions which are important in capacity building.
•• Religion can impact positively and negatively on education.

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Glossary of terms
Capacity building –  a process by which individuals and organisations get, improve and retain
skills, knowledge and resources needed to do their jobs competently.
Curriculum –  the learning areas given in a country or at a school. In short it refers to
subject taught in educational institutions.
Education – is the process by which knowledge and skills are obtained.
Educational institutions – these are places where education is offered to the people.
Impact – these are results
Infrastructure – the buildings used for educational purposes.
Nation –  is a group of people who live in one country who share the same values
and identity.
Nation building –  it is the construction of a national identity with which a nation is known
by the world like having a flag, national anthem, values and ethos
Supreme Being – t he creator who is regarded as Mwari in Indigenous Religion, Yahweh in
Judaism, God in Christianity and Allah in Islam.

Revision Exercises
Structured Questions
1. Education plays an important role in nation building.
(a) Define nation building. [2]
(b) Outline four role of education in nation building. [4]
(c) Give reasons why education is important. [6]
(d) Describe the role of Christianity in nation building. [8]
2. Religion is fundamental in nation building.
(a) Define religion. [2]
(b) State any four activities done by religion in nation building. [4]
(c) Describe the role of religion in nation building. [6]
(d) Explain the role of religion in nation building. [8]
3. The church play an important role in the promotion of education in Zimbabwe.
(a) Define education. [2]
(b) Outline any four church related educational institution. [4]
(c) Describe the role of the church in the promotion of education in Zimbabwe. [6]
(d) Explain the contribution of the church on the education system in Zimbabwe. [8]
4. Religion gives hope to the people as it explains the purpose of life and binding the fabric of the
society.
(a) What is society? [2]
(b) Name four religions which are dominant in Zimbabwe. [4]
(c) Describe the positive impact of religion on education. [6]
(d) Explain the negative impact of religion on education. [8]

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Essay Questions
1. Describe the role of religion in education. [25]
2. Explain the role of religion in national building. [25]
3. Using examples of educational institutions, describe the role of religion in capacity building. [25]
4. Write explanatory notes on the negative impact of religion on education. [25]
5. Describe the role of religion in human resource development. [25]

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 Chapter
RELIGION AND GENDER

8 ROLES

Chapter Objectives
By the end of the chapter, you should be able to:
•• identify what various religions say on gender.
•• explain gender roles in the various religions.
•• identify forms of gender-based violence.
•• identify causes of gender-based violence.
•• state possible religious ways of solving gender based violence.

Introduction
The issue of gender roles and expectations pervades all religions. This chapter focuses on religion and
gender because religion shapes societal attitude towards women. This chapter will first define gender and
then describe various religious views on gender. The chapter will also explain gender roles in the various
religions. Furthermore, the chapter identifies forms of gender-based violence as well as highlight causes
of gender based violence. Lastly this chapter will give possible religious ways of solving gender-based
violence.

UNIT 8.1 GENDER IN VARIOUS RELIGIONS

Gender can be defined as the distinction between

a male and a female in terms of their social and
cultural roles and behaviour. As such, gender is
culturally constructed and this differs with sex
which is biologically constructed. It is within this
context that males and females are identified in
terms of masculine and feminine. Therefore, there
are certain duties which are expected to be done by
men and others by women.
Gender roles refers to learned behaviours by a
person as appropriate to their gender, determined
by prevailing cultural norms. Gender roles are
cultural and personal. They determine how females
and males should think, speak, dress and interact Fig. 8.1 Women coming from fetching water
within the context of society.

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Religious views on gender
Religion encompasses beliefs and practices associated with the supernatural. It is because of these beliefs
and practices which have been shaped by masculine perspective that determine religious views on
gender in many societies. Various religions have various views concerning gender since gender is culturally
constructed. Culture encompasses religion and there are various perceptions of gender in religion.
1. INDIGENOUS RELIGION (IR)
African concepts of gender are integral to the people’s religious experience and by implication their social
life as well. As such, the issues of gender in Indigenous Religion are viewed within the context of it being
a way of life. Gender is viewed within the context of the culture of the indigenous people. The basis of
gender perceptions in Indigenous Religion is clear in myths which explains the identity and roles of men
and women. From Indigenous Religion, issues such as myths, stories and proverbs are identified with
different gender roles in which women played an important role in society, economic and political life of
the indigenous people. Women in Indigenous Religion have a more complementary role as they help their
male counterparts.
Social roles of women in Indigenous Religion.
(a) Motherhood role
A woman is defined by her role as the mother.
A mother is supposed to take care of the family.
The Shona adage ‘musha mukadzi/ukuma komuzi
ngumfazi’ which literally means a best home has
a woman proverb shows the motherhood role of
a woman. This encourages indigenous women to
work hard to ensure that the family is developing.
In Ndebele a woman is umama (mother) who does
not sleep until sunrise but getting up early in the
morning and makes a Ndebele home good. This
is supported by the proverb, “undodana wathatha
inyoka yomfazi elala ilanga lize lingene emlonyeni”
which means a woman who is mother should not Fig. 8.2 A kitchen for an indigenous woman
be lazy but should work for the family.
The Xangani people believe that a woman should show love to her family as well as provide for the family.
This is the reason behind kukhomba ceremony where a woman is taught how to become a mother. A
mother in Xangani has a role to provide love and warmth to the family.
(b) Respecting the husband
Women should respect their husbands it is the duty of the woman to respect her husband. When addressing
her husband, she should say Lord and kneel down when talking with her husband as well as serving food.
A woman who does not respect her husband is regarded as a disgrace and an untutored wife. In Venda
a woman should avoid at all costs to stand when greeting her husband, elders and the chief. In fact, the
woman is expected to bow down or kneel down when greeting men. It is a sign of lacking respect for one
to stand when talking to her husband. As a sign of respecting authority, women in Venda are also expected
to kneel when cooking than standing or sitting on a chair.

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(c) Child bearing role
A woman is more celebrated when she conceives
and bear children. Women are extremely important
in Indigenous Religion not because of bearing
children alone but also by the way they nurse,
cherish, give warmth and care to children. If a
woman is barren in Indigenous Religion she is given
pejorative names like ngomwa. This is because in
Indigenous Religion a woman’s main role is to bear
children. Failure to bear children is regarded as a
non-fulfilment of a woman’s role. A woman who
does not bear children has no role in society and
being childless is an attribute which denies one of Fig. 8.3 Women with babies
her roles of womanhood.
In Xangani child bearing is still valued and the purpose of marriage is to produce children. Bearing children
is a major role of women in Xangani which shows the value of women mothers. Among the Shona if a
woman of the age of marriage dies without bearing a child, she is buried with a maize cob. The maize cob
represents the child she should have given birth to in her lifetime. This shows the essential part of child
bearing among women in various indigenous groups in Zimbabwe.
(d) Performing household duties
Women had a role in fulfilling household chores like cooking, washing and fetching water. Women are
expected to perform some household chores. This is the reason why young girls grow up being taught
how to do the cooking, washing and fetching of water. In Ndebele women are expected to sweep around
the homestead, cleaning kitchen wares, bring water from the well, make fire to make family warm and
cook. This is similar to women’s roles in Xangani and Venda where all household chores belong to women.
If a woman keeps her homestead unclean, it reflects that she did not have enough lessons about her
obligations as a woman.
(e) Advisory role
Women as aunt have a special role in the family as she advises girls of marriageable age to on marriage
matters as well as motherhood roles. The aunt also advices boys and girls in the family and she is valued
because of that. She is regarded as babakadzi meaning maternal father because of her role in the family.
Thus, women are counsellors, judges and advisors in Indigenous Religion. In Venda the aunt is known as
makhadzi and she has a role in advising the family during disputes within the family like marital conflicts.
In Ndebele the aunt is known as ubabakhadzi who advise the family especially on marriage issues and
in Tonga the aunt is regarded as baandi. In Venda, women especially aunts (makhadzi) have a role to
maintain cohesion within the family by approving and disapproving wives coming into the family as well
as maintaining the unity of the family.
If a woman misbehaves when she is married, the blame is put on the aunts who are supposed to advise the
daughter of her brother. Women can be seen that they have a crucial advisory role in the family matters.
(f) Socialisation Role
Socialisation is defined as a process of learning how to behave in a way that is acceptable to a society. It
involves the acquiring of values, norms and attitude from childhood to adulthood. Women in Indigenous
Religion play an important role in the socialisation of children as they are the first teachers. They teach
children about how to behave and have values. For example, respecting elders, hardworking and dressing

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are some of the things which women as mothers socialise their children.
Religious roles of women in Indigenous Religion
(i) Healing
Women are also healers in Indigenous Religion as
they act as diviners and healers. They heal through
herbal medicine, exorcism and use of razor incision to
heal problems of infertility, miscarriages, headaches,
stomach-ache and other diseases. They use natural
properties of plant species like nhundugwa (shrub),
gavakava (aloe) for overcoming navel inflammation
while jekacheka (sharp bladed grass to overcome
menstrual pain. Fig. 8.5 An indigenous woman who is a healer

Women in Indigenous Religion perform roles of giving herbal medicine to the people. For example, Mbuya
Ganga who resides in Mufakose is a healer and diviner who assist people with various health problems.
(ii) Women act as midwives
It is important to note that pregnant women are assisted with midwives in giving birth. The midwives
ensure safe delivery of the baby as well as the safety of the mother. If there are complications in giving
birth, the midwife is there to ask from the ancestors to assist or intervene. Midwives also massage the
mother during delivery, maintain hygiene in the place of delivery as well as cut the umbilical code after the
child is born. Lastly, they ensure that the baby is protected from coldness after being born.
(iii) Women are involved ancestor veneration
Women partake in ritual service in Indigenous Religion. The African society is full of rituals and women
have a role to play as religious personalities like healers and mediums as well as helping with brewing of
beer used during rituals like rain making ceremonies, libation and home bringing ceremony. In Xangani
during the birth of a daughter, a ritual cleansing is led by the grandmother (kokwana) which shows the role
of women in ritual action in Xangani.
(iv) Women as mediums and diviners
Women are mediums and diviners. The spiritual world makes their wishes known to the human world
through mediums and diviners. For example, Mbuya Nehanda and Mbuya Tangwena are some of the
mediums used by the spirit world to convey their messages. In Venda, makhadzi facilitate communication
with the ancestors. This implies that women have a religious role not only of acting as mediums but also
facilitating communications between the living and the ancestors. This implies that mediums in Venda
work with the makhadzi.
(v) Women partake in rites of passage
Women play important roles in the rites of passage by performing rituals. At birth they ensure that the
baby is safe by performing rituals so that the baby grows well. At puberty they teach young girls about
the mysteries of womanhood. For example, during the initiation of girls in Xangani it is the role of elderly
women to teach young girls about female sexuality as well as other things relating to the life of a girl and
a woman.
(vi) Musical role
There are several religious ceremonies which require music in Indigenous Religion. For example, libation,

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home bringing ceremony and rain making ceremony are rituals which require songs and dance. Women
have a musical role to play at various religious functions in indigenous ceremonies. Music inspire mediums
and diviners to have a link with the spirit world.
Political roles of women in Indigenous Religion
(a) Leadership role
Women also acted as leaders in Indigenous Religion. For example, Mbuya Nehanda was the leader in the
first Chimurenga and she led the black uprising against white rule. In Venda, makhadzi (aunt) can act as a
leader of the clan after the death of a chief. The Venda traditional leadership is tripartite as it involves the
chief, the makhadzi (chief’s paternal aunt) and the ndumi (chiefs’ partenal uncle. The makhadzi is more
powerful in Venda because she rules with the chief and can also assume the throne as a leader. A chief
cannot rule on his own without makhadzi. She can also act as a regent as well as ensuring the smooth
succession of chieftaincy.
(b) Decision making role
They also made political decisions. For example, Mbuya Charwe popularly known as Mbuya Nehanda
decided that the black people should defend their heritage from white settlers during the first Chimurenga.
In the Venda political system, the makhadzi means one who commands a lot of respect by virtue of her age
and position. Makhadzi plays an important role in the decision-making process of a chief.
(c) Advisory role
Women had a political role of advising. Firstly, they acted as political advisors during the liberation struggle.
For example, Mbuya Tangwena a spirit medium who advised freedom fighters to fight against white
settlers during the second Chimurenga. In the traditional political organisation, women acted the same
role of advising chiefs. For example, the chiefs’ aunt and the wife of the chief played a political advisory role
in the traditional system of governance.
(d) Women acted as freedom fighters
The coming of white settlers to Zimbabwe led to the displacement of indigenous people from their land
and there was a lot of oppression of black people. In response to this colonial injustice indigenous men
and women fought against the white colonial regime. The liberation struggle was not only fought by men
alone as women were also at the battle front together with their male counter parts. For example, during
the second Chimurenga women like Joyce Teurairopa Mujuru and Oppah Muchinguri were freedom
fighters. So, women played an important role in fighting colonial injustices.
Economic roles of women in Indigenous Religion
(a) Making clay pots and baskets for sell
Women had also a role in the economic life of the indigenous people. They made clay pots and baskets
which contributed to the family income. In Ndebele culture women have to manufacture utensils, baskets,
mats and so on for family use and economic purpose while in Xangani women make pottery, grass mats
which are used as sleeping mates as well as siting mats which they sell. The selling of such wares brought
revenue to the family which was used to buy other things needed by the family.
(b) Women as paid diviners and healers
Enterprise in Indigenous Religion include healing. Healing is a form of business conducted by women and
it contribute economically to the family as it is not done for free.
Diviners and healers are paid for their services. Herbs are used to heal various ailments as well as diagnosing

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problems affecting people through divination is paid for. It is through that payment that women had a role
in the economic life of the indigenous people as the income is used to support the family of the diviner.
(c) Selling of agricultural produce
Agriculture is the mainstay of the economic system of the indigenous people. Women produced so many
agricultural products which they can sell. Agricultural production by women for selling purpose shows
their economic role. Women own a field known as tseu where they grow groundnuts, roundnuts and other
farm produce for the family to get income. Women are also responsible for clearing the fields before the
rainy season in preparation for ploughing crops. In modern days, women can also be seen in the agricultural
sector as farmers as sellers of the agricultural produce at different market places.

Social role of men in Indigenous Religion

1. Advise children especially boys
Men in Indigenous Religion have a social role of advising children. They mainly advise boys as they grow
up. It is the duty of the grandfather and uncle to socialise boys on what is expected of them as a man in
society. Boys are advised on sexual and reproductive matters. In Tonga, the elderly men and the father
have a role in advising boys about issues of growing up so that boys will grow up to become responsible
citizens.
2. Fatherhood role
Parenting is a role played by the father in Indigenous Religion. As a father, men are supposed to fend for
the family. Men are regarded as the head of the family because of their role as the father. In Ndebele the
father (ubaba) has a role to defend the family as well as providing for the family. In Xangani, father (tata)
is the provider of everything for the family like food, clothing, protection and many other provisions. Men
(vevanuna) in Xangani should support the fatherhood role of supporting the family in different forms.
3. Teaching boys self-reliant jobs
In Indigenous Religion boys are to grow up knowing how to survive by doing self-reliant jobs like thatching,
building construction, blacksmithing, carpentry as well as drum making. All these jobs are there to make
men survive in the society and the father had role to ensure that the boy grow in a way will make him
survive in society. In Ndebele, boys or men are supposed to fence the fields, digging wells and trenches as
well as constructing structures required at home while in Xangani men (vevanuna) have to be industrious
by doing what they have been taught during initiation ceremony to be self-reliant.
4. Looking after the flock
The indigenous people value animals like goats, cattle and sheep. These domestic animals are a source of
wealth and power. Men have the role to look after the flock among the indigenous people. For example,
in Ndebele cattle are taken to the pastures early in the morning by men known as ukuyachakisa where as
in Shona they call it kufudza.
Religious role of men in Indigenous Religion
1. Representatives of ancestors as mediums and diviners
Men have a religious role of acting as representatives of the ancestors. As such men are mediums, diviners
and rain making messengers. Some of the prominent men who performed the role of being mediums
include Sekuru Kaguvi and Chaminuka.
There are various male spirit mediums in different Zimbabwean communities.

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2. Officiation during ritual action
There are many rituals in Indigenous Religion in which men lead and officiate. Some of the rituals include
libation, home bringing ceremony and ritual cleansing. In all these rituals men are leaders and officials
because in Indigenous Religion men are required to lead since they know the generation of the ancestors
and in most cases, women would have been married leaving men to ensure that family spirits are venerated
through various rituals. Furthermore, women because of their sexuality are not supposed to lead rituals in
Indigenous Religion unless they have reached menopause. In Xangani, during the birth of a child a ritual is
done in which the eldest man of the family acts as a priest when sacrifices are made to the ancestors and
when illness is caused by spirits from the mother’s lineage, a child’s mother’s brother (malume) acts as a
priest.
3. Healers
There are several male herbalists who heal people of various diseases. For example, Sekuru Banda is a male
herbalist who is popular in Harare. It is therefore clear that men have a religious role to play as healers in
Indigenous Religion. In Gutu, Ndawi area there is a herbalist known as Sekuru Chigaga who helps people
who are bitten by snakes and evil spirits. In Nyajena, in the Guwa area there is a well-known herbalist
known as Tangai. In Chipinge there was Sekuru Ndunge who helped mitigating all the pain caused by
witches as well as natural diseases.
Political roles of Men in Indigenous Religion
1. Leading role
The political organisation of the indigenous people is male headed and it is because of this reason that
chiefs are males although in some rare cases there are female chiefs in contemporary world. In traditional
society chiefs were males and they defended the territory as well as ensuring that the rules of the ancestors
are adhered to. Some of the chiefs in Indigenous Religion include chief Mapondera, Chief Mashayamombe,
chief Charumbira, Chief Svosve, Chief Rekai Tangwena and Chief Gutu among others. In Xangani, a chief
(hosi) is always a man and his role is to lead the people. If the person who is appointed as a chief is still a
young boy, a regent is appointed to lead the people.
2. Advisory role
In the political system of the indigenous people, the chief had advisors and these advisors helped him
in making decisions that are beneficial to the whole society. These chief’s aides also helped in solving
social disputes. In Shona these men are known as machinda amambo. It is a taboo in indigenous society
for a chief to have an aide who is female in his court. In Xangani, rely on personal advice mostly from his
senior male relatives who advice on administrative issues, tribal land, maintaining law and order as well as
settling disputes. Thus, men have an advisory role in Indigenous Religion.
3. Men as fighters / soldiers
In indigenous communities men were the ones who were largely incorporated into the army of a particular
state. Men were the fighters who stood to fight against enemies who invaded the states. The kings of
various states chose men who would be in the army and leaders of the army. Therefore, being fighters is
one of the important roles of men in indigenous societies.
Economic roles of men in Indigenous Religion
(a) Working for family income
The economic stability of the family is influenced by the men’s roles in the economic life. The role of men in
Indigenous Religion is to be economically active through working hard so that the family has income for

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buying cattle, goats, clothes and other essential things needed in the family. For a family to have a sound
income, men have to perform their role economically by ensuring that the family is well catered for.
(b) Trading
Another economic role of men in indigenous society is to be involved in trade. Men are engaged in batter
trade as well as monetary trade. Men could make baskets, hoes, axes, stools and other things for trading
purposes that benefit the family. In Xangani, men put into practice what they have been taught during
initiation by making wooden bowls, calabashes, baskets, musical instruments, mortars and pestles. A man
should show expertise in making tools that are required by the society.
2. JUDAISM
Judaism has gone under a lot of transformation in terms of gender issues. It is important to note that there
is a close connection between gender and religion in Judaism. Judaism believes and maintain that men
and women have distinct and differentiated roles. These unique but differentiated roles are derived from
the Torah. From the Torah, religious roles ascribed to men and women are sharply defined, separated into
public male and private female spheres. Roles in Judaism are obligations and not rights.
A male Jew has a role in the service of God. Men are required to pray daily in a minyan (quorum, or group
of ten men) with tallit (prayer shawl). Prayer is done three times while women are required to stay at home
nurturing children. Women do not have the obligation to be at prayer like men in Judaism.

Social roles of women

Women played an important role in Jewish society. Although women are generally perceived as very weak
physically and emotionally they had an influential role in Israelite society. Some of their roles include:
1. Motherhood role
Motherhood is a social role associated with females. A woman is supposed to bear and nurture children.
Bringing up children is a gender role of women in Judaism. Children are a blessing from God and it is the
duty of the mother that these children are brought up in a manner that pleases God.
A woman is to cater for the physical as well as the spiritual needs of the children in Judaism. In Judaism the
duties of the mother are more important that they cannot be postponed to fulfil a commandment.
2. Sexual role
Intimacy is the goal of marriage in Judaism. The purpose of marriage is to be pleasurable through romance.
Therefore, women are supposed to please men sexually in Judaism. This is because women are viewed as
sexual beings who are there to please men’s sexual desires in marriage.
3. Teachers of faith (socialisation)
Women play an important role in Judaism as they socialise children. They teach children about the religion
of the Israelites in Judaism as well as how to behave in a manner that is Jewish. Education about life and
religion is taught at home in Judaism by women. It is the role of the woman to teach children about their
culture and religion of the Jews at home. The law is the basis of Jewish education which is taught by
women. So, children are taught about the law at home by a woman.
4. Respecting husbands
The family is the pillar of Jewish religion and as such women have a role to play by ensuring that the
family is stable. According to the Torah a woman is commanded to honour her husband exceedingly and
to respect him. She should carry out all the instruction from her husband whilst considering the husband

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as the king or Lord. A woman should follow the desires of her husband. This is done with mutual respect
given to the husband.
5. Loving their husbands
Their romantic role is a role of women in Judaism where they are expected to love their husbands in marital
relations. In marriage, a woman should not deny her husband intimacy to cause him anguish so that he
should increase love for her. A woman who does not give love to her husband is called a rebel.
6. Role modelling
Role modelling is a powerful teaching tool for imparting knowledge, skills and behaviour through
emulation. Women in Judaism have a role to play as role models in their family as they inspired children
to live a meaningful life characterised by good behaviour. Women are supposed to lead by example. A
woman should be a role model for others by displaying humility, patience and ethical life. For example,
Hannah is the woman who lived a life worthy emulating. Motherhood in Judaism involve role modelling.
7. Performing household chores
There are daily household duties which are done at home and women in Judaism are expected to perform
duties like cooking, washing, and cleaning. This is the reason why home is the private place of women in
Judaism. All the decorations at home are made by the woman.

Religious roles of women

Religion is the pillar of Jewish people and it is punctuated with several ritual action in which roles of men
and women are clearly spelt out. Although women had a limited role in the religious activities in Judaism,
it is important to note that women had also a religious role to play because Judaism is a religion which
permeates all aspects life including at home were women had a greater role to play. Some of the religious
roles include:
1. Praying as a role of women
Women had a duty to pray in Judaism. They are supposed to give a silent prayer in the synagogue just like
men but they were not obligated to full prayer service like men. They were allowed to participate in private
prayers at home while public prayers at the temple was mainly for men.
2. Act as prophetesses
Women had a religious role in Judaism as they acted as God’s messengers. For example, Miriam and the
wife of Isaiah were messengers of God just like men.
3. Home designing
Making a home more Jewish is the role of women in religion. A Jewish home should make sure that the
presence of God is felt. She should pray that the food or meal prepared at home is graced by God.
4. Nurturing of children
To ensure that children born are holy and pure. The religious duty of the mother is to make sure that the
child should grow knowing how to resist temptation and evil.
5. Musical role at religious functions
Women played music in the sanctuary. According to Psalms 68:25 this shows that women were not
excluded in ritual activity. They sang and danced with men during religious procession.

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Political roles for women
Women in Judaism were not only limited to private roles but they were also involved in politics. Some of
these roles include:
(a) Leadership role
They were leaders for example Miriam (Exodus 15:20-21). Women played leadership roles when the
Israelites were coming from Egyptian bondage. It was not only the duty of men like Moses and Joshua to
lead the people but also the duty of women to guide and lead the Israelites as they were going to Canaan.
(b) Settling disputes
They were judges who solved political disputes. For example, Deborah. In Judges 4:4 Deborah acted as
judge. Judging is a political duty and this shows that women had a role in politics.
Social roles of men
(a) Menial jobs
Men due to his physical abilities is created in a way that suit jobs which require hard labour. Jewish men
therefore perform roles which require masculinity. For example, Jacob worked for fourteen(14) years to
get Leah and Rachel as the wife (Genesis 29). Working for two years demonstrate the masculinity of men in
Judaism which shape their role in doing things which require hard labour.
(b) Shepherding the flock
Animal husbandry is valued in Judaism and shepherding the flock is a role played by men in Judaism.
Men keep watch over the flock, for example David was anointed to become the king while he was a
shepherd of the flock. Furthermore, the annunciation of Jesus’ birth was done to men who were keeping
watch over the flock at night. Therefore, being a keeper of flocks and domestic animals is a male role in
Judaism.
(c) Parental role
Parents offer support and help to their children in Judaism. Parenting is a social role of the men as well
as the woman. It is the duty of the husband to teach his children to be kind, responsible and honourable
people. Parents which means both and men are expected to feed, clothe and educate their children and
encourage them to be self-reliant. Thus, parental role is also a duty of men in Judaism.
(d) Matchmaking
A man has a role to play in matchmaking in Judaism. He suggests possible marriage mates and coaches
them through the dating process. A male match maker is called a Shadchan. Matchmaking is important in
Judaism as it ensures that the marriage institution is valued.
Religious roles of men
(a) Praying in the synagogue
Men are required to pray in the synagogue, it is a religious duty for every male Jew to pray.This prayer is a
full prayer where women were not allowed to participate.
(b) Reading the Torah
Reading as well as studying the Torah is a male role in Judaism. The Torah is very important for the Jews
and every male has to read and study the Torah as the guiding principle of the Jewish life.

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(c) Holding a religious office
Men could take all religious offices like priesthood, kingship and prophethood.
Political roles of men in Judaism
Men have various political roles in Judaism which are important in the development of a Jewish nation
from the time of the patriarchs up to the present. Some of the political roles include:
(i) Leading role
Men in Israel acted as kings who lead the people. There are no female kings in Judaism because of patriarchy.
In 1 Sam 10 Saul is anointed to be the king of Israel by Samuel. After Saul kings who came after him were
males and these include David, Solomon, Ahab, Rehoboam, Jeroboam and Hezekiah among others. It is
therefore prudent to say kinship is a role that was preserved for men.
(ii) Judicial role
In Israel the role men was to act as judges. During the tribal confederacy, a period when they did not have
a king soon after their settlement in Canaan there were judges like Gideon, Samson as well as Samuel who
went around settling disputes among the people. So, men had legislative roles. Furthermore, Moses was
instrumental in the formulation of laws that were later used to govern the Jews known as the Decalogue.
All the judges, kings and prophets based their political decisions on the laws of Moses.
(iii) Warriors
Men in Israel had a role to play in the army by acting as soldiers. For example, David was a warrior, Joab
was a warrior and even King Ahab died in war fighting. This shows that men in Israel had a political role of
defending their country as soldiers.
Economic roles of men
Men had a role in the economic life of the Israelites. In fact, man is created in the image of God and God gave
man an incomplete world which is supposed to be perfected by man through domination of resources,
work and innovation. So, men have an important role in the economic life of the Jews.
(i) Merchants
Being a merchant is an economic role that was dominant in ancient Israel. There was caravan trading in
Judaism and people could exchange goods. Goods in Israel were transported by means of ships (1 Kings
9:27). There were travelling merchants who came from other places exchanging goods in Israel. During the
time of Joseph people went to Egypt for exchange of grain and this shows that being a merchant was a
form of economic role in Judaism for men.
(ii) Protection of private property
This is an economic role of men in Judaism. As such there is prohibition of stealing and coveting of other
people’s property. Deception and unethical business practices are prohibited. Thus, men have a role in
ensuring that there is respect of private property and ethical economic activities.
3. ISLAM
The issue of gender roles in Islam is a unique one. Islam confirms that men and women are equal before
Allah. While Islam affirms that men and women are equal it does not view men and women as identical.
Men and women are created with unique physical and psychological attributes which determine their
roles. It is also important to note that like Judaism, the public space is for men and the private space is for
women.

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Religious roles of women
1. Ritual purity in marriage
It is the duty of women in Islam to maintain chastity in marriage. Women are supposed to display loyalty,
chastity and complete dedication to their husbands for them to stay in marriage. Marriage is a religious
institution so maintaining chastity in marriage is a religious role.
2. Women as teachers of faith and doctrine
Women in Islam teach about the Islamic doctrines through the recitation of the Quran. Teaching children
how to recite the Quran is a religious duty of every Muslim mother. It is an offense for one to ignore the
importance of children about Islamic faith.
3. Praying
Praying is a religious role of women in Islam. Women should go to the Mosque to pray. According to Quran
33:35, “the Muslim men and Muslim women, the believing men and the believing women, the worshiping men
and worshiping women, the fasting men and the fasting women…Allah has prepared forgiveness and great
rewards for all”.
This verse from the Quran shows that women have religious obligations to perform all religious duties like
prayer, fasting and almsgiving. Thus, women have a religious role in Islam.
Social roles of women in Islam
Women have different roles in society which makes them receive respect and devotion for the role they
play in society. These social roles include
1. Motherhood role
Islam pay great respect for women for their social
role the mothers. All Muslims should respect their
mother because they believe that women play an
important role in upbringing the child and that the
future of any society is in the hands of the mother.
No Muslim is allowed to discriminate between the
father and the mother.
2. Women as a wives
Being a wife is a social role of women in Islam. Islam
is the only religion which grants the rights of a wife.
Hence women as wives are supposed to love their
husbands and respect their husbands is the role
of women in Islam. Women are supposed to be Fig. 8.10 Wives in Islam
obedient and serve their husbands.
3. Sexual role
Women are generally viewed as sexual beings and it is because of this reason that women should please
their husbands in bed. It is the responsibility of women to ensure that men have sexual pleasure in Islam.
4. Teaching role
Informal education in Islam happens at home where the girl child is supposed to be taught through
observing and imitating gender roles. Furthermore, the woman also has the duty of the mother to educate
children about the dictates of Allah.

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5. Domestic duties
Women are supposed to perform several domestic duties in order to make the home an acceptable Muslim
home. As such, household chores like cooking, washing and cleaning are gender roles of women in Islam.
These domestic duties are there to ensure a healthy environment is preserved in a Muslim home.
6. Supporting the family
The family is treasured in Islam and for the family to be successful a woman is Islam is supposed to perform
her role by assisting in supporting the family. Women support the family by engaging in self-reliant jobs
done at home which increase the family’s income. Furthermore, women support the family with words
and deeds in appreciating the role done by the husband. This is because in Islam women and men have
equal rights and obligations over the family.
Political role of women in Islam
The political role of women in Islam is minimal. This is because the saying and deeds of Muhammad
proclaim that there is no society which can succeed with a woman as a political leader. Be that as it may,
contemporary Muslim women are now leaders basing on the story of the queen of Sheba. According to
this story women are democratic leaders and political roles of women are not offensive to God. So, Islam
does not restrict women from political office or role. Some of the women of Muslim orientation who are
leaders are Ciller who was the Prime Minister of Turkey and Khaleda Zia who was the Prime Minister of
Bangladesh.
Religious roles of men in Islam
Islam is a religion dominated by men in which all the activities in society are determined by males and
women are receptive to the gender roles ascribed to them by males. As a religion, Islam has prophet
Muhammad as the founder and it is because of the historical background of Islam of being a religion which
was founded by man that makes gender roles for men for muscular and uplift the status of men in society.
(a) Imams
Men have a duty to lead in prayer as Imams. An imam is a religious leader at a mosque and the leader is
always a male. Women can only be an imam if the congregation is female dominated without males. It is
therefore a religious role of men to lead in prayer. The role of the Imam during prayer is to lead congregation
in sync.
(b) Ritual action
There are a lot of rituals in which men is expected to perform. These rituals include prayer, recitation of
the creed, pilgrimage and other rituals. It is a religious obligation for Muslim men to partake in every ritual
provided healthy permits.
Social roles of men
(i) Providing for the family
Men are viewed as providers for women and in exchange for support. Women in radical Islam are not
allowed to go to work but with feminism challenging this idea women in some Islamic countries are now
allowed to work.
(ii) Protecting women
Protecting women is the role of men in Islam. This is because women are seen as weak and as easily
overpowered by men. They therefore need protection against various threats in life.

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(iii) Perform jobs which require much energy
Males are perceived as strong and independent. So, men perform duties which requires much energy like
working in industries, plantations and mines.
4. CHRISTIANITY
Gender is viewed in a better way in Christianity. Their roles in the church is more affirming and liberating
than in other religions. Christians who hold traditional views believe that men and women are created
equal in the sight of God. They believe that whilst being equally important, they are also created to be
different with different roles in society and the Christian church.
Social roles of women in Christianity
1. Nurturing of children
Bringing up children: a woman in Christianity is to
fulfil the role of nurturing children in a way that
pleases Christ. As a child grows, the mother is there
to guide the child to be a good person.
2. Run a Christian home
Women also play a role in seeing that what is being
eaten in Christian homes and the practices at home
are in line with the Christian doctrine.
3. Submitting to husband
Humility or submissiveness is a gender role of
women in Christianity. This ensures that there is no
discord in marriage. However, husbands were also
instructed to love their wives (Ephesians 5:22 – 24, Fig.8.11 Women in Christianity
33).
Religious roles of women in Christianity
1. Passive role in the church
Women take no part in Church leadership:
leadership of the church is under men. A woman is
not permitted to take up roles of being the leader
of the church. The woman must be silent in church.
(1 Timothy 2: 11-14). This is because Jesus did not
have a female disciple. This applies mostly in African
Independent Churches However, in contemporary
Christianity there are now ordained female pastors
who are leaders of the church. Fig. 8.12 A church choir with men and women
Women in Zimbabwean Christian sects have an important role of singing in church. Women are visible in
church choirs as well as praise and worship teams. Women dominate in the soprano and alto sections of
the church choirs which are very important music parts. Women also sing at different crusades which are
performed by different churches to win souls. This is clear evidence that women are empowered.

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2. Preaching
Women also have a significant part in preaching. There are a number of women who are preachers in the
Christian sects. There are prominent women who are preachers in Christianity, these include Amai Chaza of
Guta RaJehova, Prophetess Ruth Makandiwa and Evangelist Eunah Guti of ZAOGA. This shows that women
play an important role in Christianity.
Economic roles of women in Christianity
Women in Christianity are allowed to perform some economic roles. When the woman is forced to become
a breadwinner, she is permitted to engage in small trade. Women can also have some economic lessons to
empower them economically. They can engage in economic activities such as cooking, baking and sewing
among other economic activities. In the early church, there is Lyddia in Acts 16:14 who engaged in the
business of selling purple cloth. Priscilla and her husband Aquilla were tent makers (Acts 18:3).
Social roles of men in Christianity
(i) Providing care to the family
In Christianity, men are expected to perform a social role of providing care to the family through material
support, psychological support and spiritual support. Caring for the family is a fundamental role of men in
Christianity.
(ii) Parenting role
Men are fathers in Christianity and are called to love and serve their children by leading them in the love,
discipline and instruction of Jesus Christ so that children do not feel unloved. Fathers are supposed to
be parents who act as role models by living a Christ like life as well as religious life that directs children
towards Christ (Ephesians 6:1-4 and Colossians 3: 20-21).
Religious roles of men in Christianity
1. Leadership role
The role of men in the church is to lead. According to 1 Corinthians 11 vs. 3 says “But I want you to understand
that the head of every man is Christ, the head of a woman is her husband and the head of Christ is God”.
This verse explains the leadership role of men in the Church. The early church was under the leadership of
Peter and James the brother of the Lord as well as Paul an apostle to the gentiles. It is from this context that
even contemporary church leaders are mostly men. For example, the United Family International church is
led by Emmanuel Makandiwa, the Prophetic, Healing and Deliverance Ministries is led by Prophet Walter
Magaya, ZAOGA FIF is led by Ezekiel Guti, and Goodness and Mercy Ministries is led by Prophet T. Fred and
Johanne Marange Apostolic church is led by Noah Taguta. Men lead the church as elders and deacons.
2. Preaching role
Spreading the word of God through preaching is the role of men in Christianity. This is in line with the great
commission which says, “Go therefore and make disciples of all nations…” Matthew 28 vs. 19. Peter, John
and Paul are examples of men who were preachers in the early church. In the contemporary church there
are several male evangelists like the late Pastor Chiweshe, Apostle Chiwenga, Prophet T. Fred, Prophet E.
Makandiwa and Ezekiel Guti.
3. Intercessory role
Praying on behalf of the nation, people and congregants is a role played by males in Christianity. For
example, in the early church intercession prayers were done by Paul and in the contemporary world
Prophet T Fred has a prayer line where he interceed for people.

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Economic roles of men in Christianity
Men are allowed to perform economic activities which are not against Christian ethos. Some of the
acceptable economic activities which were prominent during the early church include fishing which was a
trade of Peter and John, tent making which was a profession of Paul as well as selling of grave like Joseph of
Arimathea. It is within this context that contemporary Christians are also encouraged to go into economic
activities which ensure that Christian values are followed.

Activity 8.1 Discussion

In pairs, identify gender roles in your society and explain why gender roles are divided along masculinity and
femininity

Exercise 8.1
1. Indigenous Religion gender roles shows that women are _____________.
A. Subordinate. B. Complementary.
C. Equal. D. None of the above.
2. The role of the mother in Indigenous Religion is to _____________.
A. Conceive and bear children. B. Perform rituals.
C. Participate in politics. D. Advise the husband.
3. Which of the following is not the role of the aunt?
A. Advising on marriage issues. B. Providing counselling service to children.
C. Solving disputes within the family. D. To divorce the wife on behalf of the brother.
4. What is the social role of men in Indigenous Religion?
A. Cooking. B. Fetching water.
C. Providing for the family. D. Nursing children.
5. Which of the following is not a religious role of women in Indigenous Religion?
A. Midwifery B. Involvement in prayer during rituals.
C. Act as mediums and diviners. D. Lead during rituals.
6. Socialisation in Judaism is done by ____________.
A. Mother. B. Prophet.
C. Brother. D. Cantor.
7. Who is a symbol of motherhood in Judaism?
A. Fatima. B. Nehanda.
C. Hannah. D. Mary.
8. Why were women excluded from religious activities in Judaism during menstruation?
A. Because they were defiled. B. Because they were angry.
C. Because they were pure. D. None of the above.
9. Which woman is not a prophetess in Judaism?
A. Elizabeth. B. Miriam.
C. Deborah. D. The wife of Isaiah.
10. Which one is a religious gender role of men in Judaism?
A. Praying the temple. B. Settling disputes.
C. Parenting role. D. Role modelling.

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 UNIT 8.2 GENDER BASED VIOLENCE

Gender based violence has been defined in various ways by international human rights activists and laws.
The general definition is any violence which is directed against men and women which result in the social,
physical, mental and economic suffering of both men and women. Violence is perpetuated by harmful
social and cultural expectations about gender roles typically associated with being a woman or being a
man, a girl or a boy. This violence reinforces mechanisms for enforcing and sustaining gender inequality.
Women and girls are viewed as of little value and owe the control of their bodies to men.
Forms of gender based violence
There are dynamics in terms of gender based violence. There are different forms of gender based violence
which are vivid in the world and Zimbabwean communities in particular.
(a) Physical violence
This is violence which is perpetrated on the physical body of the victim. This may result in body pain, injury
and disability. This form of violence includes clapping, punching, biting, choking, burning, twisting of body
parts, denying women to seek medical attention as well as use of hard objects to hit or beat women.
(b) Sexual violence
This is the sexual act or any attempt to have sex with a woman, unwanted sexual comments, forcing to
have sex with a woman and having advances to a woman whether in a relationship or not. Sexual violence
includes:
•• Forced exposure to pornography •• Forced pregnancy
•• Rape •• Forced abortion
•• Trafficking for the purpose of having sex •• Forced sterilisation
•• Forced marriage or child marriage •• Female genital mutilation
•• Forced virginity test
(c) Psychological violence
This involves actions or set of actions that may affect the psychological integrity of a woman or man. And
these include:
(i) Threats of violence
(ii) Humiliation in front of people.
(iii) Harassment.
(iv) Insulting
(v) Restrictions on communication for example taking the cell phone of the wife.
(vi) Isolation for example locking him or her up inside the house.

(d) Economic violence

These are acts which involve denial and control of wife’s or husband’s access to resources including time,
money, food and clothing. Some of the example of economic violence include:
•• Prohibiting women from getting employment. Women are supposed to work for the betterment
of the family and if the husband denies the woman a chance to be employed it is considered as
economic violence.
•• Excluding women from financial budgeting within the family.
•• Withholding money or financial details, for example, a husband who does not tell his wife what he
earns.

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•• Refusing to pay bills and maintenance for her children.
•• Destroying and selling of property.
Causes of gender based violence
•• low level of education
•• young age (early marriage)
•• Past experiences of violence also play a role; exposure to sexual abuse and intra-parental violence
during childhood as well as a history of experiencing (for women) or perpetrating (for men) violence
in previous intimate relationships increases the likelihood of violence in future relationships.
•• Strong association between harmful use of alcohol and the perpetration of intimate partner
violence and sexual violence, there is only weak evidence for a truly causal relationship between
the use of alcohol and the perpetration of violence.
•• Attitudes also play an important role; there is a strong correlation between women and men
perceiving violence as acceptable behaviour and their exposure to intimate partner and sexual
violence
•• Cultural and social norms that shape gender roles and the unequal distribution of power between
women and men.
•• Intimate partner violence occurs more often in societies where men have economic and decision-
making powers in the household and where women do not have easy access to divorce and where
adults routinely resort to violence to resolve their conflicts.
•• Men having multiple partners are more likely to perpetrate intimate partner violence or sexual
violence.
•• Low marital satisfaction and continuous disagreements, as well as disparities in education status
between the partners.
•• Family responses to sexual violence that blame women and concentrate on restoring “lost” family
honour, rather than punishing men, create an environment in which rape can occur with impunity.
Effects of gender based violence
•• It can result in women’s deaths. Fatal outcomes may be the immediate result of a woman being
killed by the perpetrator, or in the long-term, as a consequence of other adverse health outcomes.
•• Gender based violence results in deterioration of women’s health. For example, it results in mental
health problems resulting from trauma, this can also lead to suicide, or to conditions such as alcohol
abuse or cardiovascular diseases that can in turn result in death.
•• It can lead to unwanted pregnancy when women are coerced by their male counterparts to have
sex against their wishes.
•• It limits women’s choices in life as their decisions are made by men. For example, if a woman was
supposed to go to work she may be forced to withdraw thereby limiting women’s choice of jobs.
•• It has a harmful effect on reproductive health through sexually transmitted diseases.
•• It creates conflicts between the couple which affect the wider society as a whole emotionally and
psychologically.
•• It affects productivity if the woman is employed thereby affecting the national economy as the
woman spend most of her time coping with gender based violence.
•• It can also lead to social rejection and isolation when people do not want to associate with a woman
with an abusive partner fearing being victimised also.
•• It can lead to suicidal attempts by the victim of gender based violence.

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Solutions to gender based violence
There are several ways of preventing gender based violence which include:
•• Promoting respectful relationships and gender equality.
•• Educating boys and girls about the need to co-exist harmoniously.
•• Debunking of some cultural myths.
•• Increase awareness of the scope of the problem and its impact.
•• Improve services for survivors of violence
•• Strengthen prevention efforts.
•• Legislation and stiff penalties.
Religious ways of solving gender imbalances
There are several ways of solving gender imbalances from a religious perspective which include:
•• Women’s participation in religious activity for example, women should participate during church
services than being idle in church.
•• Women should take religious leadership roles for example in Christianity they are supposed to be
pastors while in Indigenous Religion they should also be mediums.
•• Debunking myths associated with female sexuality.
•• Find liberative teachings and practices in their religions.
•• Accord women space to organise religious events on their own.
•• Religious teachings should include issues relating the immoral nature of gender based violence.

Activities 8.2 Poetry/Music

Compose a poem or a song which discourages gender based violence

Activity 8.3 Research

Conduct a research on the cause of gender based violence in your community. Compile a presentation on the
causes of gender based violence and give solutions to the problems of gender based violence. You can present
pictures showing gender based violence.

Exercise 8.2
1. What is gender based violence? [2]
2. What are the causes of Gender Based Violence? Give four reasons. [4]
3. Give four ways through which Indigenous religion deals with gender based violence. [4]

Interesting facts
1. All religions are patriarchal in nature.
2. Most victims of gender based violence are women.
Summary of the chapter
•• Culture affects how women are viewed in society.
•• Gender roles differ from one religion to the other.
•• Gender roles are determined by society.
•• Gender roles of women are mainly associated with domestic duties at home.

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 •• Women have a positive role of advising in Indigenous Religion for example, the aunt.
•• Women also have a more positive religious role to play in Indigenous Religion than in other all
religions.
•• Some of the gender based violence stems out of religious beliefs.
•• Religion plays an important role in shaping gender roles as well as reducing gender based violence.
•• Gender-based violence has negative effects on women and society.
Glossary of terms
Aunt – the partenal sister of the father in a family.
Battered – being beaten hard and dangerously.
Gender – is the social construction of maleness and femaleness.
Gender roles – these are activities and behaviour that are expected of men and women.
Menstruation – is the natural flow of blood by women.
Midwives – a re women who are responsible for the safety of the pregnant mother and
safe delivery of the baby.
Myth – is a widely belief which is not true.
Nurture – to give care and food to children.

Revision Exercises
Structured Questions
1. Indigenous Religion is gender oppressive.
(a) Define gender. [2]
(b) Identify any four gender roles of women in Indigenous Religion. [4]
(c) Describe the gender roles of women in Indigenous Religion. [6]
(d) How does religion affects the status of women. [8]
2. Islam is gender sensitive.
(a) What is meant by gender sensitive. [2]
(b) List any four gender roles in Islam. [4]
(c) Describe gender roles in Islam. [6]
(d) Explain how gender roles in Islam are different from those in Judaism. [8]
3. Christianity uphold gender parity.
(a) What is gender parity [2]
(b) List any four roles of women in Christianity. [4]
(c) Describe any 3 roles that both men and women do in Christianity [6]
(d) How does Christianity promote the role of women in the church? [8]
4. Gender based violence is caused by religious influence.
(a) What is gender based violence? [2]
(b) List any four forms of gender based violence. [4]
(c) Describe sexual violence. [6]
(d) Explain the causes of gender based violence. [8]
5. The only solution to gender based violence is in religion.
(a) What is violence? [2]
(b) What are the cause of gender based violence from a religious perspective. [4]
(c) Describe ways gender based violence is being addressed by the government of Zimbabwe. [6]
(d) Explain the religious ways of solving gender based violence. [8]

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Essay Questions
1. With reference to Islam, describe the gender roles of women. [25]
2. Explain gender roles in Indigenous Religion. [25]
3. How does religion shape gender roles? Answer this with special reference to Judaism and Christianity.
[25]
4. Explain various forms of gender based violence. [25]
5. Describe the religious methods of solving gender based violence. [25]

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EXAMINATION II

Paper 1: Structured Questions

Time: 2 hours 30 minutes
Answer five questions
Choose at least one question from each section
Each question carries 20 marks
Section A: Indigenous Religion
1. The family has been threatened by cultural change.
(a) What is cultural change? [2]
(b) Identify any four agents of cultural change which have negatively affected the family. [4]
(c) Describe how the agents you have identified above have threatened family unity. [6]
(d) Explain the impact of cultural change on the family. [8]
2. Indigenous Religion helps in promoting African identity.
(a) Define African identity. [2]
(b) List any four distinctive identities of an African. [4]
(c) Describe how Indigenous Religion promote African identity. [6]
(d) Explain solutions to the problems affecting African identity. [8]
3. Education is the most important thing for nation building.
(a) Define education. [2]
(b) List four educational institutions that are faith based in Zimbabwe. [4]
(c) Describe the role of education in nation building. [6]
(d) Describe the role of religion in the provision of education. [8]

Section B Judaism

4. Judaism has led to human resource development.

(a) What is human resource? [2]
(b) State any four ways children are educated in Judaism. [4]
(c) Describe the role of the family in the education of the child in Judaism. [6]
(d) Explain the importance of Judaism in capacity building. [8]
5. Religion has a negative impact on education.
(a) What is religion? [2]
(b) List any four negative impact of religion on education. [4]
(c) Identify religious beliefs which discourage children from accessing formal education. [6]
(d) Explain the negative impact of religion on education citing examples from Judaism. [8]
6. Women play an important role in Judaism as they socialise children.
(a) What is socialisation? [2]
(b) List any four gender roles of women in Judaism. [4]
(c) Compare the social roles of men and women in Judaism. [6]
(d) Describe gender roles in Judaism. [2]

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Section C. Christianity
7. Gender describes society’s cultural definition of men and women.
(a) What are gender roles? [2]
(b) State any 4 gender roles of women in Christianity. [4]
(c) Explain 3 ways women are said to be oppressed in Christianity. [6]
(d) Discuss 4 ways through which Christianity deals with gender based violence. [8]
8. Christianity supports formal education.
(a) What is education? [2]
(b) Give any four characteristics of formal education. [4]
(c) Describe any three roles of Christianity in promoting formal education. [6]
(d) Explain any advantages of formal education over informal education. [8]
9. Religious values have high ethical and moral demands which are critical in nation building.
(a) What is nation building? [2]
(b) List four values derived from Christianity which are important for nation building. [4]
(c) Describe moral values and ethics important for nation building. [6]
(d) Explain roles of religion in nation building. [8]

Section D: Islam

10. Gender perceptions are shaped by religion.

(a) Define gender. [2]
(b) List gender roles in Islam. [4]
(c) Describe how religion shapes gender roles. [6]
(d) Compare gender roles in Christianity and Islam. [8]
11. Gender Based Violence (GBV) is a threat to the family and society.
(a) What is Gender Based Violence? [2]
(b) State any four forms of gender based violence. [4]
(c) Describe the causes of gender based violence. [6]
(d) Suggest solutions to problems of gender based violence in Islam. [8]

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Paper 2: Essay Questions
Time: 2 hours 30 minutes
Answer four questions
Choose at least one question from each section
Each question carries 25 marks
Section A: Indigenous Religion

1. Describe how the nature of the family has been influenced by cultural change. [25]
2. Using examples, discuss the role of family in promoting national values. [25]
3. Explain how Indigenous Religion helps in promoting African identity. [25]

Section B Judaism

4. State how other religions have contributed to the loss of African identity. [25]
5. Describe the significance of Judaism in promoting national values and good citizenship. [25]
6. Explain gender roles in Judaism. [25]

Section C: Christianity

7. Describe the impact of education on capacity building. [25]

8. Explain the role of Christianity in the education sector in Zimbabwe. [25]
9. Using examples, describe various solutions to gender based violence in Christianity. [25]

Section D: Islam

10. Discuss the role of Islam in educational infrastructure development. [25]

11. Describe possible religious ways of solving gender based violence in Islam. [25]
12. Compare gender roles in Indigenous and Islam. [25]

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 Chapter RELIGION, ETHICS,

9
HEALTH AND SEXUALITY

Chapter Objectives
By the end of the chapter, you should be able to:
•• summarize morals and values from IR.
•• examine morals and values from the various religions.
•• examine principles of Unhu/Ubuntu derived from IR.
•• assess the contributions of IR to Unhu/Ubuntu.
•• explain how religious beliefs help shape societal attitudes on femininity and masculinity.
•• describe how religious beliefs influence people with health conditions.

Introduction
The previous chapter looked at religion and gender and in this chapter religion, ethics, health and sexuality
will be discussed. Firstly, the morals and values that can be derived from Indigenous Religion as well as
other religions are discussed. This chapter also discusses the concept of Unhu from an Indigenous Religion
perspective. Lastly the chapter will focus on societal attitudes on femininity and masculinity as well as how
religious beliefs influence people with health conditions.

UNIT 9.1 INDIGENOUS RELIGION AND UNHU/UBUNTU

Indigenous Religion as a source of morals and values

Unhu is defined as the mental and physical disposition of an individual characterised by kindness, courtesy,
warmth, empathy, understanding, respectfulness, dignity, friendliness and being responsible which
manifest themselves in the way one talks, walks, dresses and interacts with others, relatives and strangers.
On the other hand, morals are rules which govern actions are right and wrong while values are principles
or standards of behaviour which are good, beneficial, and constructive for the society.
Indigenous Religion plays an important role as a source of morals and values in the local communities in
Zimbabwe. There are various components in the indigenous religious societies which works as a channel
to transmit these morals and values. Unhu is an aspect which is found in all indigenous cultures under
different names, in Xangani it called vumunhu, in Xhosa umuntu, in Tonga it is known as bunhu, in Ndebele
is it is known as ubuntu and among the Venda it is called vhuthu. This shows that there is no indigenous
culture which does not value unhu. Unhu is exported from African proverbs, rituals, experiences and taboos.

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(a) Respect

Respect is a moral value derived from Indigenous

Religion. Respecting oneself and others as a moral
value is important in Indigenous Religion. Failure
to respect others can lead to stiffer punishment by
the ancestors. For example, among the Shona if one
disrespect his or her mother, the person is cursed
by the ancestors and bad lucky always follow that
person. Failure to respect the mother result in the
avenging spirits of the mother haunting the child.
Respecting one’s parents, other people’s wives, and
all people who are elders in society is a religious
mandate in Indigenous Religion.
In Venda all married are treated with respect and are
addressed by form Vhone which means Respect is
always shown by using the form Vhone to all people
who should be accorded respect. Furthermore,
among the Remba, Xangani, Venda and Tonga
respect for elders is taught during a Chinamwari
or Khomba for girls and men are also taught about Fig. 9.1 A young girl child with Unhu
respect during their initiation. It is because respect
is a fundamental value of Unhu.
(b) Faithfulness
Faithfulness is another moral value which comes from Indigenous Religion which is derived from the
sanctity of the marriage. Marriage in Indigenous Religion is sacred and religious and having sexual
relationships while being married is strongly condemned. People who are unfaithful generally die as a
result of having sexual relationships when one is married. There are rituals which are done to ensure that
there is faithfulness in marriage which causes an illness called runyoka. Furthermore, the baby may refuse
to be breast fed if such immoral behaviour has happened. In Venda, faithfulness in marriage is called for as
being unfaithful leads to divorce.
(c) Honesty
Honesty aspect and value derived from Indigenous Religion states that it is morally wrong from an
indigenous perspective to be someone who is not honest or trustworthy. Honesty is a moral value that
one is encouraged to have. This moral value is derived from taboos which prohibit lying. There are some
proverbs which are used to emphasise unhu like “chokwadi hachiputsi ukama” which literally means being
honest does not strain relations.
(d) Transparency
Transparency involves openness is also another virtue that is encouraged in Indigenous Religion. The
Xangani through their proverbs encourage transparency and they believe that even if one does something
beneath the surface of the water the secret will come out. This emphasises that people should do their
things in a transparent manner as bad things will always come out.
(e) Helping others
Helping one another is a true mark of unhu. According to the Ndebele they say “ikhotha eyikhotayo” which

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means a cow licks the one which licks it. This proverb encourages helping one another. In Indigenous
Religion helping one another is part of social responsibility and it is through assisting others that one is
also assisted. Among the Shona, failure to cooperate and help others in times of need is sign of lacking
unhu. The Shona proverbs “Chindiro chinopfumba kunobva chimwe” which means one gives helps to the
one who also give support to him or her, this idea of helping one another.
Morals and values common in various religions
1. Do not kill
One should not kill others or commit suicide. It is immoral to destroy life. In Indigenous Religion a person
who does not value the sanctity of life is haunted by the spirit of the dead person. In Judaism it is one of
the Ten Commandments in the Decalogue, “you shall not kill” (Exodus 19:13). Furthermore, Islam upholds
the sanctity of life as a universal principle. According to Quran 4:29, “and do not kill one another, for God is
indeed merciful unto you”. Islam views murder as both a crime by law in this world and a major sin to be
punished on judgement day. In Christianity, murderer has no place in heaven and it is also a sin that is will
result in the culprit getting the full wrath of God. In fact, Christianity states that vengeance and retaliation
belongs to God (Romans 12:9). Murder is a result of evil and this is supported by 1 John 3:11-12 which says,
“For this is the message which you have heard from the beginning that you should love one another and not be
like Cain who was of the evil one and murdered his brother. Why did he murder him?”
2. Do not steal
All religions command believers to be content with what they have and to ask if they need anything than
stealing. In Indigenous Religion, stealing is condemned and there use of rukwa (harmful objects and
medicine) to harm those who still is justified. Stealing in Indigenous Religion is condemned in strictest
sense as it is against the spirit of unhu of respecting other people’s property. In Judaism it is one of the laws
in the Decalogue that one should not steal. The Jews believe that a crime against a fellow human being
like stealing is bad. According to Leviticus 19:35-36 stealing or dealing dishonestly is a religious sin and it
is an offense punishable by restoring the stolen thing with an extra percent of money. Christianity is also
another religion against stealing and regards stealing as a product of selfish interest.
According to 1 Corinthians 6:10 says, “nor thieves nor the greedy no drunkards nor ravilers nor robbers
shall enter the kingdom of God”. In Islam stealing is condemned and a thief is cursed in the name of Allah.
According to prophet Muhammad, the hand of the thief must be cut from the wrist while the hadith of
says, “May Allah curse the thief who steals an egg and has his hand cut off or steals a rope and has his hand
cut off”. Therefore, all religions value property of others and stealing is condemned.
3. Be generous
Generosity is defined as willingness to give freely. All religions require believers to show sheer generosity
towards the poor, orphans and others in need. In Indigenous Religion , the levirate marriage is there to
protect orphans and the Zunde raMambo concept is also there to show generosity towards the needy in
society. During social problems like death the Indigenous people contribute freely to the bereaved family.
There are also Indigenous Religion proverbs which encourages people to be generous like “ “Kupa kuturika”
which means giving is banking. These proverbs are there to encourage people to give to others as one day
you will also need the generosity of others.
In Judaism there is a concept of Tsedakah (Charity) where generosity expressed through helping the needy
and poor. 10% of one’s earnings should go towards the welfare of others. Being generous is rewarded
by God in Judaism and it is a religious duty. Abraham is the role model of generosity in Judaism as he
gave all what he has, that is, His son to please God. In Islam, Zakat or almsgiving is a feature of being
generous. Giving to others is a religious mandate in which one is obliged to help others. Furthermore,

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sadaqa (truthfulness) is another form of generosity which is expressed through a smile, helping an elderly
person with material goods like groceries as well removing an impediment in front of an elderly person.
Generosity is an investment in Islam which is rewarded with eternal life on judgement day. In Christianity,
the beliefs and practices also encourage generosity. Christians derive generosity from the life of Jesus.
Jesus fed the five thousand people as well as the four thousand people as a sign of sheer generosity.
Furthermore, Jesus Christ’s death on the cross is the motivation of Christian generosity. Christians argue
that it is blessed to give than to receive. Every follower of Jesus should have a feature of being generous. It
is clear that being generous is a value cherished by all religions. It is unreligious to be stingy, heartless and
mean as generosity is characteristic of every religious believer.
4. Truthfulness in life
It is a moral value in all religions. Lying is a not allowed as it may lead to t other sins. In Indigenous Religion
truthfulness is substantiated with swearing. In Indigenous Religion there is a Shona proverb which says
“Chokwadi hachiputsi ukama” which means truthfulness does not destroy relations. Furthermore, Judaism
is also a religion which has truthfulness as a value. Every conduct of a Jewish believer should be expressed
in honest and truthfulness. According to the Torah, one is encouraged to tell the truth by refraining from
lying, “You shall not bear false witness” (Exodus 20:13 and Leviticus 19:11 says “Neither shall you deal falsely
nor lie to one another”. Truth is the seal of God in Judaism and lying is an epitome of the devil.
In Christianity, truth is at the cornerstone of Christian life. Being truthful is a sign of a new life in Christ.
Colossians 3:9-11stresses the needy for being truthful because Christians are new creatures in Christ and
they are members of the body of Christ. Being hypocritical as well as exaggeration of facts is not allowed
in Christianity. In Islam truthfulness is a fundamental element of Muslim life. Lying is considered as vice
and truthfulness as a virtue. In fact, telling the truth and avoiding a lie are two basic characters of a true
and faithful Muslim. Speaking the truth means to be faithful, honest and trustworthy person. All human
relationships depend on truth as the moral value which builds a stable society. It is because of this reason
that religions value truth as a moral value. Truthfulness is important in getting the rewards from the
Supreme Being as well as earning respect and trust from people around.
5. Faithfulness in marriage
Faithfulness in marriage is moral value found across all religions. In Indigenous Religion marital fidelity is
emphasised. If a man decides to have more than one wife, it is done in a transparent manner. A married
woman is forbidden to be engaged in extra-marital affairs. Both the man and the woman are expected to
be faithful to each other. In Judaism, marriage is sacred and it is the duty of every married couples to be
faithful to each other. It is a marital obligation for married couples to be faithful to each other.
Adultery is never permissible in Judaism. In Islam marriage is a contract and it is contract that is bound
by faithfulness in marriage and faithfulness in marriage is a right for the married couples to enjoy. In
Judaism unfaithfulness in marriage is punishable by stoning to death. Christianity views marriage as
a permanent union between a man and a woman sharing life for better or worse and fulfilling all their
rights and obligations with the aim of ensuring a long lasting relationship. As unfaithful is regarded as an
unforgivable sin.
6. Love one another
Loving one another is the core moral value found in all religions. Indigenous Religion is a religion which is
characterised by love for the other human being. Love for one another is not theoretical but practical as it
is displayed in various aspect of life. At birth, marriage and death love for one another is demonstrated as
Africans gather to celebrate or mourn together. In Indigenous Religion they believe that, “Chaona hama
hachisekwi” which literally means what has affected another fellow human being should not delight you. It

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is because of this that Africans help one another in
every aspect of life. Love for one another is shown
through collaboration and there is no room for
selfishness. Unhu is the moral principle in which
love for one another is demonstrated.
In Judaism love for one another is expressed
through action and the Hebrew word for love is
Ahavah which means love expressed through
deeds. Deutronomy 6:5 says, “And you shall love
the Lord your God.” The verse teaches Jews about
loving God as well as other fellow human being.
Furthermore Leviticus 19:18 and Leviticus 19:34
emphasise loving the stranger as one’s self. This is
what is known as love and brotherhood in Judaism.
In Islam love and affection towards each other Fig. 9.2 Christians showing love to young children
should be demonstrated.
According to the Hadith, “By Him in Whose hand my soul is, you will never enter the paradise unless you believe
and you will not believe unless you love each other…spread greeting of peace among you”. Islam has a deeper
sense of the meaning of love, love is demonstrated through the payment of the Zakat (Almsgiving) which
contribute towards the welfare of the other.
In Christianity, love for other human beings is demonstrated through the Agape kind of love. Agape
means representing the divine love of God towards fellow human beings and believers. According to John
15:13, “Greater love has no man than this that man lay down his life for his friends”. This shows how Jesus
demonstrated love for humanity which should be emulated by all humanity. Furthermore, Romans 13:8-10
says, “love does no harm to a neighbour, therefore love is the fulfilment of the law”. This verse shows that
fellow human beings should be loved despite their gender, race, creed or colour. In Christianity, loving one
another is a golden moral value which summarises all moral values. In fact, it is the pillar of other moral
values in all religions.
Principles of Unhu derived from Indigenous Religion
Principles of unhu refers to the fundamental truth or value which serves as a base of unhu (moral and
ethics) in Indigenous Religion. Indigenous Religion is a religion that is premised on strong moral and
ethical grounds. It is a religion which condemns acts of immorality and lack of values. Morality and ethics
in Indigenous Religion are embedded in the ideas and beliefs about what is right or wrong, what is a good
or bad character; it is also embedded in the conceptions of satisfactory social relations and attitudes held
by the members of the society; it is embedded, furthermore, in the forms or patterns of behaviour that are
considered by the members of the society to bring about social harmony and cooperative living, justice,
and fairness. Unhu is the essence of the African moral system and it’s a concept which focuses on the
character-based ethics.
1. Universal human brotherhood (unity)
The African man is first and foremost a member of his family, the extended family, the community and his
society in that order before being an individual. The African man has a social and communal nature which
is based on unity. The African culture can complement the Western culture by integrating individualism
with the communal nature of life. Chara chimwe hachitswanyi inda which means that one finger cannot
crush lice is a proverb which advocates for unity of purpose. Tasks can be accomplished through unity than
individual effort. The other proverb Kuwanda huuya museve wakapotera pamuzukuru which means that if

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people are many they can make things happen. It is therefore important to note that proverbs like these
show that unity is an attribute of unhu.
2. Hospitality
At all times, there is always unprompted welcome and accommodation to unfamiliar persons and visitors.
Africans effortlessly incorporate strangers and offer them where to sleep as well as giving them food. This
therefore encourages people to practice good hospitality to everyone in the community.
3. Compassion
Compassion is defined as having pity and concern for the suffering of others or misfortunes of others. As
such rejoicing when one is in trouble or suffering is a sign of lacking unhu as an African is supposed to
exhibit compassion for one another. This is the reason why problems in Indigenous Religion are not an
individual problem but a problem of a society as a whole. Death, disasters and other human problems
which require collective effort require compassion. There are proverbs which substantiate the idea of
compassion, for example, seka urema wafa which means do not make fun of other people’s misfortunes
because they may come upon you too. In this proverb, people are encouraged to be compassionate to
each other in times of trouble. People must not laugh at others if they face misfortune.
4. Generosity
Generosity refers to the willingness to give help or support to those in need. Unhu entails that one should
express sheer generosity to the needy in society. In Indigenous Religion one should give without expecting
something in return. The proverb, “varume varume kutsva ndebvu vanodzimurana” which means that men
help each other in times of needy and trouble supports generosity as an attribute of unhu. This shows that,
Indigenous Religion helps in inculcating the belief that people are the same and they should assist each
other in all the circumstances.
5. Respect
Respect refers to a positive feeling or action shown towards something or someone considered important
or held with high self-esteem. In Indigenous Religion, elder are held with high esteem and should always
be honoured by exhibiting great care and concern towards their needs or feelings . The young to show
respect should not sit on the bench while elders are seated on the ground. Taboos also encourage respect
for others, for example, Ukanongedza munhu nechigunwe hachizofonyoki which means if you point a finger
at someone that finger will not be flexible. This taboo encourage respect for other people by avoiding
pointing a finger at someone as it is a sign of lacking respect.
6. Fairness
Fairness is an impartial and a just treatment of others without favouritism or discrimination. It’s a negation
of unhu to have side when dealing with others. There should be fairness in everything that is done by
avoiding favouritism and nepotism. It is when one conduct himself or herself in a manner that is impartial
and just that one is seen as having unhu.
7. Justice
Justice refers to the quality of being just, righteousness, equitableness or moral uprightness. As such, justice
is a component of unhu as it ensures that all people are treated justly and there are no moral violations in
looking into the legal issues at hand. Justice is instrumental in Indigenous Religion because family, village
and clan have instruments which make sure that all human beings are treated in just manner through
dare (court). This is well supported by the proverb, usadya zvevapfupi Nekureba which literally means you
should not take advantage of the need to get rich. Success should be just and fair rather than being based
on injustice and egocentricism.

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Threats to Unhu/Ubuntu
Socialisation in the modern world has moved from family to other socialisation agents which have
threatened Unhu in the contemporary society. These threats include:
1. Urbanisation
Urbanisation refers to the movement of people from rural areas to urban areas. This has affected the family
bond and the role of the extended family which are all important in the internalisation of Unhu. The moral
fabric of society has been influenced by urbanisation.
2. Information Communication Technology (ICT)
This refers to the technologies that provide information through telecommunications. These technologies
include cell phones, computers, television, radios and newspapers which have been used to expose people
to prostitution, drug abuse, violence, indecent dressing, obscene and offensive language, lack of respect of
relatives and non-relatives as well as pornography which are all aspects pointing to lack of Unhu.
3. Globalisation
Globalisation refers to the process by which national and regional economies, societies and cultures have
become integrated into a small world where people share cultures and religion as well as other things. The
world has become a global village because of social media like WhatsApp, Facebook, tweeter and other
platforms. This has led to the erosion of unhu as people seek advice from all various people across the world
displacing the role of the aunt in instilling values which are in line with unhu. Aspects like homosexuality,
egocentricism and Satanism are a negation of unhu which all come through globalisation.
4. Corruption
Corruption refers to the dishonest or fraudulent conduct by those in power as well as those who are not in
power in order to gain illicit benefits. From this definition, it is clear that it is a threat to unhu since it makes
people to view each other unequally. Corruption is the root cause of egocentricism, unsatisfied with what
one has and bad behaviour in society. So, it is a threat to unhu.

Activity 9.1 Research

In pairs research on causes of lack of unhu in Zimbabwe. Which are the problems of unhu affecting your
community. Make some notes on your findings and prepare a presentation which you are going to present in
class.

Exercise 9.1
1. Describe the morals and values derived from Indigenous Religion. [25]

UNIT 9.2 RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND SEXUALITY

Sexuality is defined as the way people experience and express themselves sexually. It deals with the way
people have sexual feelings and how people are attracted to each other.
Sexuality means more than body parts as well as sex. It includes gender identity and orientation. It is
important to note that sexuality is generally expressed in the way people speak, smile, and walk, sitting
posture, express emotions and the dress code.

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 Sexuality deals with attraction of people either of the same sex or opposite sex. Sexuality is a religious
matter because sex and the way people express themselves are shaped by religious beliefs and practices.
Issues of sex happens in a social environment where religion is the basis of understanding sexual relations.
Religion shapes one’s belief about sexuality.
The contributions of IR to Unhu/Ubuntu
Indigenous Religion contributes in so many ways to Unhu or Ubuntu through a number of indigenous beliefs
and practices.
1. Belief in the existence of avenging spirits
Avenging spirits are spirits of the people who have been killed or someone who died with a complaint who
want redress from the one who would have caused the murder and discomfort. Belief in the existence of
spirits like avenging spirits contribute to unhu. Killing or murder is prohibited as it leads to avenging spirits
ravaging the living. This also contribute to unhu as respect of life is adhered to in Indigenous Religion.
Respect of human life is an attribute of unhu. Secondly, avenging spirits can come when one insults and
physically abuses the mother. This promote respecting one’s parents as well as being tolerant. It can also
come when one fails to welcome a stranger and the stranger dies on the way. This encourages people
to be hospitable which promotes unhu. The existence of avenging spirits make people respect parents,
hospitable, to be tolerant and value life. So the existence of spirits is a source of unhu since it discourages
murder, disrespect of parents as well as egocentricism.
2. Family
The role of the family in Indigenous Religion is way that is used to contribute towards unhu. The family is a
basic platform of socialisation in Indigenous Religion. The family through the aunt as well as elders ensure
that children have unhu. Unhu is derived from the family. Lack of unhu is a reflection of the family where
one comes from. For example, if one is stingy and rude it is a sign that where he or she comes from people
in that family are stingy and rude. As such, family propagates unhu which in turn is reflected by the wider
society. It is therefore important to note that the family contributes towards unhu in Indigenous Religion.
3. Punishments for immoral acts
Indigenous Religion has punishments for immoral which inculcates unhu among indigenous people.
These punishments encourage people to have unhu as the offenders face painful consequences. For
example, punishments like runyoka and rukwa are sources of unhu because they discourage people from
having intimate relationship while being married and avoiding stealing respectively. Runyoka or Rukawo
also encourages married couples to be faithful. Rukwa also encourages people not to still from others.
4. Indigenous knowledge systems
Indigenous knowledge systems is the knowledge acquired or taught by the community as opposed to the
scientific knowledge. In Indigenous Religion, indigenous knowledge systems contribute towards unhu.
Some of the Indigenous Knowledge systems that have contributed to unhu include proverbs and idioms.
5. Use of Taboos
A taboo is an avoidance rule and there are several taboos in Indigenous Religion which contribute towards
unhu. These taboos regulate people’s behaviour thereby contributing to unhu. For example, beating of
one’s mother is a taboo which promotes respect for parents. It leads to a form of avenging spirit known as
Kutanda botso which comes as a result of one beating or insulting his or her mother. This taboo encourages
people to respect parents and be tolerant of parents. Respect and tolerance are therefore components of
unhu derived from Indigenous Religion.

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To add on, if one peeps at the naked female who is bathing can affect eyesight of the offender. This taboo
encourages respect female sexuality as well as valuing of female sexuality. A married woman should be
respected. “Mukadzi weumwe ndiambuya”. This promotes unhu in Indigenous Religion. It is also prohibited
to eat without inviting others.

Religion, femininity and masculinity

The term masculinity is derived from the Latin word
masculinus which means male and is derived from
the term masculus which means worthy of a man.
Masculinity refers to the quality of manliness which
is shown by habits and traits which the society
considers appropriate to man while the term
femininity is derived from the Latin term femina
which means woman and therefore femininity is
defined as a quality of being a female or a woman.
Therefore, femininity is defined as set of attributes,
activities, behaviour and roles associated with girls
and women while masculinity is a set of attributes, Fig. 9.3 A man farming with cattle
behaviour and roles associated with boys and men.
How religious beliefs help shape societal attitudes on femininity and masculinity
Femininity and masculinity are socially constructed. Religion plays a vital role in prescribing the attributes,
behaviour and roles of both men and women. Various religions acknowledge the differences between
men and women by shaping how society view maleness and femaleness.
1. Men as the image of God
Belief that God created men in His own image in Judaism and Christianity shapes how society view men and
women. In Indigenous Religion men are valued as sacred beings while women are devalued. In Judaism,
God is depicted as a male and women are seen as evil hence the husband-wife analogy. God is equated to
the husband while Israel is referred to as an unfaithful wife. Additionally, men are viewed as the firstborn
creation which explains the domineering attitude over women. According to Genesis 1:27, “So God created
man in his own image, in the image of God created Him…”
In Christianity the Christian God is a man and women are second class citizens. According to 1 Corinthians
11:8-10, “for man was not made of a woman, but woman from man…that is why a wife ought to have a
symbol of authority on her head” It is within this context that masculinity is associated with domineering
and femininity with subordination. In Islam Allah has masculine traits which shape its society belief about
femininity that a woman is a sexual being. Allah is referred to as He or Him in Islam. For example, “He is the
first and the last, the evident and the hidden; and He has full knowledge of all things….” Quran 57:3. The fact
that Allah is given masculine pronouns shows that Allah is imaged as a man in Islam.
2. Women as weak vessels
The role of women in public sphere is influenced by the religious belief that women are weak and cannot
be active participants in public sphere. Women are required to play a less influential role in society because
of religion. In Indigenous Religion women should not be active in society hence the belief that “Musha
mukadzi” which means a woman’s place is the home and not the public sphere where the strong are
required. Home is a place where the weak are supposed to be and it shows that women are weak since
they are relegated to the domestic sphere. In Judaism, the woman’s place is the home. This is caused by
the belief that women’s femininity is modelled by Eve who was created from Adam’s rib. This explains why

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women are regarded as weak in Judaism. This is similar in Christianity women’s femininity is regarded as
weak because of Eve.
In fact, Christianity regards men and women as equal but different thereby making women’s femininity
complementary to men’s masculinity. Men is considered as the head in all religions and are seen as strong
as opposed to women. According to Genesis 3 vs. 19 in which Adam as a man was given a judgment which
shapes masculinity says, “…In the sweat of your face, you shall eat bread till you return to the ground…”. This
has influenced masculinity in Judaism and Christianity as man is required to be strong because he needs
to provide for the family. In Indigenous Religion a man is characterised as strong “wotoshinga semunhu
wemurume” meaning be strong like men all show that masculinity is shaped by religion. In Islam women’s
femininity is protected because of her fragility. This makes women to live in the custody of men forever
and depend on men on her material needs. Men because of their masculinity are required to provide for
women. This is the reason why women are not allowed to be involved in hard times of life and compete
with men in the public sphere.
3. Religious belief that women are sinners
There is a religious belief among many religions that women because of the feminine nature are sinners. It
is because of this characteristic of femaleness that women are excluded from rituals activities in Indigenous
Religion if they have not reached menopause. In Judaism women are not allowed to go the synagogue
when they are in their menstruation period. In Christianity women are the originators of evil. Therefore,
Christianity and Judaism are the religions which regard women as sinners. Masculinity on the other hand
is associated with virtuousness. In Christianity and Judaism a male figure is associated with the divinity
of God. This is the reason why God is referred to as the husband and father in the Bible. For example,
Hosea’s marriage in the Old Testament equates God to a faithful husband while the woman is equated to
unfaithfulness and sin.
4. Women and modest life
Religion influence femininity by protecting women’s morals, modest, reputation and dignity. Judaism is
a religion which influences femininity by requiring the Jewish women to be modest, this influences the
way women speak, personal conduct, dress code and public behaviour. Modest is rewarded with great
respect in Judaism and the way the first woman was created shapes femininity in Judaism. In Islam the
woman’s chastity is maintained from ill thoughts, words and actions. This is done through lowering of
their gaze and maintaining chastity and cleanliness, wear descent clothes and hide their beauty, hide their
beauty like the chest, arms, legs, neck and hair in front of marriageable men, be serious when talking and
avoiding seclusion. On the contrary men because of their masculinity are permitted to live a life which is
not punctuated with high levels of modest different from that of women.
5. Women help men
From Eve’s story, the femininity of women is influenced as having a special role in the men’s life. God
declared that it was not good for Adam to stay alone and this explains the womanliness of women as being
the missing jigsaw in men’s life. The impact of women in men’s life is so great and so powerful. This explains
that Judaism influences femininity by making women the other half of men without which men will be. In
Christianity, women are helpers of men. According to Genesis 2 vs. 18, Then the lord God said, “It is not good
that the man should be alone, I will make him a helper fit for him”. This explains that women were created to
support men and this explains while women provide invaluable support to men.
6. Women are tempting
Women are seen as tempting to men. In Judaism, modest dressing is a legal requirement for women. Wearing
clothes which leave out the chest out, legs and face are seen as tempting to men. This is similar to what Islam

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views women’s femininity. Islam also requires modest dressing for women and women should not go into
the public alone as well as being in secluded places because they are tempting to men. It is because of this
that women’s femininity is described as tempting to men. In Christianity, Adam’s transgression against God
is as a result of being tempted and enticed by a woman. This has shaped contemporary Christian beliefs
about women by regarding them as tempting. Men’s masculinity is however regarded as not tempting but
rather being tempted by women.
7. Women are dependant
Femininity of women is also reflected as dependant in many religions. In Indigenous Religion, women
are dependent on men as they cannot make decisions in family and they are not bread winners. Women
depend on men for material needs as well as psychological needs. In Judaism, women are dependent on
men in all aspects of life and this is the reason why women’s place is the home. This is similar in Islam where
women depend on the muscular men who work and provide for the family. Christianity also believe that,
women’s sexuality and femininity is dependent on men.

Activity 9.2 Group Work

In groups, list any forms of sexual behaviour that is prohibited in your community and the causes of unwanted
sexual conduct in your society.

Exercise 9.2
1. Femininity is derived from the Latin term femina which means woman.
(a) What is femininity? [2]
(b) List any four feminine attributes in Judaism. [4]
(c) Explain how the creation story influence femininity in Judaism. [6]

UNIT 9.3 RELIGION AND HEALTH

Health is defined as a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, and not merely the
absence of disease or infirmity. The issue of physical, mental and well-being is highly cherished among the
indigenous people. Sickness and illness is understood from a religious context.
Religious beliefs about health
(a) Indigenous Religion and Health
Good health is understood within the context of one having a good relationship with the ancestors. So,
for one to remain with good health ancestors should be venerated. Furthermore, good health is attributed
to good morals and ethical conduct. One who live by the moral standards of the society is guaranteed of
good health.
In Indigenous Religion, illness emanates from the belief in sorcery, witchcraft, and superhuman forces. It
is strongly believed that any illness or sickness has a cause and causer. It is because of such beliefs that the
Shona had to consult diviners to find the causes of illness “munhu hangorwari” (a person does not get sick
without external forces like varoyi or angry ancestral spirits.
Causes of illness in Indigenous Religion
Religion is a belief in a higher power and spirituality. This suffice to say religion is used to explain all illness
in indigenous communities. Illness and sickness can be attributed to three major influences on the human
condition, namely: a Supreme Being (God or Mwari), the ancestors (spirits of the dead-vadzimu) and
witches (varoyi).

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(i) Diseases caused by God
The first category include diseases caused by the supreme deity. These are diseases known as diseases
of God. Diseases of God happen naturally in the society with no spiritual or social cause. In Shona, some
diseases of God were marked as curses against the people by the Supreme Being.
(ii) Diseases caused by witchcraft and sorcery
The second category of diseases are caused by human beings. Illness is caused by bad relationships
between people in societies which result in the use of witchcraft to inflict sickness on others. Under such
conditions, the sickness is inflicted through the use of magic (mashiripiti), sorcery (miposo) or witchcraft
(vuroyi,) on other people to become unhealthy. Conflicts as a result of land (minda), leadership (husabhuku)
and boundaries (miganhu) result in antagonism which could lead to the bewitchment of children by
illnesses. Furthermore, in indigenous society a curse from parents can cause illness.
Examples of disease caused by witchcraft and sorcery
•• Chitsinga or muposo •• Epilepsy
•• Kufuwirwa •• Headache
•• Ungomwa •• Madness
•• Runyoka or rukawo •• unstopping menstruation
•• Mudumbu (diarrhoea)
(iii) Diseases caused by spirits
There are diseases caused by spirits such as nature, alien and ancestral spirits. Spirits are in two categories
namely evil and good spirits. Evil spirits are always capricious, causing misfortunes and diseases following
the breaching of societal norms. Diseases caused by spirits can be healed after the performing of appropriate
rituals and consultation of diviners (N’anga).
Example of diseases caused by spirits
•• Impotent (ungomwa)
•• Epilepsy (pfari)
•• Headache
•• Madness
In the light of the above explained causes of illness, Indigenous Religion stresses the need to take care
of the sick. It’s a sign of lacking unhu to ignore the plight of those who are sick. Health is the primary
focus in Indigenous Religion. It is evil in Indigenous Religion to ignore the sick and it is believed that
if one deliberately ignores someone who is ill, his or her spirit will come back to haunt that person. As
such, Africans strive so much to ensure that they give maximum care to those who are ill. Some immune
boosting foods or medicine like Moringa are given as well as consultation of indigenous healers are some
of the services offered to those who are ill.
Taking care of an ill person is a true mark of unhu. Illness does not occur on its own but is caused by witches
and sorcerers. The Shona, for example, have a proverb ‘pane chariuraya zizi harifi nemhepo’ implying that
every sickness has a cause which might be spiritual. Good health is a sign of good protection from the
ancestors.
(b) Judaism and Health
Human health is one of the core values of Judaism. Curses and demons in Judaism are also causes of illness.
It is because of this reason that one needs to maintain good relations with God such the divine protection
is guaranteed. God is regarded as the healer who cures all illness.

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Judaism’s concept of health is based on the belief that our bodies belongs to God. So, one needs to maintain
good health to the loaned body. Taking care of the body is a religious duty. Just like Indigenous Religion,
the Jewish tradition asserts that we are responsible for one another and called to fulfil the mandate to
make health care accessible to everyone, including those who are poor. Jews were obligated, together as
a community, to care for and be responsible for each other in numerous ways. One way was providing and
paying for health care. Provision of health care is one of the primary ethical duties of all Jews. Visiting the
sick is also considered an essential component of the obligation to heal.
Those who lack resources to pay for health care are mandated to accept public help for their health
and wellbeing because to refuse needed care would be to endanger their lives, which is in Jewish law,
tantamount to committing suicide.
(c) Christianity and Health
Health is an issue which affects many people and Christianity as a religion has some teachings which are
important in taking care of those who are sick. Christianity encourages a pattern of life and relationships
which help and guide people on health care. Christians should have values such as love, compassion and
care which are critical in health care.
All people are valued because they are created by God. Humanity should be able to:
•• Look after one’s own health.
•• Take care of the health of others by visiting those who are sick.
•• Provide for the community.
•• Pray for those who are sick.
•• Encourage those who are sick to have hope.
How religious beliefs influence people with ill-health conditions
Religious beliefs influence positively or negatively on people’s health conditions which impact on their
healing or increase in pain.
Positive influences
1. It gives hope to the ill person
Religion can also influence positively on people with bad health conditions by giving hope. The role of
religion is to give hope in a hopeless situation thereby making the sufferer heal faster than anticipated. In
Indigenous Religion, it is a taboo to tell a person who is sick that he or she is deteriorating. If one visits a
sick person, he is supposed to give hope. Christianity is another religion which gives hope for the sick as
church leaders are encouraged to visit the sick. According to James 5:14, “Is any sick among you? Let him
call for the elders of the church and let them pray over him, anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord
for the prayer of faith will save the sick man and the lord will raise him up”. The implication here is that a
sick person when visited by church leaders will have hope of being made well by the prayers offered by
other believers.
In Islam they believe that visiting the sick ease the suffering of the sick by giving the sick hope. During the
visitation of the sick hope will be instilled in the sick person thereby demonstrating the caring nature of
Muslims. No matter how great the pain is, a Muslim should never wish for the death of the ill person.
2. It improves a health living of a sick person
When religion gives hope to the ill person, it improves the way one lives by accepting the condition one
is living with. For example, a person with HIV/AIDS is influenced by religion to improve his or her conduct
by believing that there is hope which comes in the afterlife. Christianity gives hope by emphasising the

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need for one to focus on the life to come than the present life. Jesus is the role model of embracing the
sick in society as he interacted with the sick who were discriminated by society like the lepers. In Islam it
is a religious duty for one to take care of the sick and it is because of this that one’s health living improves.
Furthermore, in Judaism there are some health advices which improve the sick person’s health. For example,
Numbers 6:3-4 commends a Nazarene who abstains from alcohol because of negative effects on health.
So, Judaism contributes positively to the sick by encouraging a health living.
3. Religion makes the sick feel loved
Religion makes the sick feel loved due to material support given to the sick. For example, in Indigenous
Religion, when one visits the sick he should bring in some goodies. God allows the sick people in the
Christian community as an opportunity to demonstrate love to the sick and by caring for the sick the
sufferer feel loved (Matthew 25 v 36). This improves the way the sick perceives himself or herself by feeling
loved. The sick will feel as a human being worthy living by the love demonstrated by religious followers. In
Islam they are motivated by Muhammad’s actions when he had a sick neighbour when he went to visit the
sick neighbour when he was missing. This demonstrates how the sick need to be loved in Islam. Visiting the
sick is a rewarded act in Islam by God. Visiting the sick is also integral in Judaism (Job 2v11).
4. Spiritual comfort
When someone is sick, he or she becomes spiritually
unstable. It is the role of religion to influence the
sick to have spiritual comfort. For example, in
Indigenous Religion they believe in that ancestors
will not abandon the sick “Vadzimu havakurase”.
So believers in Indigenous Religion give spiritual
comfort by partaking in the healing rituals that may
be required by the diviner. In Judaism prayer for the
sick is done and it is a religious ritual which provides
spiritual support in the sufferer. Furthermore, in
Christianity spiritual care is given through the word
of God, it is the duty of church leaders to pray and
provide spiritual comfort to the sufferer. Fig 9.4 Providing spiritual comfort to the sick in Islam
In Islam they believe that illness is not a punishment from Allah but rather a test of faith and a purification
of one’s sins. So, spiritual support is positive influence of religion as it gives spiritual comfort in the sufferer
despite poor health
5. It removes fear
Religion also positively impact on health conditions by removing fear of the unknown. The sick will
always be in fear of losing life as well as living relatives and friends behind through death. So, religion
plays an important role in removing that fear. For example, in Christianity they give courage to the sick
by emphasising that Christ cares for the sick. In Islam they believe that illness causes fear and this fear is
removed through personal prayer for the sick known as Du’a. The prayer reads, “Oh Allah! The Sustainer
of mankind! Remove the illness, cure the disease. You are the one who cures. There is no cure except your
cure. Grant us cure that leaves the illness”. It is recommended to touch with the right hand on the area of
pain and recite the prayer.
6. It accelerate healing process
Religions are based on beliefs and it is through beliefs that an ill person may be positively affected by
religion to speed the recovery. In Indigenous Religion they use medication or herbs which accelerate

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healing process because of faith. In Judaism, prayer
and miracle healing also speed up healing process.
In Christianity, the healing process is speeded up
through miracles as well as healing water, stones
and other spiritual things given to the sick.
In Islam the multiple visit to the sick person, the
length of visiting, the gift given to the sick person
and prayer done towards the sick all speed up the
healing process as pain is reduced. Religion has a
positive psychological effect on the sufferer which
makes a sick person feel better and healed.
Judaism is another religion which contributes to the
recuperation of the sick as they believe that medical
treatment is a religious mandate. This is supported
by Exodus 21:19 which commands the injuring
person to heal the hurt. It is important to note
that in Judaism they had physicians (doctors) who
helped in the healing of the sick person by offering Fig. 9.5 Jesus praying for the sick
not only medical support but also spiritual support
since religion is a way of life for the Jews.
Negative influence of religion on health conditions
(a) It increases the pain of an ill person
Religion can either destroy or heal within the context of good or bad health condition. For example, if one
has HIV-AIDS his or her health condition may deteriorate because of religious influence. In Indigenous
Religion, they believe that the disease is rampaging as they call it chakapedza mbudzi meaning a ravaging
disease or they call it Shuramatongo meaning a bad omen leading to ruins. It is because of such names
given in Indigenous Religion that the pain of the disease increases. In Judaism and Christianity such health
conditions are regarded as a curse from God. This may increase the suffering of the ill person as he or she
believes that curses from God and the ancestors cannot be overcome.
(b) It reduces self-esteem on the sick person
Those with disabilities may also be influenced by religion to look down upon themselves because of the
lack of self-esteem. This is because in some religions bad health conditions are a sign of abandonment by
God. In Indigenous Religion illness is regarded as a neglection by the ancestors “Vadzimu vatifuratira”. In
Judaism illness is sign of being cursed by God. In Christianity some believe it is payback time for the past
sins committed.
(c) It leads a sick person to live a reckless life
Those with good health conditions may be influenced to live a reckless life as they would think that they
are not cared for by the ancestors in Indigenous Religion while in Christianity one would think God does
not care. This makes one to neglect his or her own care on his or her health condition. Religion may also
lead patients to leave their medication for instance, the teaching of faith in Christianity.
(d) It increases stigma and discrimination in society
Religion also result in stigma and discrimination since bad health conditions are associated with sin. In
Indigenous Religion they believe that a person with HIV/AIDS is reckless and does not deserve sympathy

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as they say wakarumwa nechekuchera meaning one has been affected by his or her own sin. This leads to
HIV-AIDS patients to be discriminated by those who do not have the disease may not want to associate
with infected people on the pretext that they are evil. In Christianity, disease such as AIDS has led some
believers to discriminate people with the disease as ungodly not worthy to be called God’s children.

Activity 9.3 Drama

In groups, imagine you are a parent with a child with mental illness. Dramatize the cause of mental illness and
healing strategies used as a remedy in Indigenous Religion. Your drama should not exceed five minutes.

Exercise 9.4
1. Christianity influences people with health conditions.
(a) What is ahealth condition? [2]
(b) List any four health conditions in Christianity. [4]
(c) Describe the positive influence of Christianity on people with health conditions. [6]

Interesting facts
1. All religions condemn homosexuality.
2. Female sexuality is associated with evil while male sexuality is associated with goodness.

Summary of the chapter

•• Indigenous Religion is a source of morals and values.
•• There are several sources of Unhu in Indigenous Religion which include taboos, rituals and family.
•• All religions have morals and values which are almost the same.
•• Unhu has some universal principles.
•• Indigenous Religion is the pillar of Unhu as it shapes Unhu.
•• The way women and men are viewed in society is shaped by religion.
•• Women are associated with negative sexuality while men are associated with positive sexuality.
•• The manliness and womanliness is largely determined by religious beliefs and practices.
•• Religion shapes how people who are sick are perceived.
•• Religious beliefs and teachings help in reducing effects associated with illness.

Glossary of terms
Avenging spirit – t he spirit of the person who died with a grievance which comes back to
haunt the living.
Charity – giving that is done towards the welfare of the poor or in need.
Domineering – the desire to control others.
Femininity – the behaviour and roles expected of girls and women.
Masculinity – the behaviour and roles expected of boys and men.
Modest life – expressing one’s self with a lower opinion than probably deserved and
one’s ability.
Religious beliefs – attitudes towards spiritual dimensions of a religion.
Sexuality – it deals with attraction of people either of the same sex or opposite sex.
Values – one’s judgement of what is vital in life.

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Revision Exercises
Structured questions
1. Unhu is at the centre of Indigenous Religion.
(a) Define unhu. [2]
(b) State any four attributes of unhu. [4]
(c) Explain the sources of unhu in Indigenous Religion. [6]
(d) How does Indigenous Religion contribute towards unhu? [8]
2. Sexuality is a religious matter.
(a) Define sexuality. [2]
(b) List any four negative things associated with female sexuality. [4]
(c) Describe the role of religion in shaping sexuality. [6]
(d) Explain the importance of religion in sexuality matters. [8]
3. Femininity and masculinity are socially constructed.
(a) Define femininity and masculinity. [2]
(b) State four attributes associated with femininity. [4]
(c) Describe societal views on femininity and sexuality. [6]
(d) Describe how religious beliefs help shape societal attitudes on femininity and masculinity. [8]

4. Health and well-being is at the centre of African spirituality.

(a) Define health. [2]
(b) List any four illness caused by spirits in Indigenous Religion . [4]
(c) Describe the ways in which the ill are assisted in Indigenous Religion. [6]
(d) Explain the healing methods used to cure diseases in Indigenous Religion . [8]

5. Christianity encourages a pattern of life and relationships which help and guide people on
health care.
(a) Define health care. [2]
(b) Outline four ways in which the ill are assisted in Christianity. [4]
(c) Describe the causes of illness in Christianity. [6]
(d) How religious beliefs influence people with health conditions. [8]

Essay Questions
1. Describe the contributions of IR to Unhu/Ubuntu. [25]
2. Compare the sexual relations prohibited in Indigenous Religion and Islam. [25]
3. Explain how religious beliefs in Christianity influence people with health conditions. [25]

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 Chapter RELIGION AND

10
DISABILITY

Chapter Objectives
By the end of the chapter, you should be able to:
• illustrate religious attitudes towards disability.
• explain religious intervention measures to disability.

Introduction
Disability is an existential problem affecting many societies the world over. It is within this context that
religion shapes society’s attitude towards people living with disabilities. The thrust of this chapter is to
define disability, ascertain the causes of disability, identifying forms of disability as well as illustrating how
religion shapes people’s attitudes towards people with disability. The chapter will conclude by looking at
religious intervention measures on people with disability.

UNIT 10.1 DISABILITY AND RELIGIOUS INTERVENTION MEASURES

Disability defined
Disability refers to a restriction or lack of activity (resulting from an impairment) to perform an activity in a
manner considered normal for human beings.
Disability refers to impairments, activity limitations,
and participation restrictions. An impairment is a
problem in body function or structure for example
not walking properly. An activity limitation is a
difficulty encountered by an individual in executing
a task or action, while a participation restriction
is a problem experienced by an individual in
involvement in life situations.
Overcoming the challenges faced by people
with disabilities requires interventions to remove
environmental and social barriers. Disability is not
a punishment for mistakes, so people have to show
other people to demonstrate their respect, humility
and charity towards the disabled.
Fig. 10.1 Children living with disabilities in Zimbabwe

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Religious attitude towards the disabled
In many societies, people with disabilities are viewed as sub-human, supernatural, evil, meriting pity,
indigent, depressed, dependent, sexually hyperactive, damaged, less socially acceptable and socially
deviant. These perceptions have led to the people with disabilities to be regarded as scapegoats of societal
ills, burdens and liabilities to the society. It is within this context that religion has a key role in unlocking
the perception and attitudes towards disability. In simple terms, religion plays a critical role in determining
how disability is understood and how people with disability are treated. This is because disability is a
condition which is explained from a religious perspective rather than a scientific perspective. Religion
creates beliefs about disability and this has an impact on attitude towards disability.
1. Indigenous Religion
Indigenous Religion depicts people with disability
in both good and bad ways. Affliction is the cause of
physical and psychological disability. Put differently,
disabilities are a manifestation of witchcraft, a gift
from God, punishment from ancestors, a curse
or bad omen or a predetermined occurrence in
Indigenous religion.
There are two main beliefs regarding witchcraft and
disability in Indigenous Religion. Firstly, disability
is caused by bewitchment. Secondly it is caused by
the trial to practice witchcraft to get rich but failed
to do as instructed by the diviner. For example,
mental illness is attributed to witchcraft. So, there
is a close link between witchcraft and disability.
Disability is the root cause of isolation, rejection and Fig. 10.2 A disabled woman fetching water
discrimination of people in Indigenous Religion.
Furthermore, disability in Indigenous Religion is considered as a condition caused by God. There are some
forms of disability which cannot be controlled by human beings. It is this belief that leads to greater care of
people with disability because of fear of being cursed for neglecting the disabled. It is believed that people
are born naturally disabled as part of God’s plan.
The sins committed by one can also lead to disability in Indigenous Religion. For example, sins like abortion
can cause the bearing of a child with deformities later in life. It shows that disability is a punishment for the
sins committed in the past. As such social and religious sins cause disability in Indigenous Religion. Lastly
curses or bad omen is another cause of disability in Indigenous Religion which shapes people’s perception
on disability.
The general observation is that many people believe that persons with disabilities are not only inferior
to those without disabilities but can also be used for social and economic benefits. That is, they lack
characteristics that make them full humans and can be used in sacrifices in order to bring wealth, good
luck or cure diseases.
Negative attitude towards disability
(a) Rejection of people with disability by society
In Indigenous Religion people react to disability with rejection. For example, people with albinism were
rejected in indigenous society because they believed that a person with that kind of disability would bring
misfortunes to the family and society as a whole, so they were killed. This practice is no longer in place in
the modern society.

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(b) There is discrimination of people with disability
Disability discrimination is when one is treated less on the grounds of disability. Therefore, disability
discrimination is a negative attitude displayed in Indigenous Religion. For example, people who are
physically handicapped are not involved in social and religious activities. In some cases, the disabled person
will live his or her whole life being hidden. They believe that disabled persons bring embarrassment to the
family. There is also an indirect discrimination of people with disability when they are exempted from
participating in ritual activities.
(c) Stigmatisation of people with disability
Stigmatisation is another negative attitude revealed in Indigenous Religion. For example, people with
mental illness are stigmatised as victims of bad spirits which come as a result of social deviance. Stigma is
a barrier which contributes to negative perception of people with disability. It is usually caused by wrong
beliefs about disability and it arises from labelling which causes people with disability to receive some
negative responses such as anxiety, avoidance, hostility, disgust and even hatred. At individual level
stigma results in internalised oppression and feelings of shame of people with disability.
(d) Mockery of people with disability
Mocking is also done to people with disability. For example, in indigenous communities people with
albinism are regarded as murungudunhu meaning a wild (rural) white person. This name is derogatory and
discriminatory. This practice has stopped because of inclusivity that has been adopted by the society as
well as laws which deter discrimination of other people due to race, gender or religion. Mocking of people
with disability makes them feel like they are not human beings. Religion contribute to the mocking of
people with disability as it associates disability with transgression.
(e) Ritual murder of people with disability
During the primitive stages of the indigenous people, ritual killing was also done on people with disabilities.
The practice involves the use of abuse, mutilation and killing of people with disability to obtain body
parts for use in rituals, portions or amulets with the promise to help individuals become wealthy, gain
social prominence, succeed in love as well as defeating enemies. This stems from they believe that killing
a disabled person for ritual purposes enhances magical powers. People living with albinism have been
affected by the issue of ritual killings.
(f) Sexual Abuse
Social negative attitude and understanding of disability and sexuality influence people to sexually abuse
girls with disabilities like those with mental problems, visual impairments and hearing impairments as a
result of assumptions that they cannot reason, see and talk. It is this social negative attitude which lead to
sexual abuse on girls with disability to enhance business in Indigenous religion.
(g) Ostracism
Disability is associated with ostracism. Ostracism is the total rejection of people with disability by the
whole family. Due to fear of bringing a curse into the family, people with disability are met with strong
social disapproval. This is what causes people to be hidden at home or sent away to institutions where
they are accommodated. In indigenous society, people with disability and their families are sometimes
shunned and isolated from their community because of the link of disability with religious beliefs that it
brings curses to the community.
Positive religious attitude towards disability
Notably some religious and social beliefs in Indigenous Religion are quite positive. There are so many

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proverbs and ethical teachings in Indigenous Religion which calls for respect and better treatment of
people with disabilities.
(i) Humane treatment of people with disability
People with disability are seen as human beings because of unhu/ubuntu concept. Unhu is an Indigenous
Religion concept which calls for the better treatment of the less fortunate in society. Indigenous Religion
calls for love, respect and inclusivity of people with disability through the concept of Unhu. It is against the
spirit of unhu to discriminate a person with disability. The ethical and moral principle of unhu stresses that
people with disabilities are not inferior but equal human beings “Munhu Munhu”. Unlike the western belief
that a disabled person is inferior who is kept at designated points like Jairos Jiri and Kapota, the indigenous
people believe in inclusivity of the disabled.
(ii) Punishment by ancestors
Belief in the punishment by ancestors is a positive attitude that is tapped from Indigenous Religion. It is
believed in Indigenous Religion that if a person laughs or mocks a person with disability he or she will
in future be blessed with an offspring who is also disabled. It is because of this that Indigenous Religion
does have a positive attitude for people with disability as it calls for empathy and respect for people with
disability. The Shona people have the proverb ‘Seka urema wafa’ (Laugh at a cripple when you are dead)
which calls for everyone to accept those with disabilities and not laugh at them.
(iii) Accommodating people living with disabilities
There are some Shona folk tales which are done to encourage accommodating people with disabilities.
For example, there is a fork tale of Pimbirimano, a young man who was born through the knee and he was
handicapped. He had magical powers which were in the horn which he was born holding. One day his
community was attacked by enemies and the king consulted Pimbirimano to help with his magical powers.
The enemies were attacked by stones from Pimbirimano’s magic. Pimbirimano was made the deputy of the
king and it is through this folk tale that the indigenous people have a positive attitude of accommodating
people with disability.
(iv) Acceptance of the contribution of people living with disability in society
From folk tales and taboos there are injunctions of positive attitude towards people with disabilities.
People with disabilities are considered as people who can contribute meaningfully to the welfare of the
community. For example, the Shona saying “Benzi rakareva hondo” meaning a mad person warned people
of the coming war and those who took heed to the warning survived and those who did not perished. It
is because of this saying that the role of people with disabilities is greatly appreciated in the society. From
folk tales, taboos and proverbs people with disability are viewed as people who can do even better than
the able bodied.
(v) Discouragement or despising people with disability
The indigenous people largely discourage members of the society from making negative comments
about people with disability and also imitating people with disabilities. Passing negative comments on
people with disability is a sign that one is not well morally educated in Indigenous Religion. It is clear that
despising people with disabilities is not allowed and it shows that the indigenous people have a positive
attitude towards disability.
(vi) Healing of people with disabilities
Traditional Healers play an important role in reducing the pain associated with disabilities. They reduce
pain induced through sorcery (muposo) by extracting the component put in the human body by witches.
This is a physical support given by Indigenous Religion.

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2. Judaism
There are several causes of disability in Judaism which ranges from illness, genetics, poverty, improper use
of medicine, injury, exposure to dangerous chemicals and poor access to health care. As such there are
several categories of disability in Judaism which include:
•• Charaysh (deaf-mute)
•• The shoteh (mentally ill) who are not qualified to be witnesses in court.
•• The blind who are obligated by the Jewish commandment but cannot be witness in court.
•• Paralysed
Disability in Judaism is perceived as the punishment from God. According to the Talmud there is a story
about Nahum Ish Gam Zu who had no hands, feet and was blind. These disabilities are not attributed to
birth but a punishment from God.
On the Jewish attitude towards disability, they rely on strict biblical references against the participation of
the physically handicapped in bringing sacrifice: “none of your descendants who has a defect may come
near to offer the food of his God. No man who has any defect may come near: no man who is blind or lame,
disfigured or deformed; no man with a crippled foot or hand, or who is a hunchback or a dwarf, or who has
an eye defect, or who has festering or running sores or damaged testicles” (Leviticus 21: 17-20). A person
who is blind cannot act as a witness in the Jewish court of law.
There are also some positive attitude towards disability that can be inferred from matriarchs in Judaism.
These matriarchs who include Sarah, Rebecca and Rachel who are barren are not ridiculed in Judaism.
while Isaac who was blind in his later life is also valued. It is a Jewish obligation for individuals, family
and society to help people with disability in Judaism so that they lead a maximum and productive life.
According to Genesis 1:27 every human being is created in the image of God. This means that the disabled
are also part of the creation of God in his own image.
Moreover, Moses had a speech problem. This means that he was not able to talk properly. His role as the
model of other prophets who liberated the chosen nation from Egyptian bondage shows that God loves
the disabled in Judaism.As such the example of Moses offers a positive reflection of the Jewish perception
on disability.
Religious intervention on people with disability

Fig. 10.4 A Dumb woman in Judaism Fig. 10.5 Down syndrome in Judaism

•• Full participation of Jews with disability in every aspect of life

•• Judaism as a religion teaches an obligation to ensure equal access for all people and help in

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 facilitating the full participation of people with disabilities in religious spheres as well as public
spheres. As a religion, Judaism is guided by the belief in the importance and value of community
life. According to Leviticus 19:14, “you shall not insult the deaf, or place a stumbling block before the
blind”. From this verse, it is clear that Judaism calls for physical and emotional support and help of
people with disabilities.
•• Praying for people with disability.
•• The religious intervention of Judaism is through praying for people with disabilities as well as
supporting them with physical needs. They have also established social services caring centres for
people with disability. So, people with disabilities are given spiritual support.
•• Fees is paid for the disabled.
•• They are looked after at designated places where they receive special attention.
•• They are given emotional support.
3. Christianity
The bible also view disability as a disease and most of the forms of disability which are regarded as diseases
include blindness, dumbness and paralysis. Visual impairment is the most common disability in the Bible
as Isaac, Jacob, Eli and Ahijah of Shiloh became visually impaired as they grew old. This explains the natural
cause of disability from a Christian perspective.
Christian attitude towards the disabled not only receive scriptural justification from the verses quoted from
the Hebrew Bible above, but from Matthew 9:2, 7 (also in Mark and Luke), where Jesus heals a paralyzed
man by forgiving his sins: “Some men brought to him a paralyzed man, lying on a mat”. The healing of people
who were lame, blind, paralysed and dumb by Jesus shows that disability is viewed in a positive light.
Jesus explains that people are not born with disabilities because of sin but instead they are born with
disabilities in order to provide opportunities for God to demonstrate his power. Disability in Christianity
occurs so that God’s power over disability can be demonstrated. According to John 9:1-3 Jesus replied to
the general belief that blindness is caused by the sins of the parents by saying, “it was not that this man
sinned or his parents sinned but that the works of God might be made manifest in him”. This explains that
Christians believe that disability is caused intentionally by God so that he can demonstrate that he is God
who cares for the disabled.
Furthermore, disability is also perceived as a punishment from God for wrongdoing. This is the perception
which shapes people’s attitude towards disability through the creation of stigma and discrimination against
people with disability. Punishment through disability is a way which God demonstrated his sovereign
power over human lives. Therefore, disability is as a result of disbelief and ignorance about God in which
God punishes people for disbelief and ignorance.
Demonic possession is also another cause of disability. For example, the mental illness of Legion is
attributed to demonic possession. This is the reason why Jesus had to exorcise the demons so that the
sufferer was made well.
Disability is also perceived as a curse. According to Leviticus 26:14-16 one of the punishments used by God
to punish people for their disobedience is through blindness as a curse. Samson sinned against God and
was cursed by becoming blind. Furthermore, paralysis is also caused by curses for example Jeroboam the
king of Israel became paralysed because of the curse from God (1 Kings 13:4).
Christians also link disability with sin. According to John 9:1-3 disability is a punishment of sin committed
by the person himself or his parents. In John 5:14 Jesus said to the paralysed men, “see, you are well! Sin no
more, that nothing worse befall you”. This clearly shows Jesus’ perception on disability that it is connected to
sin. This has even shaped contemporary Christians perceptions on disability that it is a result of one’s sins
or the generation’s sins.

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Hearing impairment from a Christian view symbolises spiritual stubbornness or wilful refusal to listen to
the word of God. According to Jeremiah 5:21, Ezekiel 12:2 and Isaiah 42:18-20 allude that sin can deafen
one’s ears. Visual impairment is a symbol of ignorance, sin and unbelief while blindness is associated
with punishment of sin. All these symbolic representations of different disabilities have shaped Christian
attitude towards disability.
Religious attitude and intervention on people with disability
Christianity as a religion has a certain attitude towards disability. It has therefore intervened in different
ways depending with the different types of disability.
(a) Keeping people living with disabilities at designated centres
There are different Christian sects which help people with disability. They help them in different ways
which include creating centres for the disabled people. ZAOGA Forward in Faith established Ezekiel Guti
Disabled Village. At these centres people with disability are cared for and their needs are provided. They
are given education for them to survive and they are also given supporting things to their disabilities.
(b) Provision of material support
Christianity has several programs which caters for the disabled for example the Catholic relief fund also
look after the disabled. Furthermore, people with disability are helped through donation of funds. For
example, the ZAOGA FIFM has established an organisation known as Disabled Helping Hand association to
help people with disabilities with funds to start income generating projects. Other material support given
to the people with disability include food, clutches for those who cannot walk, wheel chairs for the lame,
walking sticks for the blind, chemicals for the albinos and hearing aids for those who are partially deaf.
(c) Inclusivity of people living with disabilities in church activities
Christianity through the use of the parable of the great banquet (Luke 14) shows the inclusive nature of
the kingdom of God. According to this parable the crippled, the blind and the lame have a place in the
kingdom of God. It is because of this parable that Christians have a positive attitude towards the disabled
by embracing them in society as well as giving them a sense of belonging and identity as the people of God.
The kingdom of God is incomplete without people with disabilities. After the triumphal entry (Matthew
21: 12-14) the blind and the lame who came to Jesus were healed. This shows the inclusivity of Christianity
which has helped in assisting contemporary Christians to accept people with disability as believers also.
Some churches have employed disabled people as pastors to show inclusivity. For example, pastor Musasa
in Mutare is a crippled pastor of Apostolic Faith Mission (AFM) while Pastor Mangwiro is blind. This implies
that Christianity has accommodated people with disability into church ministry and this has improved the
people’s attitude towards disability. The late Pastor Ezekiel Guti Juniour was crippled.
(d) Healing of people with disabilities
Healing is also done in Christianity to assist people with disabilities. Christians derive their motivation
from Jesus who helped the disabled by healing them. Concern for people with disability is at the centre
of Jesus’ ministry and his healing miracles have helped in removing societal barriers in order to create
accessible and accepting communities that disability is not inability. In contemporary world Prophet
Makandiwa, T Fred and Prophet W Magaya emphasise the restoration of the people with disability’s health.
This removes all stigma and discrimination associated with disability as they are viewed as part and parcel
of the community of Jesus. So, religion plays an important role on people with disabilities through miracles
meant to restore sight to the blind as well as restoring the functioning of body parts.

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(e) Empowerment of the disabled
Empowerment of people with disabilities is also done in Christianity to help people living with disabilities.
For example, the Reformed Church in Zimbabwe through the Kapota School of the blind is there to assist the
disabled to be self-reliant through training and education in music, carpentry, entrepreneurship, basketry
and other forms of self-reliant jobs. Munyaradzi Munodawafa is a musician who had been empowered
by the church. Provision of free education and training in life skills is the other way in which the disabled
have been assisted in Christianity. It is through the provision of education and finances to start income
generating projects that empowers the disabled to make meaningful contribution to society without
burdening the family and community where they come from.
4. Islam
Islam is the most inclusive religion in terms of people with disabilities. There are some verses from the
Quran which dismisses the perception that the disabled are impure and evil and must be discriminated.
According to the Quran 24:61 and 80: 1-9 a disabled person is religious pure as the abled person. People
who are disabled are very special before Allah. In Islamic belief, weaker people have an extra position in
the eyes of God. One should thankfully use his or her wealth to support those who have less. This leads
to social balance that allows everybody the take part in social life. Dishonouring or excluding people with
disabilities from civil society or religious life is to disrespect and disregard the will of Allah.
Disability in Islam is natural and a normal occurrence. There is a close link between illness and disability as
blindness, deafness, epilepsy, muteness and leprosy are all a result of health problems. As such disability is
a natural condition in Islam. According to the Hadith, judgement is done to all human beings irregardless of
one’s ability or not. The spiritual dimension is considered in Islam than the physical and mental dimension
of one’s ability.

Islam intervention measures on disability

(a) Religious participation of people with
disabilities
Participation in religious life and activities is
required of all Muslims, with or without disabilities.
All the five pillars of Islam which include prayer,
fasting, almsgiving and pilgrimage are supposed
to be performed by every Muslim regardless of
disabilities or not. It is this religious perception that
Islam is regarded as a religion that is inclusive.

Fig. 10.7 Religious participation of people with

(b) Inclusivity disability in Islam
Accommodation is offered to people with disabilities to make their participation in religious life possible
to the greatest extent. This implies that if a religious ritual is proved to be difficult to be performed by a
person with disability then that person is exempted from that religious duty or there are some religious
accommodations done like provision of accessible facilities which do not disadvantage one from a religious
obligation. For example, a Muslim is supposed to clean body parts like hands, arms, face and feet and
a person with mental problems is exempted from this ritual. Those without fingers and hands are also
exempted because they cannot perform it on their own.
(c) Exemption of people with disabilities from religious activities which discomfort them
People living with disabilities are also excused without consequences from religious requirements that

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are simply beyond an individual’s ability. For example, Muslim prayer require a lot of physical movement
like bowing, sitting and prostrating but those who cannot stand move during prayer are exempted from
making these lots of movement. Furthermore, fasting is also another religious requirement in which a
disabled person is exempted if he or she cannot manage. Hajj is another religious requirement which the
lame are exempted to do because it requires a lot of movement by foot. This shows that the disabled are
cared for in Islam.
(d) People with disabilities are allowed to participate in marriage
Disabled people are allowed to marry in Islam. As a religion, Islam is a way of life and those who are living
with disabilities are not bared from the right to marry. It is only those with terminal disabilities who cannot
perform in marriage who are exempted. Marriage is not only a privilege but also a right for people with
disability in Islam. One is not denied the chance of marrying because of disability but marriage is a place
where people with disability also experience the divine love of Allah.
(e) Protection from the law
The Islamic law is part of the Islamic religion and it shows the Muslim perception on disability. The
application of the law is based on will, intent and knowledge for one to be punished by the law. Those
with mental challenges are not liable to punishment because it is believed that they do not have the
will and knowledge to commit a crime. This shows that Islam’s attitude towards the disabled is positive
as the Shariah law protects people with disability. Islam believes that, disability is a natural part of being
human. It is neither a blessing nor a punishment. So, discrimination against people with disability is a
religious offense because Allah created all human beings as equal. The Shariah states that, the rights of the
people with disabilities should be respected (Quran 49:11), enjoy social justice such as food and clothes
(Quran 24:61), receive a portion of the Zakat and certain religious duties might be reduced based on their
condition.
(f) Condemnation of discrimination of people living with disabilities
People with disabilities are not supposed to be discriminated or denigrated on account of their disabilities.
This perception is derived from the Sunnah of the prophet (example of the prophet) where a blind man
interrupted Prophet Muhammad during his meeting with the chiefs of Mecca and was given a warm
reception by the prophet. It is this inspiration that Islam calls for non-discrimination of people with
disabilities.
(g) Material provision for people with disabilities
Islamic law calls for the material care for people with disabilities. These include constructing of homes,
hospitals as well as provision of social service centres for people with disabilities. Provision of financial aid
is highly called for in Islam as a means of supporting materially to the needs of the people with disability.
Supporting people with disability is a religious duty of every Muslim and any neglection of such people
result from utter condemnation from Allah.
(h) Provision of education to people with disability
Education is used in Islam to educate Muslims about the religious obligation of taking care of the disabled.
Inclusive education of children with disabilities remain a route that leads to an adult life as an active member
of society. This improves their academic and physical growth to their full potential, and it improves their
overall quality of life and social status. In Islam, education should be provided to people with disability and
they should not be discriminated in the learning environment.
(j) Almsgiving as a religious intervention for people with disabilities

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 Zakat (almsgiving) is a fund that is used to take care of the needy in society who include people with
disabilities. This is physical support given by Islam. A disabled person does not need to pay Zakat and
is unable to generate income but need help. So, those who pay Zakat contribute to the welfare of the
disabled and Zakat shows that Islam is a religion which is characterised with inclusivity and fairness on
people in need like those with disability. The concept of Zakat is designed for the betterment of people
with disability.
Activity 10.1 Research
Choose one religion and conduct a research on the religious perception about disability in your community.
Compile a presentation on how religious beliefs shape attitude towards disability and present your findings in
the class.
Activity 10.3 Drama
In groups dramatize a story that illustrate religious attitude towards disability. Your drama should have five
characters and should not last more than ten minutes.

Exercise 10.1
1. Compare the religious intervention measures to disability in Indigenous religion and Judaism. [25]

Interesting facts
1. Disability is caused by genetic factors in science.
2. People with disability are discriminated upon by the society.
Summary of the chapter
•• There are various forms of disabilities which range from hearing impairment, visual impairment,
physical disabilities, mental illness and albinism.
•• Disability is viewed negatively by society as it is regarded as a curse, a result of sin and sign of
disobedience for one’s ancestors.
•• Unhu is the major source of positive attitude towards disability in Indigenous Religion.
•• There are some negative attitudes associated with disability in all religions.
•• Religion is a resource that can be used to help the disabled in society.
•• The major cause of disability in Christianity is sin.
•• Christianity derive a positive attitude towards disability from the life of Jesus.
•• Judaism and Islam believe that disability is given to people to demonstrate the good virtues which
they have so that God would reward them.
Glossary of terms
Albinism – it is a condition in which there are genetic disorders that cause the skin or eyes
to have no colour.
Ancestors – the spirit of the dead which comes back to help the family.
Attitude – refers to the way people feel and see people with disability.
Impairment – Is the abnormal structure of the body or system of function.
Curse – word or proclamation made by someone to harm a person or cause evil to
befall on a person.
Disability – a physical or mental condition which hinders a person from fully participating
in social activities.

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Discrimination – refers to treating different people in different ways.
Ritual murder – is the killing of a person for religious purposes.
Stigmatisation – is to make someone feel ashamed.

Revision Exercises
Structured Questions
1. Judaism has a negative perception about disability.
(a) Define disability [2]
(b) List any four examples of disability in Judaism. [4]
(c) Explain any three causes of disability in Judaism. [6]
(d) Describe four ways in which Judaism helps people with disabilities. [8]
2. Christian attitudes toward the disabled is shaped by scripture.
(a) Define scripture. [2]
(b) State any four causes of disability in Christianity. [4]
(c) Describe how the disabled are assisted in Christianity. [6]
(d) Using examples, explain the Christian attitude towards disability. [8]
3. There is a lot of stigma associated with disability in Indigenous Religion.
(a) Define stigma. [2]
(b) State any four ways the disabled are treated in Indigenous Religion. [4]
(c) Describe the causes of stigma and discrimination against people with disability in Indigenous
Religioun.[6]
(d) Explain the role of Indigenous Religion in assisting the disabled. [8]
4. In Islam people with disabilities are part of society and have their rights.
(a) State any two causes of disability in Islam. [2]
(b) List any three illness that can cause disability. [4]
(c) Describe how Islam help people with disabilities. [6]
(d) Give notes on the effects of religious beliefs on disability. [8]

Essay Questions
1. Describe the causes of disability in Indigenous Religion. [25]
2. Explain the positive and negative Jewish perception on disability. [25]
3. Describe the role of Christianity in helping people with disability in Zimbabwe. [25]
4. Examine the religious attitude towards disability. [25]
5. Describe various religious intervention measures on disability. [25]

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 Chapter RELIGION, RIGHTS AND

11
SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY

Chapter Objectives
By end of this chapter, you should be able to:
•• identify advantages and disadvantages of freedom of worship.
•• demonstrate the relationship between rights and social responsibilities.
•• explain the role of religion in shaping leadership styles.

Introduction
Rights issues are topical today. Firstly, the definition of freedom of worship is discussed. In this chapter, the
relationship between rights and social responsibility will be explained. The definitions of rights and social
responsibility are also discussed in this chapter as well as demonstrating the relationship between rights
and social responsibility. The chapter conclude by explaining the role of religion in shaping leadership
styles.

UNIT 11.1 RIGHT TO FREEDOM OF WORSHIP

Freedom of worship is defined as a principle that grants support to various religions to express their beliefs
without an impediment. Every religious group or organisation is granted the permission to do what they
want as they are respected, recognised and heard.
Freedom of worship is beneficial to the nation and at the same time, it can also be detrimental to the
nation. The constitution of Zimbabwe guarantees freedom of worship. According to the constitution of
Zimbabwe in terms of freedom of worship it says:
• everyone has the right to freedom of conscience which include:
(i) freedom of thought, opinion, religion or belief and
(ii) F
 reedom to practice and propagate and give expression to their thought, opinion, religion or
belief whether in public or in private and whether alone or together with others.
•• No one may be compelled to take an oath that is contrary to their religion or belief or take an oath
in a manner that is contrary to their religion or belief.
•• Parents and guardians of minor children have the right to determine, in accordance with their
conviction the moral and religious upbringing of their children, provided they do not prejudice
the rights to which their children are entitled under the constitution of Zimbabwe including their
rights to education, safety, health and welfare.
•• Any religious organisation may establish institutions where religious instruction may be given even
if the institution receives a subsidy or other financial assistance from the state.

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Advantages of freedom of worship
1. Freedom of worship instils respect for others
among believers
Freedom of worship allows people to acknowledge
the existence of other religions, people will respect
different religions in the country. This means that
one will respect other people’s beliefs and practices
as the freedom of worship guarantees the existence
of those religions without any opposition. For
example, if a Christian meet a Muslim they would
respect each other’s beliefs and practices that
Muhammad is the last prophet and Allah is the only
God. In cases where people of different religions Fig. 11.1 Jews enjoying freedom of worship in
meet, people will respect the versatility which exists. Zimbabwe
2. Establishment of institutions which helps the community
Freedom of worship helps in the establishment of various religious institutions like schools, hospitals and
universities which are important for capacity building. For example, the Ridgeview primary school in Harare
is of Muslim orientation, Gutu Mission School and hospital are christian in orientation and they belong to
the Reformed Church in Zimbabwe. Judaism has also established schools like Sharon in Harare and Carmel
in Bulawayo. Solusi University which belongs to Seventh Day Adventist Church helps the community in
Bulawayo. These institutions were established because of freedom of worship found in Zimbabwe.
3. It promotes unit among citizens of the country
Freedom of worship allows individuals to select what they want in terms of beliefs and allows people of
the same religious beliefs to be bound by one belief there by promoting unity. For example, believers who
belong to Islam from different ethnic background are united because of one faith. There are Muslims of
Arab background and Muslims of African origin who are united because of the same faith as Zimbabweans.
4. Freedom of worship promote tolerance
People of different religious affiliations will be able to accept divergent religious views. For example, at
combined worshiping services of different churches church leaders share the pulpit to share their religious
teachings. This allows people of different religious beliefs to accept each other in a comfortable way without
fighting or conflicting. People can practice their religion side by side with other religions without having
conflicts. Freedom of worship makes people believe that there are various religious beliefs and they are
not wrong beliefs. For example, at memorial services all churches are given a platform to share the word of
God thereby promoting tolerance among believers from different churches.
5. Employment creation
It helps in employment creation as people will be employed as cooks, grounds men teachers, lecturers,
nurses and drivers at religious institutions. For example, they are people who are employed as teachers at
Ridgeview primary school an Islamic institution. Many religions therefore establish various enterprises like
schools, bookshops which sell literature of religious orientation, butcheries and media houses which all
employ people at these business institutions. For instance, Muslims have butcheries which sell halal meat
products. Despite promoting their religions, this is a way which has promoted the idea of job creation.
6. It guarantees the survival of various religions
Freedom of worship ensures the survival of different religious practices. For example, in Zimbabwe various

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religious affiliations like Judaism, Indigenous Religion, Christianity, Islam and others are existing. It gives
room for all religions to exist without suffering from being exterminated. As such, it allows people to
choose the religion which they want to ensure the survival of other religious beliefs and practices. For
example, in Zimbabwe religions enjoy religious spaces available as they embark on missionary activities
without being hindered. Various religions are even given the freedom to do their rituals so as to ensure
continuity of the religious practices.
7. It promotes democracy in religion
Freedom of worship ensures that people will be able to choose what they want without being limited to
one religious view. For example, in Zimbabwe people choose from Judaism, Indigenous Religion, Islam,
Christianity, and other religions without any challenges. People are not therefore forced to belong to one
particular religion.
8. Freedom of worship guarantees peace and stability
Peace and stability are the benefits of freedom of worship in Zimbabwe. In countries where there is no
freedom of worship there are conflicts. For example, in Nigeria there is no freedom of worship in Islamic
states which creates conflict where as in countries like United States of America, Britain as well as Zimbabwe
there is peace and stability as all religious followers are guaranteed of practicing their religion.
9. It promotes religious identity
Freedom of worship provides a sense of identity. Many believers have different religious teachings which
provide devotees lessons on values, morals and principles that need to be followed. As such, people of
various religions are bound by common beliefs which makes them have a sense of identity. As people
practice their religions, they are easily identified due to their unique nature. There will be no need to hide
what one believes, for instance, some Christians can be easily noted with various religious garments or
uniforms which they wear. This freedom therefore gives people the opportunity to be identified.
Disadvantages of freedom of worship
There are several challenges associated with freedom of worship. These challenges include:
1. It leads to dilution of cultural identity
Freedom of worship can lead to the dilution and loss of cultural identity. This is because there are cultures
which can come with other religions which are against the indigenous people’s culture. For example, the
coming of Islam may lead to the loss of language which is part of cultural identity as one is forced to
use Arabic as a language. To add on, dressing of the indigenous people can be affected. For example,
the existence of Judaism can lead to indigenous people wearing skull caps and tallit thereby leading to
dilution of cultural identity.
2. Freedom of worship leads to conflicts
Freedom of worship lead to religious conflicts due to opposing beliefs. Allowing people to choose their
religious preferences divides the society. For example, at family level family members who belong to
various religious affiliations can have religious differences which lead to conflict. In addition, the existence
of several religions and denominations makes one to hate people with different religious views. For
example, in Nigeria there are inter religious conflicts between Christians and Muslims.
3. It leads to Licentiousness or lawlessness
Allowing people to worship what they want and where they want result in people doing what they want
which may result in conflict with government laws. For example, apostolic churches in town worship at

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places which are not designated and when the local authorities want to use that land the apostolic church
members may think that it is their right to worship where they want. For example, the Johanne Masowe
apostolic sect members led by Madzibaba Ishmael beat police officers in Budiriro in May 2014.
4. Freedom of worship leads to depletion and degradation of resources
It can lead to the depletion of natural resources. For example, in Harare there are no open spaces as various
religious organisations have occupied all open spaces. According to the daily news of 26 September 2017,
apostolic churches vowed to resist a by law by the Chitungwiza Town council to ban open air worshiping.
The ban was necessitated by the cutting down of trees to create an open space for worshiping as well as
shortage of land for development.
5. It leads to religious segregation of small religions
Freedom of worship has also led to segregation of minority religious organisations. For example, in
Zimbabwe, most schools which do not belong to a particular religious group do their assemblies with
Christian bias. For instance, in most schools they recite the Lord’s Prayer which is in the Bible during the
school assemblies. This leads to the segregation of other religions like Islam and Indigenous Religion.
Public gatherings are officially opened with a Christian prayer which segregate other religions on public
functions.

Activity 11.1 Group Work

Divide yourself into groups. Find the constitution of Zimbabwe and analyse the section on freedom of worship.
Present your findings to the class.

Exercise 11.1
Answer the following questions with true or false
1. Everyone has freedom of thought, opinion, religion or belief in Zimbabwe.
2. Parents and guardians of the minor have the right to determine the religion for their children?
3. Freedom of worship provide a sense of religious identity.
4. Freedom of worship breeds conflicts.
5. Democracy is one of the advantages of freedom of worship.

UNIT 11.2 LEADERSHIP, RIGHTS AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY

What is leadership, rights and social responsibility?

Leadership can be defined as the action of leading a group of people or an organisation. It also involves
the ability to lead. Rights can be defined as advantages that one is entitled to in a social or political system
while social responsibility is an obligation of an organization’s management or the affluent of the society
towards the welfare and interests of the society in which it operates.
Rights
Some of the rights include:
1. Right to life: a person cannot be deprived of life through execution.
2. Right to liberty: no one should be deprived of his liberty through unlawful detention.
3. Protection from slavery and forced labour: no one should be enslaved and be forced to work without

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 consent.
4. Protection from inhuman treatment: no one is subjected to torture or inhuman or degrading
punishment or treatment for example the use of corporal punishment.
5. Protection from deprivation of property: no one should be deprived of his own assert.
6. Protection from arbitrary search: no one should be searched without consent and no one should be
allowed into someone’s property.
7. Protection from the law and this include:
•• The right to fair trial
•• The right to be presumed innocent
•• The right for self-defence in court.
•• The right not to be tried twice for the same offense.
•• The right not to witness on one’s case on trial.
•• The right to trial within a reasonable time.
8. Protection of freedom of conscience. This implies that one has to have:
•• Freedom of thought.
•• Freedom of religion.
•• The right not to take an oath in conflict with one’s conscience.
9. Freedom of expression
This means that one has the right to hold opinions, to express ideas and pass on ideas and information.
It also means freedom from non-interference with correspondences.
10. Freedom of assembly and association:
One has the right to assemble freely without intrusion or interference as well as associating with a
person or organisation one wants. This includes the right to form or join a political party, religion and
any association. This right ensures that one is not forced to join an organisation if he or she does not
want.
11. Freedom of movement:
This means that one has the right to enter and leave his country freely, to stay where one wants.
12. Protection from discrimination: This implies that one should not be discriminated by law on the
grounds of race, gender, and tribe, place of origin, political affiliation and religious affiliation.

Human rights in a religious context

In the light of the above it is important ascertain the nature of human rights in various religions as well as
elaborate on the role of religion the promotion and demotion of human rights. As such religion is a vital
dimension in human rights issues.
(i) Indigenous Religion and Human Rights
It is very difficult to isolate religion from other aspects of human life in Indigenous Religion. The culture and
tradition of the indigenous people are part and parcel of human rights discourse in Indigenous Religion.
Indigenous Religion is detrimental to children as well as women’s rights. It is because of this that there has
been slow progress of human and social development in Indigenous Religion.
•• Children especially girls are used in ngozi (avenging spirits) restitution. This practice is no longer

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 being practice of children’s rights which regards this practice as a violation of human rights.
•• Female genital mutilation is another human rights concern in Indigenous Religion as it is painful
and can lead to death in some cases. In some cultures the pulling of the labia is still being done for
example the BaTonga people of Binga. It is still part of the Tonga culture done by the elderly women
although it is widely condemned by various human rights groups for violation of sexual rights.
•• Old women are degraded as they are often regarded as agents of witchcraft, this is also another
violation of human rights. Although this has been abolished through the witchcraft suppression
act old women in indigenous society have largely been associated with witchcraft.
•• Child marriages, child pledging(kuzvarira) in Indigenous Religion violates human rights.
(ii) Human rights in Islam
Islam is a religion that is generally regarded as a religion which does not value human rights because of the
application of the shariah. The shariah states that:
•• Women who are caught in adultery storms are stoned to death.
•• A thief’s hands is cut off.
•• Wearing of the Hijab by women is an infringement of human rights to wear what they want.
•• Women are not allowed to participate in public spheres like being leaders or getting political
positions, driving cars and riding bicycles.
•• Jihads are also a violation of human rights because they lead to the death of religious minorities.
For example, the terrorist attack in Manchester in 2017.
•• Freedom of conscience is violated as Christian beliefs are strongly rejected.
Social Responsibility
As previous noted social responsibility deals
with what an individual does for the benefit of
the community where he or she is living. Social
responsibility is largely based on Unhu in indigenous
communities while in other religions it is dependent
on the moral code and ethics.
Categories of social responsibility
(a) Family: one should do things which benefit the
family. The family in this case involves the extended
family. Fig. 11.3 Tokwe-Mukosi dam under construction by
the government of Zimbabwe

(b) Non-governmental: this is what non-governmental organisations do for the benefit of the community.

(c) Government: it embarks on projects which help the need and the community.

(d) Corporate social responsibility: this is what companies do to benefit the community.
Key Features of social responsibility
1. Taking care of the family
Social responsibility starts with the provision of one’s family with all the needs. The wealth accumulated
by an individual should go towards fulfilling material needs of life of the family and the society at large.
Indigenous Religion for example teaches that everyone is born with a bundle of duties hence it values

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taking care of the family.
2. Care for children
It is the role of religion to ensure that children’s rights are protected. In Indigenous Religion they believe
that the future of any society is in the hands of children. As such, child abuse is condemned and children
who are orphans are taken care of by society as well as religion. For example, it is a crime against God in
Islam to neglect children who are orphaned.
3. Caring for the elderly
The elderly are humans and they have rights too. In Indigenous Religion, violating the elderly’s rights lead
to some curses from the ancestors while in Christianity it is also a sin against God to violate rights of the
elderly people. Therefore, the elders are cared for through the provision of food, accommodation and
shelter so that they feel included in the family and the community.
Examples of social responsibility
There are several social responsibilities associated with the family and the community at large. Below are
examples of social responsibility.
1. Family
The family has so many roles to play including social responsibility as it ensures that family members’ needs
are catered for. The family is an important institution in indigenous society which provides individual needs
and societal needs. It is the belief in oneness of humanity which makes social responsibility a family’s
responsibility by contributing towards the welfare of the needy in the family and development of the
society as a whole. As such, the family plays an important role in social responsibility through:
(a) Providing for the family

It is a social responsibility of the family members to provide for the needs of the family like food, shelter
and clothing. To neglect one’s family through lack of material support for basic human needs is a negation
of social responsibility.
(b) Paying school fees for children

Education is a basic weapon through which the family can succeed. As such, it is the duty of the parents
and other family members who have resources to pay fees for their children and orphans within the family.
(c) Pay for medical bills for dependents

Health is a fundamental human right which should be provided by the family. Parents should pay for the
health services offered to their children and children should also pay medical bills for their old parents.
(d) Helping orphans within the family

In Indigenous Religion no orphan should be neglected and in Islam it is the duty of the family to cater
for the needs of the orphans. This is the reason why the family in Indigenous Religion, Islam and other
religions is a broader concept which goes beyond the nucleus family. As such, neglecting of orphans result
in the anger of the spirit of dead in Indigenous Religion and the family should help the orphans within the
whole extended family system.
(e) Disciplining and parenting of children

A good society is marked by good morals and ethical principles upheld by community members. It is a
disgrace for the family if a child becomes a problem in the community and broader society in which he or

144
she lives. The role of family is to ensure children grow up with proper discipline and failure to discipline
children is a sign of lacking social responsibility. This is the reason why in Indigenous Religion the child
does not belong to the two parents, the father and the mother but also belongs to the whole family.
(f) Assisting widows

Assisting widows is a social responsibility of the family. Family members who include children and uncles
should give material as well as psychological support to the widows. Neglecting widows is a deviation
from social responsibility of the family.
2. Non-Governmental Organisations
(a) Helping orphans

There are non-governmental organisations which help orphans. For example, Regai Dzive Shiri which
assists orphans and the vulnerable in acquiring birth certificates as well as paying school fees for them.
The organisation also helps in initiating income generating projects to the guardians of the less privileged.
(b) Assist in community projects

Community projects initiated by the non-governmental organisations is a social responsibility. For example,
World VIsion assists in constructing schools and drilling boreholes. These community projects are there to
uplift the living conditions of the people by eradicating conditions which lead to perennial suffering of the
community.
(c) Educating the underprivileged

Paying fees for the less privileged. For example, Rudo and Regai Dzive Shiri helps primary and secondary
school learners with school fees. Higher life foundation also helps in educating the underprivileged in
society. For example, CARPENAUM TRUST also offer scholarships to the underpriviledged.
(d) Support disaster victims.

Providing support to the people affected by natural disasters and emergencies is part of social responsibility
of non-governmental organisations. For example, the Red Cross helps people during the time of floods as
well as emergencies like bus accidents. The Tokwe Mukosi flooding disaster in 2014 saw non-governmental
organisations like Econet helping disaster victims.
3. Government
(a) Provision of food

Offering food to the communities. For example, the government through social welfare gives food aid to
communities.
(b) Construction of schools and hospitals

There has been the construction of schools and hospitals in resettlement areas. For example, Hwendedzo
Clinic in Masvingo district has been constructed by the government. Tatoravhu and Tariro are some of the
school constructed by the government in resettlement areas in Gutu, Masvingo.
(c) Helping the needy in society

Government helped the need in society with school fees through its Basic Education Assistance Module
(BEAM). It is a facility which helps the vulnerable and needy in society with school fees.

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(d) Initiate projects which benefit the community

The government should ensure that it embarks on community development projects which help in
sustaining the livelihood of the citizens. For example, the construction of Tokwe Mukosi Dam in Masvingo
has helped in the creation of irrigation schemes for people in Chivi as well as establishing fishery projects.
The Mushandike irrigation scheme in Masvingo was also established by the government to improve food
security for the people.
Challenges of social responsibilities in various religions
(a) Increase of social problems

There are several problems which have increased and affected social responsibility. This is caused by
increase of problems such as HIV-AIDS, war and famine in the contemporary world. This has increased the
burden of helping the community as there are many orphans in the society due to HIV-AIDS as well high
divorce cases. This has increased the number of people who need assistance. According to Zimbabwe
statistical office, 30% of the children going to school are orphans.
(b) Lack of resources

Lack of resources is an impediment to social responsibility initiatives as the donor funds are shrinking. And
the current global economic crises has affected government’s effort in social responsibility as they are no
adequate funds to engage in social responsibility.
(c) Negative attitude towards social responsibility

Attitude of people and organisations has changed towards doing what benefits the community and those
in needy. This has been caused by lack of concern for others. Some individuals who are responsible for
distributing resources which can help the community are corrupt. Instead of distributing resources to the
beneficiaries, they take the resources forsaking the real beneficiaries.
The relationship between rights and social responsibilities
Human rights are related to social responsibility as explained by what family, Non-overnmental
Organisations and the government should do in order to make sure that the rights of the people are not
violated.
1. Rights ensure support of people in need of support
Firstly, human rights ensure that there is no discrimination in society by uplifting the rights of those
who are in need of support. For example, at family level human rights ensure that children’s right to
education, medical services and other things are part of the family’s social responsibility. It is the duty
of family members to ensure that orphans are catered for by avoiding discrimination. Furthermore non-
governmental organisations also ensure that widows and the elderly are not discriminated against by the
society through their support to the orphans, elderly and widows. For example, some non-governmental
organisations help age is an organisation which ensures that the rights of the aged are upheld. Community
care children centre as well as Musasa project also ensure that children’s rights are not violated as part of
their social responsibility through the provision of food, clothing and education.
The government through various institutions like the education and police service also ensure that there
is no discrimination in society. As such there is a close relationship between rights and social responsibility
in that the rights give the premise of protecting the marginalised in society through social responsibility.
2. Rights help in the promotion of equality which is part of social responsibility
Human rights such as equality of opportunity and treatment are relevant to social responsibility. The

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way society deal with children, widows, elderly and the community in which they live demands social
responsibility. Widows as well as minority groups in the country may be treated unfairly and unequally and
it is a social responsibility to ensure that equality of opportunities and treatment are upheld. For example,
it is the duty of the government as party of its social responsibility to uplift the status of minority groups by
starting projects which lead to community development like agricultural production while on employment
opportunities people like the disabled should also be given equal opportunities and treatment.
3. Respecting of human rights is ensured by social responsibility
Respecting of human rights also points to the link between rights and social responsibility. This is because
social responsibility enables the participation of stakeholders, individuals and communities affected by
human rights violations. For example, the family ensures the respect of human rights by ensuring that
widows are protected from family members who may want to take the estate left for the widow. It is the
duty of the family to respect widows as part of the family by allowing their full participation in inheritance
issues and family issues as well.
4. Rights make citizens contribute to the development of the society
Human rights have a relationship with social responsibility because they all ensure that people live with
human dignity which they deserve and to participate in and contribute to civil, political, economic, social
and cultural life without infringement on rights. For example, people with disability are to be treated with
dignity. The Kapota School of the blind in Zimuto is there to make sure that people who are visually impaired
are treated with the dignity they deserve and they also participate in all activities without discrimination
through their training of the blind people to contribute meaningfully to the society. As such human rights
have a relationship with social responsibility by making all people dignified citizens despite one’s status or
capabilities.
5. Rights through social responsibility protection of others
Social responsibility has a mandate of making sure that the rights of all people especially the vulnerable
are valued. For example, every child has the right to education and it is part of the government’s role to
make sure that the children’s right to education is protected by constructing schools. Furthermore, the
family also ensures the protection of the rights of family members through caring for the elderly as well as
orphans.

Activity 11.2 Research

Research on various rights one is entitled to in Zimbabwe. List the rights in Zimbabwe. Write short notes and
present your findings. Make use of ICT to present your findings to the class if you have access to ICT.

Exercise 11.2
1. Define rights. [2]
2. List any four rights guaranteed to all human beings. [4]
3. How does Islam violet human rights. [6]

UNIT 11.3 RELIGION AND LEVELS OF LEADERSHIP

There are various leadership styles which are influenced by religion. Religion can either shape the leadership
styles for better or for worse. In this sub-unit we are dealing with the role of religion in shaping leadership
styles.

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Qualities of good leadership style
There are several qualities of a good leader which include being a good listener, honest, respect for others,
fairness and justice, trustworthy, confident and ability to command respect as well as being optimistic.
Religion mould leaders to have these good qualities through teachings and practices.
Qualities of bad leadership style
There are some leaders who have negative qualities like egocentric, pride, boastfulness, self-praise,
pessimistic, corrupt, dishonest, oppressive, domineering and jealousy. These bad qualities can be a
manifestation of the role of religion in producing such leadership qualities.
Role of Religion in shaping leadership styles
There are different types of leadership styles in various organisations in society today. Each leadership
style has its own advantages and disadvantages. In this context, the religion plays an important role in
shaping various leadership styles. Religion does have an influence on leadership and our organizations.
(a) Laissez-Faire
A laissez-faire leader lacks direct supervision of employees and fails to provide regular feedback to those
under his supervision. This leadership style hinders the progress and development of the nation as
those who work under such leadership lack supervision. The laissez-faire style produces no leadership or
supervision efforts from leaders, which can lead to poor production, lack of control and increasing costs.
In this context, religion plays an important role as it leads to a better understanding on how faith affects
leadership styles. In the case of laissez faire style religion like Indigenous Religion emphasises the need
for leaders to be stewards. Therefore, Indigenous Religion influences leaders to supervise how people are
living in society. From a religious point of view, this type of leadership can lead to wanton destruction
of resources and it is because of this that Indigenous Religion shapes leaders to be better leaders who
supervise how resources are used for the betterment of society. When leaders fail to lead people in a
way that ensures progress and development it was the duty of mediums to instruct leaders to be better
leaders. Even in Christianity leaders are stewards. It is this type of leadership which is influenced by religion
to allow people to choose what they want as God gave humanity the freedom to choose what is good for
them using their intuition.
(b) Autocratic
The autocratic leadership style allows leaders to make decisions alone without the input of others. Those
in position possess total authority and impose their will on subordinates. No one challenges the decisions
of autocratic leaders. Zimbabwe has been operating under such leadership style which is autocratic. This
leadership style benefits subordinates who require close supervision.
The belief in a God, for instance, can encourage leaders to be servants to both God and their followers based
in a strong faith in service. This can lead to the change of mind by leaders to understand that leadership
is not permanent. The Indigenous proverb “ushe madzoro hunoravamwa” (leadership is not permanent)
makes leaders to value others by avoiding being autocratic. Furthermore, leaders might use their belief in
God and scripture to ‘divinely sanction’ their rigid and inflexible leadership styles for example the former
president was shaped to become autocratic because of the belief that he was born and leader and would
die a leader. Also, in the Arab world where the popular belief is that leaders are given authority and power
by Allah there is a problem of autocracy which shows that religion shapes leadership styles.
The Christian teaching found in Romans 13:2, that teaches that leaders are chosen by God perpetrate
dictactorship. It gives room for leaders to abuse their subjects because rebelling authorities will be
considered as rebelling against God.

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(c) Participative or democratic
Participative or democratic leadership values
the input of team members and peers, but the
responsibility of making the final decision rests with
the participative leader. Participative leadership
boosts followers or subordinates because
subordinates make contributions to the decision-
making process. It causes them to feel as part
of the system. This style meets challenges when
the organisation and institutions need to make a
decision in a short period.
Religion shapes this type of leadership as it makes
leaders to feel exclusive because of their beliefs
which lead to better treatment of people who
support the exclusivism of the leader. This leads
to dictatorship as such religious beliefs are not
inclusive. To understand that all human beings
are important and therefore active contribution Fig. 11.6 The late M Gadhafi former president of
of every human being leads to development. Libya who used religion to reign for a long
The proverb “ushe vanhu“ in Indigenous Religion period
influence leaders to be receptive of their subjects’
views and feelings.
Faith can be used as a very progress tool for example if a leader adopts the Ubuntu approach of understanding
that there is need to accept one another. In Christianity, Jesus is a role model of this leadership style as he
led people with love and care and this influences present leaders to love and care for their subordinates.
Christianity mould leaders who are team leaders, cares for the needs of the people as well as pioneering
leaders just like Jesus Christ.
(d) Transactional
Leaders using the transactional leadership style receive certain tasks to perform and provide rewards or
punishments to team members based on performance and results. Leaders and those working under
them set predetermined goals together, and subordinates agree to follow the direction and leadership of
the manager to accomplish those goals. The leader possesses power to review results and train or correct
subordinates if they fail to meet organisational goals. Those doing well are rewarded with incentives. In all
religions they believe in the reward and punishment concept.
In Indigenous Religion they believe that if one does good he or she will be blessed with the ancestors
while the one who does bad is punished by the ancestors. In Judaism and Christianity, they all believe that
God rewards those who do well and give retribution to the ones who are evil. It is because of this reward
and punishment that shapes leaders to promote those who perform well and demote those who do not
do well in their positions as tasked by the leader. Everyone is given the chance to show what they can do
in an organisation or system.
The concept of Jihads in Islam influence leaders not to be dictators but consider other people. Jihadists
usually clash with dictators who are selfish. Leaders in Islam are therefore supposed to be transparent,
accountable, just and protect the environment.

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(e) Transformational
The transformational leadership style depends on high levels of communication from management to meet
goals. Leaders motivate subordinates and enhance productivity and efficiency through communication
and high visibility. This style of leadership requires the involvement of those in leadership roles to meet
goals. Leaders focus on the big picture within an organization and delegate smaller tasks to the team to
accomplish goals. Religion shapes this leadership style by making a leader have belief in others’contribution.
Religion makes a leader feel that all human beings are important and they are all required to accomplish a
goal set. In Judaism Moses is a transformational leader who decentralised his power to the seventy elders
to lead and encouraged team work amongst the Israelites (Numbers 11).
From the above leadership styles, it is clear that religion can shape leaders’ attitude, faith, character and
behaviour as they lead other people. Religion indeed shapes leadership styles negatively and positively.

Activity 11.3 Research

Choose one religion among the four religions discussed in this unit and research on how religion shapes
leadership styles. Make a presentation of your findings in class.

Exercise 11.3
Describe how Christianity influences leadership styles. [12]

Interesting facts
1. Failure to take care of the elderly by family members may result in avenging spirits.
2. Most leaders who are dictators are from Islamic nations.
Summary of the chapter
•• There is a close link between rights and social responsibilities.
•• Social responsibility involves taking care of the need as well as doing things which benefit the
society.
•• There are several types of leadership styles which include laissez faire, autocratic, democratic,
transactional and transformative.
•• Religion shapes how people lead others. So, religion can impact negatively or negatively on
leadership styles.
•• Human rights are essential for human survival.
•• Freedom of worship is a right that is granted in Zimbabwe.
•• Freedom of worship promotes inclusivity, plurality and tolerance.
•• Some of the rights include Right to life, Right to liberty, Protection from slavery and forced labour,
Protection from inhuman treatment, Protection from deprivation of property and Protection from
arbitrary search.
•• There is a close link between rights and social responsibility as the poor, elderly, widows and
orphans have rights which they should enjoy. Some of these rights they are supposed to be given
are part of social responsibility.
•• Religion can be used to promote human rights as well as violate human rights.
Glossary of terms
Autocratic – i
t is a leadership styles which allows leaders to make decisions alone
without the in-put of others.

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Laissez-Faire – it is a leadership style which allows subordinates to do without control.
Human rights – a re advantages that one is entitled to in social or political system. In general
human rights are just claims that human beings are entitled to make by
reason of being human.
Religious identity – a distinct mark that attaches one to a particular religion.
Segregation – a separation from the rest of the social group.
Shariah – is an Islamic law.
Social responsibility – what an individual does for the benefit of the community he or she lives in.
Worship – devotion accorded to the deity or sacred object.

Revision Exercises
Structured Questions
1. Human rights are essential for human survival.
(a) Define human rights. [2]
(b) List any four human rights. [4]
(c) How does religion affect human rights. [6]
(d) Describe the relationship between human rights and social responsibility. [8]
2. Freedom of worship is one of the basic human rights.
(a) Define freedom of worship. [2]
(b) State any four religions which are found in Zimbabwe as a result of freedom of worship. [4]
(c) Describe what the constitution of Zimbabwe say on freedom of worship. [6]
(d) Explain the advantages and disadvantages of freedom of worship. [8]
3. The culture and tradition of the indigenous people are part and parcel of human rights discourse
in Indigenous Religion.
(a) Define culture. [2]
(b) State any causes of human rights violations in Indigenous Religion. [4]
(c) Describe the role of Indigenous Religion in promoting human rights. [6]
(d) Give notes on human rights violations in Indigenous Religion. [8]
4. Social responsibility is largely based on Unhu in indigenous communities.
(a) Define social responsibility. [2]
(b) List any four features of social responsibility. [4]
(c) Discuss the role of family in social responsibility. [6]
(d) Explain the link between human rights and social responsibility. [8]
5. Religion shapes leadership styles.
(a) Define leadership styles. [2]
(b) List any four forms of leadership styles. [4]
(c) Describe the advantages and disadvantages of a leadership style of your choice. [6]
(d) Explain the role of Islam in shaping leadership styles. [8]

Essay Question
1. Analyse the merits and demerits of freedom of worship. [25]
2. Describe any five rights that one is entitled to in Zimbabwe. [25]
3. Assess the role of Indigenous Religion in shaping leadership styles. [25]
4. Describe the role of Christianity in social responsibility in Zimbabwe. [25]
5. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of democracy. [25]

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 Chapter RELIGION AND THE

12
LIBERATION STRUGGLE

Chapter Objectives
By the end of the chapter, you should be able to:
•• state the IR religious practitioners who participated in the liberation struggle.
•• describe the roles of IR religious practitioners who participated in the liberation struggle.
•• state the IR Christian practitioners who participated in the liberation struggle.
•• describe the roles of the religious practitioners who participated in the liberation struggle.

Introduction
The liberation struggle of Zimbabwe is one of the cherished discourses in Zimbabwean history. This is
because the independence of Zimbabwe came as a result of a protracted war against the white settlers
known as Chimurenga. This chapter will identify Indigenous Religion practitioners who helped in the war
of liberation. Their roles are going to be explained. Lastly this chapter will identify Christian leaders or
authorities who also assisted in the war of liberation and explain their roles.

UNIT 12.1 ROLE OF IR IN THE LIBERATION STRUGGLE

Historical background of the liberation struggle in Zimbabwe

In 1890, the white settlers came to Zimbabwe.
Upon arrival the white settlers embarked on a
number of things which were meant to benefit
the white people at the expense of the black
majority. Many indigenous people were forced
to work on white farms as well in industries, there
was racial discrimination and heavy taxation of
the indigenous people. Furthermore, the black
majority were displaced from their ancestral land.
This was not only political oppression but also
religious oppression as land is a sacred inheritance
in Indigenous Religion. It is within this context that
many indigenous religious leaders who include
mediums and chiefs coordinated war against the
white settlers. Fig. 12.1 Freedom fighters during the second
Chimurenga in Zimbabwe

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Between 1896 and 1897 prominent mediums like Nehanda Charwe also known as Mbuya Nehanda, Kaguvi,
and Mkwati as well as chief Mangwende led the first Chimurenga or Umvukela.
The war of liberation came into life and the indigenous people being led by chiefs and mediums fought the
white settlers using bows and spears. Mediums assured the indigenous people that Mwari and ancestors
were in support of the liberation struggle. Many indigenous people joined the liberation struggle as they
were told that ancestors were going to protect them from the bullets by turning them into water. So,
the major motivating factor which led to the liberation struggle was to protect the religious heritage of
the indigenous people embedded in land and African identity. The first Chimurenga was fought and the
white settlers won because of their sophisticated war machinery. Mbuya Nehanda and Kaguvi among
other Indigenous Religion practitioners were hanged but before Mbuya Nehanda’s death she promised
the white people that, “my bones shall rise again”.
In early 1960’s, the prophecy of Nehanda was fulfilled as the second Chimurenga began. However, the war
became more pronounced in 1966 with the battle at Chinhoyi. The reasons for the Second Chimurenga
were similar to the one which led to the first Chimurenga. Several Black Nationalist’s who include Josiah
Tongogara, Joshua Nkomo, Hebert Chitepo, Benjamin Burombo, Jason Ziyapapa Moyo, Edgar Tekere,
Reverend Ndabaningi Sithole and Robert Mugabe embarked on a national wide campaign in recruiting
freedom fighters as well as making the indigenous people aware of the need of liberation. The main
objective was to reclaim the lost heritage, land by resisting Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI)
and colonialism. It is important to note that the second Chimurenga was aided by two religions, Indigenous
Religion and Christianity. During the second Chimurenga, Indigenous Religion had mediums like Manhova
Mupawaenda, Gusa Muparavara who operated in Mount Darwin and Sekuru Beperere who operated in
Zvimba.
Many clergymen of different races saw the need to support the liberation struggle since white rule was not
only a deviation of universal ethics but negation of the Christian teaching and practices of fairness, justice,
equality as well as loving your neighbour as yourself. It is because of this that Christian practitioners also
played an important role in the second liberation struggle.
IR religious practitioners and their roles in the liberation struggle
The land issue which was at the centre of African dignity and heritage led some chiefs, mediums and
diviners to fight against the white settlers. Land was very significant for the indigenous people’s religion.
As such several religious practitioners participated in the liberation struggle to redeem the lost pride
and heritage such as land. Their main role was to offer some spiritual as well as moral guidance during
the liberation struggle. Some of the indigenous religious practitioners who participated in the liberation
struggle include Chiefs for example chief Rekai Tangwena, Chief Mapondera, chief Hwata, and Chief
Mangwende. Furthermore, mediums such as Nehanda, Kaguvi, Chaminuka, Mbuya Tangwena, Mkwati,
Thobela, Mponga, Zhanda and Bonda participated in the liberation struggle. Healers, midwives and elders
also played an important role in the liberation struggle.
(a) Chiefs
A chief is leader of the clan in charge of the clan territory. These chiefs had many roles which influenced
people’s decisions during the time of crises. As such during colonialism chiefs who include Chief Kadungure
Mapondera, Chief Chinengundu Mashayamombe and Chief Rekai Tangwena played important roles in the
liberation struggle which culminated in the independence of Zimbabwe. Some of the roles of the chiefs
include:
1. Coordinating war with mediums
Chiefs worked together with spirit mediums in coordinating war by organising people to work together
in the fight against white settlers. For example, chief Mapondera and chief Svosve helped in leading the
coordination of the liberation struggle with the help of spirit mediums.

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2. Provision of material support to freedom fighters
They gave material support to the freedom fighters. Chief Rekayi Tangwena sponsored freedom fighters
with material support like food.
3. Provision of important information to
freedom fighter
Chiefs were information centres as they gave
freedom fighters information about the place which
they were fighting in. It was the role of the chief to
advise freedom fighters on places found in the area
where they could take refuge and launch their fight.
4. Leaders of the liberation struggle
They led in the fight against white settlers. For
example, Chief Kadungure Mapondera was a warrior
who led the black resistance army against white
people in Guruve and Mount Darwin. Furthermore,
Chief Rekayi Tangwena also led the Tangwena
people in resisting their forced relocation from
Manicaland to Gokwe. Another example is that of
chief Mashayamombe in Mhondoro who also led Fig. 12.2 Chief Rekai Tangwena who was instrumental
the fight against white settlers and it was in his own during the second Chimurenga
area that the first Chimurenga started.
5. Avoiding the guerillas
Chiefs told the guerillas things to do and other things they were forbidden to do in certain areas. This
made the guerillas to respect the local areas and not disappoint the ancestors by misconduct. Chiefs also
performed some rituals for the guerillas and also went with them to the mediums in their particular areas.
(b) Spirit mediums
A medium is a spokesperson of the spirit world
to the human world. The roles of mediums in
Indigenous Religion is to help leaders of society to
interpret and send messages from the spirit world
to the human world and vice versa. It is within this
context that mediums as vanguards of the spirit
world played an important role in the liberation
struggle. This is because land belongs to the spirit
world in Indigenous Religion and it was because
of land that the liberation struggle was fought.
Mediums contributed immensely during the first
and second Chimurenga.
Some of the contributions of spirit mediums
include:
1. Resistance of white dominance Fig. 12.3 Mbuya Nehanda and Kaguvi

Mediums played a role in resisting white dominance for example, mediums who include Nehanda, Kaguvi,

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Chaminuka and Mbuya Tangwena assisted in resisting imperialism during the second Chimurenga.
Resisting white settlers was important as the whites continuously disfranchised blacks of their religion and
rights. Everything African was condemned by the white settlers and it was through spirit mediums that the
indigenous people resisted white dominance.
2. They gave religious approval to the war to begin
The role of mediums during the liberation struggle was to approve the launching of the war against the
white settlers. This is because in Indigenous Religion everything has to be approved by ancestors. So, the
First and Second Chimurenga were approved by spirit mediums. Mbuya Nehanda, Chaminuka and Thobela
approved the war against white settlers. Chiodzamamera and Chidyamanyu are some of the mediums
who operated around Mount Darwin area.
3. Coordinating war
Mediums and Chiefs coordinated the people to support the liberation struggle. It should be noted that
mediums and chiefs had greater influences on the lives of the indigenous people and fighting against
white settlers required coordination, the planning and execution of the war of liberation. As such mediums
together with chiefs coordinated the people in the uprising against white settlers.
4. Giving courage, morale and confidence to freedom fighters
Mediums such as Kaguvi and Nehanda gave courage, morale and confidence to the liberation fighters.
For the launch and success of the liberation struggle mediums gave the indigenous people the courage,
morale and confidence to fight the white settlers who had arms while the black people did not have
arms except bows and arrows during the first liberation struggle. It was through the courage, moral and
confidence that the black people were convinced by the mediums such as Nehanda that freedom fighters
believed that they were protected from bullets by the spirits and also promised that natural disasters would
disappear if the whites were driven out. At various refugee and millitary camps was a section of mediums
who provided morale and rituals for protection.
5. Directing war
Directing war was another role played by Mkwati who was a rainmaker, high priest and messenger based
at Matopo hills at a shrine known as Matonjeni (Mabweadziva). This cultic centre was well known for rain
making ceremonies. Furthermore, Mkwati was the mouthpiece of God (Mwari) at this religious shrine and
was able to foretell that the Shona will rise against the whites which was later fulfilled in 1896. Politically,
Mkwati directed the war among the Ndebele during the Ndebele uprising. He took a leading role in the
rebellion against the white rule in 1896.
The spirit mediums also taught the guerillas how to read the signs of the forest. For instance, when they
saw baboons fighting it was a sign of a fierce battle to come very soon. Therefore, the guerillas would
prepare for the war adquately.
6. Uniting fighters of different ethnic backgrounds
Mediums also helped to link the fighters in the Matebeleland with fighters in Mashonaland. For example,
Mkwati left the Matonjeni shrine and went to Mhondoro in chief Mashayamombe area where he assisted
in coordinating fighters from the two regions.
7. Giving directions to freedom fighters
Freedom fighters were given directions by spirit mediums. For example, the likes of Edgar Tekere and
Robert Gabriel Mugabe were given directions by Mbuya Tangwena a spirit medium as to how to cross
Pungwe River to Mozambique.

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8. Advising freedom fighters
Advising is another role which was performed by mediums. When freedom fighters were at cross roads
and not knowing the decision to make, it was the role of mediums to advice freedom fighters.
9. Provision of inspiration to freedom fighters
Nehanda inspired blacks to resist colonial rule through her declaration that her bones would rise again
(mapfupa angu achamuka). This was an inspiration to black people during the second Chimurenga 1966-
1979 as freedom fighters fought the liberation struggle which led to the independence of Zimbabwe in
1980. The inspiration of Nehanda was and is still at the centre of the Zimbabwean political discourse.
10. Predicting the future for the benefit of freedom fighters
Mediums foretold that Blacks would win the war. For example, Mbuya Nehanda before her death she
predicted the independence of Zimbabwe. Chaminuka also played this role and he came from the ancestral
lineage of Tovera. According to this tradition Chaminuka and Nehanda were brother and sister. Chaminuka
was well known during the time of Lobengula and was widely viewed as a prophet because of his ability to
foretell the future. He foretold the coming of whites and the colonisation of Zimbabwe.
Diviners or healers
A diviner is a person who is consulted by the people in Indigenous Religion to reveal the wishes of the
spirit world through divination while a healer is a person who is endowed by the spirit to diagnose the
cause of illness and give medication to the sufferer. Diviners and healers also played an important role as
they were consulted by freedom fighters during the liberation struggle. Their contribution includes:
1. Provision of medicinal herbs to freedom fighters
During the liberation struggle some healthy issues were dealt with by some indigenous healers. For
example, those who were beaten by snakes or who fell sick were assisted by indigenous healers. This
helped in ensuring that freedom fighters were always healthy as they fought against the white settlers.
Healthy services were mainly controlled by the white people and they were discriminatory. During the
Second Chimurenga, healers helped with herbs to heal the sick freedom fighters. For example, Sekuru
Chakauya in Zimuto Masvingo provided freedoms fighters with medicinal herbs.
2. Healers communicated with ancestors concerning the war of liberation
They communicated with the ancestors when freedom fighters did not know what to do during the
liberation struggle. The purpose of diviners is to reveal the unknown from the spirit world to the human
world. For example, Sekuru Maparadze in Nyajena in the Guwa area communicated with the spirit world
during the second Chimurenga. As such, freedom fighters were informed of the demands of the ancestors
through diviners.

Activity 12.1 Discussion

In groups discuss the causes of liberation of struggle as well as debating on the role played by spirit mediums in
the liberation struggle. Your illustration should focus more on Mbuya Nehanda’s role.

Exercise 12.1
1. What is liberation struggle? [2]
2. List any four causes of the first Chimurenga. [4]
3. Describe the role of indigenous leaders in defending their heritage during the first Chimurenga. [8]

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 UNIT 12.2 ROLE OF CHRISTIANITY IN THE LIBERATION STRUGGLE

The ethical principles of equality, justice and fairness

derived from the Bible influenced many Christians to
support the liberation struggle. It should be noted
that the liberation struggle was not supported by
Indigenous Religion alone but also by Christianity.
This shows that religion is a tool of liberation as
it can be used to condemn and fight injustices in
societies. As such, there were several priests, church
leaders and missionaries who supported the war of
liberation.
Christian practitioners in liberation struggle
The fundamental values of Christianity such as Fig. 12.4 Reverend Ndabaningi Sithole who
justice, equality and freedom also inspired many contributed to the liberation struggle
Christians to take part in the liberation struggle.
Political participation of Christian leaders in the liberation struggle was motivated by the fact that Jesus is
the liberator who came to liberate the oppressed. It is because of this reason that Christianity as a religion
became an instrument of fighting colonial injustices. As such, there are so many Christian leaders who
contributed to the success of the liberation struggle just like indigenous religious practioners. They played
various roles which include:
1. Championing of social justice
Christian practioners like Samuel Mutendi of
the Zion Christian Church championed social
justice in line with the gospel of Jesus. In support
of this view, it was because of social injustice
which caused Samuel Mutendi to clash with the
whites. As such, Samuel Mutendi protested for
the poor and disadvantaged especially when he
castigated the brutality and inhuman treatment of
blacks by whites. Furthermore, Johanne Masowe
championed social justice as his preaching was a
direct reaction to white domination. Furthermore,
Bishop Dodge of the Methodist church between
1955 and 1958 taught black indigenous people
to think independently which led to many black Fig. 12.5 The founder of ZCC Samuel Mutendi who
people realising the colonial injustices and supported the liberation struggle
oppression.
2. Foretelling the future
This was a role played by Christian practitioners like Johanne Marange of the Zimbabwe Apostolic Sabbath.
He foretold that the white settlers were going to be defeated by blacks. This was fulfilled in 1980 when the
whites relinquished power and gave it to the black majority. Furthermore, for example Madzibaba Wimbo
of the Vadzidzi VaJesu apostolic church foretold that Zimbabwe was going to be ruled by a person with
a name of an angel in 1954 and this was fulfilled in 1980 when Zimbabwe was ruled by Robert Gabriel
Mugabe.

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3. Denouncing white rule
The coming of white settlers brought much suffering to the indigenous people as there was oppression
of the blacks. As such Christian leaders like Samuel Mutendi and Johanne Masowe were at the fore front
of denouncing white colonial rule. Furthermore, Bishop Abel Muzorewa also denounced white rule and
argued that Christian participation in the liberation struggle was a Christian duty. Furthermore, Bishop
Lamont denounced the Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI). He was from the Roman Catholic
Church in Manicaland and he openly denounced the UDI which accelerated black oppression. He was
condemned by the Smith regime for protecting freedom fighters and was deported in 1976. He defended
the allegations of protecting freedom fighters as an expression of Christian conscience. Furthermore, Sister
Mary MacLiesh of the Roman Catholic Church also condemned white rule which was characterised by the
oppression of black people and discrimination.
4. Provision of material support to freedom fighters
Christian practitioners supported freedom fighters by giving them clothes, medicine and food. For example,
father Graber at Serima Mission helped freedom fighters with clothes. Furthermore, Father Ribeiro provided
Enos Nkala and Robert Mugabe with food and accommodation on their way to Mozambique.
5. Provision of free medical services
The Christian practitioners also offered free medical services to freedom fighters at Mission hospitals for
example, Father Wiess assisted with provision of health services at Holy cross Mission in Chirumhanzu area.
6. Organising war
Christian practitioners organised war which helped in the success of the liberation struggle. For example,
Reverend Ndabaningi Sithole organised war by recruiting freedom fighters as well as forming a political
organisation ZANU which assisted in the planning and launching of the war. They also mobilised people to
fight white rule for example Reverend Ndabaningi Sithole.
7. Mobilisation of the masses to resist white
domination
Christian leaders also helped in mobilising
opposition to white dominance. For example, Abel
Muzorewa mobilised people to reject the offer
terms given by the Smith regime during the peace
settlement of the early 1970s. Another contribution
of Abel Muzorewa as the leader of the United
Methodist Church together with catholic and
protestant church leaders was to reject the proposal
given by the white regime to cater for white people.
He also acted as the spokesperson of veteran
Black Nationalist Joshua Nkomo. He together with
Canaan Banana formed the United African National
Council in 1977 to lead in the fight against white
rule as he denounced oppressive laws of the Smith
regime. Another example is that of Father Fidelis
Mukonori who blessed the mobilisation of blacks to Fig. 12.6 Archbishop Abel Muzorewa of the United
fight white rule. Methodist church who was instrumental during the
second Chimurenga
8. Provision of education to black nationalists
Bishop Dodge also contributed to the liberation struggle by enlightening black nationalists with education.
This was done through the education offered in the missionary schools which were under him. Nationalists

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such as Robert Mugabe, Abel Muzorewa, Ndabaningi Sithole and Nkomo are products of this education
which gave rise to nationalism. It was through Bishop Dodge that many Africans went to colleges and
universities where education played an important role in enlightening black people to embark on the
liberation struggle. Furthermore, Bishop Dodge openly preached against colonialism when he said, “if
Christianity calls for love, why is it that some of the white people don’t show in their treatment of Africans”.
It is because of this that Bishop Dodge helped in the enlightment of black people as well as denouncing
colonialism. For him the role of the church was to fight injustice in society. He was labelled an enemy by
other white people for his quest for the liberation of the people of Zimbabwe and was deported by the
Smith regime.

Activity 12.2 Group Work

In groups, discuss the contribution of religion in the success of the liberation war. In your opinion, which religion
played a major role in the liberation of Zimbabwe?

Activity 12.3 Research.

Citing examples, research on the roles played by missionaries in the liberation struggle. Present your findings to
the class.
Exercise 12.2
1. Explain how the missionaries contributed to the colonisation of Zimbabwe.

Interesting facts
1. Zimbabwe was colonised by whites in 1890.
2. Indigenous Religion practitioners were chastised by the white settlers as pagans.
Summary of the chapter
•• The white settlers came to Zimbabwe in 1890.
•• Land of the indigenous people was taken by the white settlers.
•• Land was at the heart of the causes of the liberation struggle in 1897 as well as in 1966 to 1979.
•• Chiefs, mediums and diviners contributed in the liberation struggle.
•• Their main roles were to give spiritual guidance, healing, giving direction to the freedom fighters,
they organised and led wars.
•• The role of IR religious practioners led to the success of the liberation struggle.
•• Missionaries were used in the colonisation of Zimbabwe as well as in the liberation of Zimbabwe.
•• Education offered to black nationalists enlightened blacks to take arms against white settlers.
•• Christian leaders who include church leaders and priests were also involved in liberation struggle
as they provided physical and spiritual support to freedom fighters.
•• There were some white missionaries who also contributed to the success of the liberation struggle.
Glossary of terms
Chimurenga – it is the war that was fought in order to liberate Zimbabwe.
Colonialism – t he principle or practice of disposing indigenous people of their land and
settle in that land.
Foretelling – predicting the future.
Freedom fighter – is a person who fights for the liberation of the country with guns, ideas and
material support.

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Medicinal Herbs – the plant leaves and roots which are used for healing purposes.
Mediums – they are people who communicate with the spirit world in Indigenous Religion.
Priest – A Roman Catholic local church leader also known as Father.
Social justice – the fair treatment of people in a society.

Revision Exercises
Structured questions
1. Mediums were instrumental in the liberation struggle.
(a) Define a medium. [2]
(b) List any four Indigenous Religion practitioners who were involved in the liberation struggle. [4]
(c) Describe the roles played by healers during the liberation struggle. [6]
(d) Explain the causes of the second Chimurenga. [8]

2. Chiefs played an important role in the liberation struggle.

(a) Define a chief. [2]
(b) List four chiefs who were instrumental in the liberation struggle. [4]
(c) State the role of the chief the liberation struggle. [6]
(d) Describe the contribution of the chiefs to the success of the liberation struggle. [8]

3. African Independent churches played a crucial role during the second Chimurenga.
(a) What is an African Independent church? [2]
(b) State any four African Independent churches that helped during the liberation struggle. [4]
(c) Describe the role of the church during the liberation struggle. [6]
(d) Compare the role of the church and Indigenous Religion to the success of the liberation struggle. [8]

4. The liberation struggle was as result of the attack on African belief systems.
(a) State any two things which came with the whites which was against African beliefs. [2]
(b) List mediums who were instrumental in defending the African beliefs. [4]
(c) Describe the role of religious practitioners in the liberation struggle. [6]
(d) Explain the causes of the First Chimurenga. [8]

5. The first Chimurenga was caused by the taking away of land.

(a) What is land? [2]
(b) Why is land important in Indigenous Religion? [4]
(c) Describe the causes of the first Chimurenga. [6]
(d) Explain the sacredness of land in Indigenous Religion. [8]

Essay Questions
1. Citing examples, describe the role of chiefs in the liberation struggle. [25]
2. Using examples, explain the roles of Christian practitioners who participated in the liberation
struggle. [25]
3. Account for the religious and political factors which led to the first Chimurenga. [25]
4. Give notes on the role of Mbuya Nehanda during the First Chimurenga. [25]
5. Describe the role of African Independent churches in the liberation struggle. [25]

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 Chapter RELIGION, TECHNOLOGY

13
AND ENTERPRISE

Chapter Objectives
By the end of the chapter, you should be able to:
•• identify forms of technology.
•• examine the forms of interaction between religion and technology.
•• describe the positive impact of religion on enterprise.
•• assess the negative impact of religion on enterprise.

Introduction
Zimbabwe is a country which encourages the use of technology as well as enterprise. In this chapter
the definition of technology is given. Secondly the chapter will identify and explain forms of interaction
between religion and technology. The chapter will further look at enterprise by defining it as well as
explaining the role of religion in promoting enterprise. Then the chapter will conclude by describing the
impact of religion on enterprise.

UNIT 13.1 RELIGION AND TECHNOLOGY

According to the Webster dictionary technology is the branch of knowledge which deals with the creation
and use of technical means and their interrelation with life, society and the environment. In simple terms
technology refers to machinery and devices developed from a scientific knowledge. It is within this context
that religion has been influenced by technology and technology use has also been influenced by religion.
There role of technology in society is to expand
human capabilities, improve efficiency and make
life easier for humanity. Religion’s role in society
has become more important during this age of
technological advancement by providing the moral
and ethical guidelines of using technology.
Forms of technology
There are several types of technology which are of
great importance to religion.
1. Email
It is a technological based communication which
allows one to take care of the customers and Fig. 13.1 Email companies

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stakeholders while maintaining a record of what exactly was communicated. Email can be sent via internet
to individuals or groups. E-mails are used for communication within a religion and among religions. For
example, Roman Catholic Church Missionaries in Italy can use email to communicate with Catholics in
Zimbabwe.
2. Smartphones
These are devices which allow people to
communicate very fast. They are used for
personal communication. These are now used to
communicate with clients in Indigenous Religion
while in Christianity and Islam religious leaders can
text or call believers at any time.
3. Video-conferencing
It is used when various businesses are spread out in
various locations and meetings can be done using
this technological tool to communicate with various
staff members in various places. In religion it can be
used to hold meetings with local leaders in different
places. Applications such as goggle, hangouts and Fig. 13.2 Smart phones
Skype allow people to see one another while they
are holding your meeting.
4. Social networking
These are technological based applications or
platforms used in marketing or business. These
include Facebook, LinkedIn and Instagram. These
are sites where announcements about new
products and special events are made. From a
religious perspective, important religious festivals
can be advertised on social network. Tweeter is
another social media network where information
can be spread in brief tweets. It’s an application
which limits the number of words used. Fig. 13.3 Video conferencing
5. Website blogs
Blogs or weblogs are company websites which provide important information about the company. People
find helpful information on the blog. For example, believers in Islam may find information about the
Ramadan on a blog, Islam blogs include reddit.com/r/islam. In Christianity they also have website blogs
like christianheadlines.com/blog and christianpost.com among other website blogs. In Judaism, they
have several website blogs where useful information can be found. Some of the website blogs in Judaism
include Jewishpress.com/blogs, myjewishlearning.com/blogs and jewishnews.timeofisrael.com.
6. The internet
It is a global network connecting several computers worldwide. It is accessed through the use of World
Wide Web in order to get information. There are several sites which represent various religions and faiths
like the Biliefnet, Religious Tolerance and Patheos. These sites share the beliefs and practices of various
religions. The internet has led religions to interact. New religious movements are given exposure on the

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internet. The internet can also be used to evangelise in Christianity, Judaism and Islam to areas which are
inaccessible so as to permeate all corners of the world.
Religion and technology
Technology has proved to be a blessing as well as a curse for religion. It is regarded as a blessing because it
has enhanced religion and it is a curse because it has eroded the moral fabric of the society. Advancement
in technology has been explained from a religious perspective. For example, in Christianity, they believe
that advancement in technology is a sign of the last days or end of times.
It has led to religion to be accessible, religious organisations can reach to so many people all over the world
through technology. For example, a Muslim can hear the digital call to prayer than waiting for call from the
Imam. This is because prayer time changes depending on locations and seasons. To add on, there are now
some online Bible versions as well as hymn books in Christianity which has led many believers to access
the soft copy of the Bible. In Judaism they use Jewish tweets which gives information about Judaism as
well as having lessons. The tweeter account is called Twebrew from @Jewish Tweets.
Technology has also improved solidarity among believers in different continents. For example, Christians
in Zimbabwe may be supported by Christians in America. Furthermore, many Muslims in Zimbabwe are
linked with other Muslims in their place of origin like Saudi Arabia through technology.
Another aspect of human technologies that religion has shaped is communication. Religion can pass
information through technological use. Many religious followers now plan religious activities through
technology. Technology has become the means of communication between believers in one religion and
between religions.
Religion has had both positive and negative impact on technology use and enterprise. The impact of
religion on technology use and enterprise are listed below.
(a) Technology has improved advertising strategies for various religions
Religion has led to the use of social media like Whatsapp and Facebook to advertise services offered. Some
traditional healers now have Whatsapp platforms. Some use fliers to market their services for example Dr
Tshota in Masvingo. Indigenous Religion explain and advertise matters of African spirituality, beliefs and
practices on ZTV every week at 21:00 pm where various Indigenous Religion practitioners are interviewed.
Christianity in Zimbabwe has also used technology in form of television like Prophet T Fred who uses the
Zimbabwe television channel (ZTV) to advertise his evangelism itinerary. Walter Magaya’s PHD ministries
own Yadah Television channel and ZAOGA of Ezekiel Guti has Ezekiel TV. Islam has a television channel
known as ITV which means Islam Television where they advertise Islamic festivals, holidays and other things
linked to Islam. Judaism has DirecTV Channel 366 which operates in USA as well as Jewish Life Television
JLTV in USA.
(b) Healing is now done even from a distance
Technology has also helped in healing the sick from a distance. In Christianity T. Fred has a prayer line
where he delivers the sick and prays for those who are far away from where he will be evangelising in
Harare. Some religions like Christianity use technology as a medium of communication are now assisting
people from a distance. It is because of the use of prayer lines offered by Church leaders which shows the
role of technology in religion.
(c) It has empowered the indigenous people to be self-reliant
There are people who have been helped by religion to be self-reliant and they are no longer employed but
they are now entrepreneurs. For example, Prophet Walter Magaya is an entrepreneur who has employed
several people in his Yadah Ministries as than being an employee. Through religious teachings some people

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have been motivated to start their own businesses through the gospel of prosperity which is preached
by Prophet Makandiwa, Prophet Magaya and Uebert Angel. So, the religion has led to the formation of
business entities for individuals and groups through technology where people watch and listen to sermons
on prosperity.
(d) It has led to the increase of counterfeit religious healers
Technology has impacted on religion as there are now some counterfeit healers or religious practitioners.
Fake diviners and prophets use social media to dupe unsuspecting people seeking spiritual guidance.
Some counterfeit healers claim to possess spiritual powers to heal infectious diseases by denouncing
medical consultation. They use social media and fliers to advertise their services to attract customers.
(e) Technology has improved entertainment in religion
The use of keyboards, guitars and drums for entertaining people in churches proves that technology has
improved in the provision of entertainment to the people which can also edify the church in Christianity.
Crusades which are conducted are accompanied by technological gadgets which help in the provision
of entertainment to congregants. In Islam, music is also used to spread the message of Allah as well as
entertaining.
Forms of interaction between religion and technology
Religion affects many human societies and there has been an interesting and complex relationship between
religion and technology. Throughout history religion and technology have had various effects upon each
other by affecting the growth of each other as well as relationships in human society. So, currently religion
and technology are interacting in various ways. There are various ways of interaction between religion and
technology.
1. Exchange
Daily activities in religion require exchange. Whenever individuals, religious followers and religious
institutions interact in an effort to receive reward for their action it requires technology. In this form of
interaction believers of religions are motivated by self-interest and behaviour. As such religion interact in a
way that is meant to promote the interest of a particular religion. For example, it through technology that
religion like Christianity, Islam and Judaism can promote its doctrines by establishing websites or religious
platforms where exchange can take place.
2. Competition
Competition is a form of interaction between religion and technology when two religions compete using
technological spaces available. It is of interest that competition is common among religions and within a
religion. The growth of a religion is seen by its competitiveness in society. It through such technological
asserts like social networks, media and website blogs that religions are competing. From a sociological
point of view competition motivates people to protect and advance their religion in society. This can only
be done through technology hence there is a close interaction between religion and technology.
3. Conflict
Religions aim to outnumber other religions in terms of followers and this may result in conflict. Conflict is
a form of interaction which may be the result of the interaction between religion and technology. Rivals
in between religions may engage in competition in occupying the religious space for believers. This may
result in inter religious conflict. For example, the air play given to Christianity at the expense of other
religions may result in conflict. This is all caused by technology.

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4. Cooperation
Cooperation occurs when two or more people work together or when two groups work together to achieve
one goal. Religion has used technology to ensure that people within the same religious organisation work
together or different religions engage in inter religious faith dialogue. For example, the use of mobile
phones, social network and video conferencing has led to the working together of people from different
places. So, technology has ensured cooperation of religious members thereby leading to the growth of
various religions and denominations.
5. Accommodation
Accommodation is a state of balance between cooperation and conflict. It is a form of interaction which
has various dimensions like compromise, mediation and arbitration. So, religion and technology interact
in a way that leads to compromise, mediation and arbitration.

Activity 13.1 Group Work

In groups, explain forms of technology used in religious activities. Which of the technological gadget is used
more widely for religious purposes and why? Make some notes on your findings. The group leader to present
findings to the class.

Exercise 13.1
1. What is technology? [2]
2. Give any four forms of technology. [4]
3. Describe how religions utilise social networks and cell-phones for spreading beliefs and practices. [10]

UNIT 13.2 ROLE OF RELIGION IN ENTERPRISING

Enterprise defined
Enterprise can be defined as business project that is set with the intention of getting money and employment
for one’s self and others. Religion has a close relationship with enterprise across various religions as religion
and enterprise enjoy an interdependent relationship. It is important to note that religion affects believers’
entrepreneurial activities by influencing decisions of starting a business, business management and
business networking.
How various religions promote enterprise
Religion plays an important role in wealth creation
and it is an enterprise on its own as people can earn
a living through selling religious artefacts. Various
religions have now become enterprises or business
that ensures that one has a source of living. Some of
the things which shows that religion is an enterprise
are:
(a) Selling of religious products

Selling of religious artefacts like drums (Ngoma), Fig.13.6 Book Center showing relationship between
Marimba, Hosho and Mbira in Indigenous Religion. religion and enterprise

165
In Christianity they sell literature for example the Seventh day Adventist Church sell literature in its
bookshops there by providing employment to its followers.
(b) Religious tourism

There are several sacred places in Indigenous Religion which are tourist attraction centres which
providesmonetary incentives to indigenous people. For example the dance group at Great Zimbabwe
survives on performing traditional dances for tourists and earn a living.
(c) Selling of herbs

Selling of indigenous herbs like Moringa is also an indication that Indigenous Religion is an enterprise. For
example, the Shona hut at Great Zimbabwe sells aphrodisiacs and other herbs. In Christianity there is the
selling of anointing oils and bangles. This shows that religion is an enterprise.
(d) Fees paid for consultation

Fees paid at the diviner’s place also shows that religion is an enterprise. No service is offered for free by
healers and diviners in Indigenous Religion. Chasing away of avenging spirits requires a fee that equals a
beast or some beasts.
Positive impact of religion on enterprise
It creates employment opportunities for other
people. There are several people employed at
Yadah Marble factory, a business entity established
by Prophet Walter Magaya. The Television channel
Yadah is also a business entity where journalists,
managers and other complementary staff are
employed.
It has improved income generating strategies.
Religion has led to the commercialisation of religious
activities like healing in Indigenous Religion, it is
not done for free as payment is done to the diviner.
In Christianity, there are some religious products
like wrist bands, anointed pens and clothes which
are sold in the church for generating money. The
Johanne Masowe in Gandanzara were given two
grinding mills as well as peanut butter processing Fig. 13.8 Yadah Mable Company
machine by Mr Muduviri which shows that religion
does have an impact on enterprise.
It brings in foreign currency. For example there are people from other nations who come to Zimbabwe to
visit prophet Walter Magaya, T. Fred and Emmanuel Makandiwa for spiritual guidance thereby bringing in
foreign currency. While those in Saudi Arabia receive revenue and money from other countries as Muslims
from other countries visit Mecca a religious shrine in Saudi Arabia. In Indigenous Religion places like Great
Zimbabwe, Matopo Hills and Nyanyadzi Hot springs brings in foreign currency.
It instils confidence in the business that is beginning. This is caused by the faith one has that the Supreme
Being will make the business entity a success. In Indigenous Religion, guarantee of protection and blessings
from ancestors instils confidence in entrepreneurship while in Christianity, Judaism and Islam setting up a
business is a reflection of God’s blessings.

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Setting up a business of religious orientation leads to the spread of religious beliefs. The setting up of
butcheries which are of Islamic orientation lead to the spread of the belief in Halaal meats. While selling
of drums and Mbira in Indigenous Religion can also lead to the spread of religious beliefs in ancestors. In
Christianity, the selling of crosses also leads to the spread of the belief in Christ while in Judaism setting up
of a business which does not operate on a Sabbath also leads to the spread of Judaism.
•• Profits accrued in business are not invested back into the business but are used as offerings so
that one gets blessings. This is exemplified by believers in Indigenous Religion, they offer offerings
of thanksgiving to the ancestors. In Christianity and Judaism 10% of the profit is given as tithe
which affects the smooth running of business while in Islam 2,5 % to 10% of one’s wealth should be
offered as almsgiving thereby affecting the smooth running of business as some of the profits are
diverted towards a religious cause.
Negative impact of religion on enterprise
•• It has led to the rise of ritual murder. In Indigenous Religion, people with Albinism and Children have
been murdered to boost business enterprises. This is a negative impact of religion on enterprise as
it leads to loss of human life as well as violating the human rights for instance, the right to live. This
affected believers to think that for a business to succeed there is need for a ritual to take place. It is
this belief that has also led even believers in Christianity to seek divine guidance when setting up
businesses.
•• Business time is lost due to religious obligations. For example, business is closed on Friday in Islam
while in Christianity and Judaism business is closed on the Sunday and the Sabbath respectively.
Moreover, if a holiday which makes business viable falls on a day like Saturday it means a business
will have lost the profit which comes by that holiday. For example, if Christmas falls on a Saturday it
means a person who belongs to the Seventh Day Adventist church has lost time for doing business.
So, this affects business operation as time is limited because of religion.
Role of religion enterprise
(a) Provision of work ethic

Religion motivates people to have a good work ethic which is vital for setting up an enterprise. Enterprise
requires work ethics for it to be a success. For example, Christianity encourages people to have good
work ethics by encouraging justice, honest, integrity, moral conduct, fair dealings, respecting superiors,
which are all attributes of good work ethics in Christianity which is derived from the God’s moral law and
Christ’s teaching. According to Christian work ethic one should work hard in business. This is supported
by Colossians 3 vs. 23-24 which says, “whatever your task, work heartily, as serving the lord and not men,
knowing that from the Lord you will receive the inheritance as your reward….” In Judaism they also encourage
hard work and according to Ecclesiastes 9:10, “whatever your hands find to do, do it with your strength…”
Furthermore, Indigenous Religion encourages people to have a good work ethic as they believe in the
principles of Unhu like working hard, honest, truthfulness, discipline and cooperation which are all
important in the promotion of good work ethics. Islam is also another religion which encourages believers
to have a work ethic that is provided in the Quran. The Quran encourages honest and fairness when doing
business and this is supported by the saying, “O you who believe, be upright for Allah, bearers of witness with
justice and not let hatred of a people incite you not to act equitably, act equitably, that is nearer to piety….”
Quran 5:8. It is from this verse that Muslims believe that good work ethic is a virtue in setting up a business.
(b) Influencing fiscal discipline
Fiscal discipline refers to the smooth financial operation where one balances between spending and
saving. Religion plays an important role in influencing fiscal discipline among believers. Those setting up

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enterprises are influenced by religion to have some fiscal discipline. This means that religion encourages
people to be disciplined in the use of money or profits gained from the business. Religion encourages
believers to be disciplined in a way they use money or spend money. In indigenous Religion they stress that
they believe a fortune come once and should be used meaningfully for the benefit of others particularly
family members so that the ancestors will be happy and reward the person once again with a fortune.
The Shona proverb chawawana batisisa mudzimu haupi kaviri which literally means what one gets in life
through blessings from the ancestor should be used sustainably for one cannot be blessed twice by the
ancestors. So, sustainable use of resources acquired is of paramount importance in Indigenous Religion to
instil fiscal discipline among the indigenous people.
In Islam use of resources should be done in a way that pleases Allah by setting up business which helps
others to earn a living. According to Quran 6:141, “But waste not by excess: for Allah loveth not the wasters”.
It is the duty of every Muslim to ensure that when business is established there are no wastes but there is
maximum utilisation of resources. Christians and followers of Judaism also believe that human beings are
stewards and they should use resources. They base on the creation story that Adam was made a steward of
the Garden of Eden. As such, it is from this context that the use of resources should be done in a good way
which will in turn affect positively the fiscal discipline in the use of resources in business.
Religious tourism
Religious tourism refers to the travelling of an individual or group of people for pilgrimage, missionary or
leisure purpose to a place of religious importance. Some call it faith tourism. The main purpose of religious
tourism is to experience the religious activities as well as religious products.
In Indigenous Religion music at cultural and indigenous sacred sites helps in business creation and
wealth creation as members of the dance group earn a living through showcasing indigenous dances
to tourists who would in turn pay a fee. This helps many families of the traditional dancers as they earn a
living through indigenous dance. As such this shows that Indigenous Religion can contribute to the fiscal
space in Zimbabwe. This will help in bringing in foreign currency into the country. Great Zimbabwe is an
Indigenous Religion oriented religious tourism centre.
In Christianity, Christians visit Jerusalem in order to understand the historical origins of Christianity. In recent
times some Christians from across the whole world have visited Zimbabwe to seek prophetic guidance
as well as healing deliverance from prominent prophets like Walter Magaya, Emanuel T Makandiwa and
T Fred. For example, people from across the globe visit Prophet W. Magaya thereby bringing in foreign
currency. Some of the places visited in Christianity include Bethlehem, the birth place of Jesus, Mount
Olives the place where Jesus was betrayed by Judas Iscariot.
In Islam people visit Mecca in Saudi Arabia. This contributes to Saudi Arabia’s foreign currency earning
because of religious tourism. During the Hajj period, about 2 million people visit Mecca for pilgrimage.
Some of the places visited as religious tourist centres in Islam include Medina, Dome of the rock in Palestine
and the Sultan Ahmed Mosque in Istanbul in Turkey.
Advantages of religious tourism
•• It is a means of practicing one’s religion. A Muslim visits Mecca, a Christian visits Bethlehem and an
Indigenous believer visits Matopo Hills, this is a way which religion promotes Christianity. The visits
are a way of showing belief in that religion.
•• It leads to religious tolerance. If a Zimbabwean Muslim visits Mecca, he or she will appreciate the
food of people in Arabia.
•• It creates employment for the locals as hotels, shops and restaurants all need staff. For example,
there are people who are employed at Great Zimbabwe an Indigenous Religion tourist attraction

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 centre as tour guides. In Christianity, people are employed at Magaya’s hotel in Waterfalls to cater
for international religious tourists.
•• It boosts revenue for the country. Prophet Makandiwa’s Judgement night saw 6 823 visitors from
other countries in 2012 and it brought a lot of foreign currency into the country.
•• It leads to the development of the place where a religious tourist attraction centre. For instance,
roads are constructed as well as construction of hotels, hospitals and airports. For example, the
road to Matopo Hills is well maintained and hotels are located in that area.
•• It raises the profile of the place. Religious tourism gives the locality a chance to show itself off and
raise its profile in the world.
•• It leads to the interaction between different cultures. Thoughts, life styles, traditions and knowledge
are shared among people from different religions. By discovering new places and life styles the
tourist will appreciate and respect other cultures. By so doing interaction of various cultures may
lead to the upliftment of the standards of living of the people.
Disadvantages of religious tourism
•• Clash of cultures is a disadvantage of religious
tourism. People from other countries who
visit a religious centre can bring in their
own foreign culture which leads to cultural
dilution and cultural change. For example,
if Muslims from other countries visit Great
Zimbabwe it causes people to change their
language as well as dressing as the local
people copy the culture of the visitors. There
is also loss of religion, rituals and material
culture due to religious tourism as a result of
clash of cultures.
•• Hostility and conflict is another disadvantage
of religious tourism as religious tourism
brings in new beliefs and practices which
can cause hatred and hostility. For instance, Fig. 13.10  Jerusalem Temple a religious tourist
if Christian visits Mecca and bring in the attraction centre for Jews and Christians
teaching on the holy trinity may cause
conflict between Muslims and Christians.
•• Environmental degradation is a negative contribution of religious tourism. The construction of
supporting services to religious tourism like roads, hotels and other structures require the clearing
of the land which may have long lasting damages on the environment.
•• it gives pressure on the social services.

Activity 13.2 Group work and presentation.

In groups, think of a business idea related to any religion and create a business plan that you will present to
others.

Exercise 13.2
1. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of religious tourism. [12]

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Interesting facts
1. Entrepreneurship contributes to the economy of Zimbabwe.
Summary of the chapter
•• Religion has been impacted upon by technology.
•• Technology contributes to the spread of religious beliefs and practices.
•• There are forms of interaction between technology and religion which include exchange,
competition, conflict accommodation and cooperation.
•• Religion has a close relationship with enterprise across various religions
•• Religious enterprise contribute to employment creation for example, the selling of drums
(ngoma).
•• Religion provides a work ethic in enterprise which promotes the growth of a business.
•• Religious tourism is an important component of religious enterprise which can lead to economic
development.
•• Religion impact positively to the growth of the economy as well as creation of employment.

Glossary of terms
Enterprise – i s creation of a business entity with the aim of getting profit as well as
creating employment for others.
Entrepreneurial activities – the things that are done to promote business for an individual.
Income generating strategies – the personal activities that are done to raise money for the purpose of
living.
Religious artifacts – the physical things which are used and preserved for the purpose of
veneration and religious identity.
Religious tourism – i t is the visit of religious centres for religious guidance as well as for
leisure.
Technology – the machines and devices that are derived from scientific knowledge
which makes life easier.
Tweets – the message sent through a social media platform known as the twitter.
World Wide Web (www) – the information space where documents and other web resources are
identified by Uniform Resource Locators which is accessible via internet.

Revision Exercises
Structured Questions
1. Technology has proved to be a blessing as well as a curse for religion.
(a) Define technology. [2]
(b) List any four technological items. [4]
(c) Describe the technological items that is used in Christianity. [6]
(d) Give notes on the advantages and disadvantages of technology on religion. [8]
2. Religion has had both positive and negative impact on technology use.
(a) Define technology use. [2]
(b) State any four advantages of using technology. [4]
(c) Describe the role of the internet in Christianity. [6]
(d) Explain the impact of religion on technological use. [8]

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3. Christianity promote enterprise.
(a) Define enterprise. [2]
(b) List any four items sold in Christianity. [4]
(c) Describe any three ways which are not accepted as forms enterprise in Christianity. [6]
(d) Assess the impact of Christianity on enterprise. [8]
4. Indigenous religion support entrepreneurship.
(a) Define entrepreneurship. [2]
(b) List any four characteristics of enterprise. [4]
(c) Describe any two forms of enterprise associated with Indigenous Religion. [6]
(d) Explain any values associated with wealth creation Indigenous Religion. [8]

Essay Questions
1. Describe the role of technology in Indigenous Religion. [25]
2. Explain the negative impact of technology on religion. [25]
3. Using examples, demonstrate the role of religion in promoting enterprise. [25]
4. Give notes on the negative impact of religion on enterprise. [25]
5. Describe the impact of Christianity on enterprise. [25]

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 Chapter RELIGION AND CONFLICT

14 MANAGEMENT

Chapter Objectives
By the end of the chapter, you should be able to:
•• identify causes of religious conflict at national level.
•• discuss the impact of conflict at national level.
•• discuss the role religion in conflict management.

Introduction
Conflicts are endemic to any society and their causes vary. If conflicts are not managed they can degenerate
into wars. In this chapter terms like conflict and conflict resolution are defined. Then the chapter will
identify general causes of conflicts at national level which will be followed by identification of religious
conflicts at national level as well as explain the causes of religious conflicts. At the end of the chapter the
impact of conflict at national level will be discussed.

UNIT 14.1 LEVELS OF CONFLICT

Conflict defined
Conflict is defined as a serious disagreement which can lead to the two parties to live in disharmony. If
conflict is not resolved it can lead to destruction of human life, a situation that is not good for society.
Conflict resolution is defined as a way or methods used for two parties in a rift to find a peaceful solution
to disagreements between them. Conflict resolution deals with the methods and processes involved in
facilitating peace.
There are different levels of conflict, these include intrapersonal (within an individual), interpersonal
(between individuals), intragroup (within a group), intergroup (between groups), and intra-organizational
(within organizations).
Types of conflicts
There are three types of conflicts which include dysfunctional conflict, creative conflict and armed conflict.
Dysfunctional conflict involves destruction and loss of lives, property, investment opportunities, diseases,
insecurity, and lack of law and order maintenance. These types of conflict lead to wars, riots, killings of
people and other disturbances. Functional or creative conflict involves a constructive way of expressing
conflict. It reflects differences in society through a variety of opinions. Lastly armed conflict involves battles
and it usually involves two nations as well as rebels within a nation.

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Causes of religious conflict at national level
Religious conflicts are conflicts which happen as a
result of differences in belief and how the religious
organisations should be run. There has been an
upsurge of religious hostilities in Zimbabwe.
Intragroup religious conflicts as well as intergroup
conflicts have been evident in the religious
landscape in this country. It should be noted that
conflicts are also evident in religious circles at
national level. National conflicts are those conflicts
Fig. 14.1 Conflict between apostles of the Johane
which happen at national level or affect the whole
Masowe and the police in Budiriro
nation at large.
(a) Scarce resources
The issue of scarce resources is one of the causes of conflicts at national level. If resources that are there are
controlled by a few individuals it can lead to conflict. For example, shortage of land in the year 2000 led to
conflicts between the white settlers and the black majority. Land is an important resource and its shortage
whilst some elite or exclusive groups of people own it lead to conflicts. Land is a sacred inheritance in
Indigenous Religion and it was a cause of conflict in Zimbabwe.
(b) Leadership positions
In religion, there are several splinter groups of Johanne Masowe apostolic church at national level which
are a result of fighting for leadership positions. Furthermore, the Anglican Church had conflicts in mid-
2000 as arch-bishop Gandiya and Norbert Kunonga were fighting for the leadership of the church. This
shows that conflicts can be caused by leadership positions in society. Furthermore, there has been power
wrangles in the Apostolic Faith Mission in Zimbabwe where some pastors like Pastor Kefias Mujokeri
have been challenging the leadership of Pastor Madziyire in the courts. It is alleged by Pastor Mujokeri
that Pastor Madziyire is clinging to power and must be removed from his position as the president of the
church. Pastor Madziyire was elected into the office of the president of Apostolice Faith Mission and his
term of office has expired prompting conflicts within the church in early 2018.
(c) Doctrinal differences
Doctrinal differences also lead to intragroup conflicts at national level. For example, there are now two
Methodist churches in Zimbabwe one known as the Methodist Revival Church and the other Methodist
Church. Furthermore, the other reason which led to the splitting of the Anglican church at national level
is the issue of same sex marriages which Kunonga is believed to have been opposed to as it had passed in
the Church of the province of Africa.
(d) Spiritual powers
It is another cause of religious conflicts. This is when one has more spiritual powers than the leader of
the church he or she is a member in. There has been some believers who have been excommunicated for
possessing prophetic powers.
(f) Sources of spiritual power
It is of paramount importance to note that where one derives his or her power has been a major cause
of religious conflicts. For example, the Newsday of 9 February 2015 contains a story of religious conflict
between some African Independent Churches, vapositori and Magaya in which Magaya accused the
vapositori of using marine spirits to lure people into their churches while the vapositori accused Magaya of
using a snake which lived in oil as a source of his power. The vapositori wanted police clearance to destroy
Magaya’s source of spiritual power. This shows that sources of power is a cause of national religious conflict.

173
(g) Differences in opinion
Many religious conflicts at national level when religious followers and leaders fail to agree on specific
beliefs. For example, Indigenous Religion, Judaism, Christianity and Islam all believe in one Supreme Being
but they differ on how that God is worshiped. It is these differences in opinion which cause intergroup
conflicts. Christians have also intragroup conflict which is caused by differences in doctrines. The apostolic
sects and Pentecostal churches have differences in the way they view the concept of the Holy Spirit.
(h) Suppression of other people’s faith
A group may deny other people an opportunity to practice their faith by making other religions or faiths
inferior. This idea of denying other religions an opportunity to worship causes conflicts in society. For
example, in Nigeria there has been suppression of Christian faith in Islamic states whereby there has been
religious persecution of Christians by Muslims.
According to the guardian newspaper about 7000 Christians were killed in 2015. Boko Haram, an Islamist
group has been the one fingered in the suppression of faith in Nigeria. In Sudan, Meriam Ibrahim was
sentenced to death for marrying a Christian and refusing to renounce her Christian faith. In countries such
as Syria, Christians are given three choices which include conversion into Islam, pay extortion money (Jiyza)
for their safety and being killed for their beliefs. They are not allowed to display their religious faith and it
is prohibited to pray in the public.
Activity 14.1 Group work
In groups, discuss the causes of conflicts at family level. Which of the causes do you think causes straining of
family relations?

Exercise 14.1
1. Explain the different levels of conflict. [8]

UNIT 14.2 IMPACT OF CONFLICT

Conflict is dangerous in the country. It has an impact at different levels in the country. The impact of conflict
varies due to the intensity of the conflict.
Impact of religious conflict at national level
Conflicts generally have negative impact at national level as it can lead to:
•• Destruction of property
•• Loss of life
•• It results in violation of human rights
•• Lack of economic development
•• It chases away investors
•• Lose focus on important issues
•• Psychological effects
•• Poor social amenities
Religion and conflict management
Conflicts are naturally created by humans who are involved in relationships. It is the role of religion to
govern personal behaviour of man by providing guidelines and principles to live in a peaceful environment.

174
Religion is a strongest force in preventing conflicts and maintaining peace in society.
(a) Religion promotes dialogue
Dialogue refers to a discussion between two
conflicting parties to solve a crisis. In Zimbabwe
there was a political crisis in November 2017 where
religion managed to promote dialogue. Dialogue
was promoted by father Fidelis Mukonori who
facilitated the discussion between the former
President of Zimbabwe and Retired General
Constantine Chiwenga who is now the vice president
of Zimbabwe. This was after the Zimbabwe national
army embarked on an operation known as Operation
Restore Legacy in which the army accused the
former president of having lost his legacy due to the
influence of his wife Grace Mugabe.
To avoid civil war and civil unrest the Roman Catholic Fig. 14.2 
Father Fidelis Mukonori (wearing
Church, Father Fidelis Mukonori facilitated dialogue spectacles), General Chiwenga and former
which led Mugabe to relinquish power. There was president Robert Mugabe who mediated
no shedding of blood during the November 2017 in the Zimbabwean crisis leading to the
political conflict in Zimbabwe. change of leadership in Zimbabwe
This demonstrated the role of religion in promoting peace and prevention of civil unrest. The organ of
National Healing and Reconciliation which was headed by the late Dr John Landa Nkomo between 2009
and 2013 also encouraged peace through a slogan, “Peace begins with me, Peace begins with you, peace
begins with all of us” as means of conflict management with the help of the church. It was established to
bring about national healing and reconciliation after a long conflict between the ruling party ZANU PF
and the MDC. The prime objective of this organ was to cultivate peace among people of different political
affiliations.
(b) It facilitates negotiations between conflicting parties
Negotiation is a discussion aimed at reaching an agreement between two parties. As such, conflicts end
because of negotiations and it is the role of the religion to facilitate negotiation between disagreeing
parties. For example, Bishop Nemapare in 2008 played an important role having Robert Mugabe and
Morgan Tsvangirai to have negotiations by discouraging violence. It brought the two disagreeing party
leaders to table which led to the formation of government of national unity (GNU).
(c) Encourages compromise between conflicting parties
Compromise refers to an act of settling disputes or differences between two opposing sides where
each side reduces its demands and agrees to the demands of the other part. So, the church encourages
compromise in conflict situations. When two conflicting parties are in disagreement and with the possibility
of degenerating into war, religion influences interested parties to compromise. This compromising is
influenced by religion at personal level as the leaders of the disagreeing parties will be influenced to
reduce their demands.
(d) Praying for peace
Praying for peace is another role of religion in conflict. For example, many church organisations like
the Evangelical fellowship of Zimbabwe prayed for peace once before the elections and once after the

175
hotly contested 2018 elections. Furthermore, in 2013 about 2 million Muslims prayed for peace and core
existence among people for sustainable social and economic development in Nigeria in Dutse. To add on,
the chief of Imam of Omu-Aran called for Muslim to pray for peace in Nigeria on 20 May 2017 before the
start of the Ramadan on the 27th of May 2017. This clearly shows that religion is resource for cultivating
peace in society. There is a national day of prayer for peace in May every year in Zimbabwe.
(e) Religion leads to conflict transformation
Conflict transformation is a process of increasing justice and equity in society. It is was the role of religion in
ensuring conflict transformation during the early 1980s by facilitating the mending relations by pursuing
awareness, growth and commitment to change which can occur as a result of fear, anger and bitterness.
(f) Diffusion of tension
Religion helps in diffusing conflicts. For example, in during the Zimbabwean political crises between 2008
and 2009 the Ecumenical Church leaders forum engaged religious leaders and communities across the
country to promote peace through dialogue and outreach programs.
(g) Religion ensures peace mediation
Peace mediation is another role played by religion in conflict situations. The concept peace mediation refers
to solving of disputes peacefully and fairly so as to prevent them from degenerating into armed conflict or
violent conflict. For some, mediation refers to assisted negotiation and negotiation is communication for
agreement. Religion has the potential to facilitate and ensure peace mediation.
For example, in war affected areas, religion has been used as a mechanism to find peace like Egypt during
the ouster of Hussein Mubarak as the leader of Egypt, the Muslim brotherhood which is an Islamist group
with a mandate of advocating for peaceful political participation facilitated peace mediation between
Mubarak and the generality of the Egyptians in 2011. In Islam they believe that it is the duty of every
Muslim to engage in good intervention to bring the more powerful actor to dialogue. According to the
Quran, “If two groups are fighting, mediating between the two fighting is the solution” Quran 49:9.

Activity 14.2 Poetry/Music

Compose a poem or song discouraging conflict
Exercise 14.1
1. Church leaders play a vital role in conflict management in the Christian community.
(a) Define conflict. [2]
(b) List any four types of conflicts experienced in the church today. [4]
(c) Describe three roles played by Christian leaders in solving conflicts in the church. [6]
(d) Explain four effects of religious conflicts in Christianity. [8]

Interesting facts
In 2008 religion was involved in resolving the political conflict in Zimbabwe.
Summary of the chapter
•• Conflicts are endemic in every family, society and country.
•• There are different levels of conflict which include intrapersonal (within an individual), interpersonal
(between individuals), intragroup (within a group), intergroup (between groups) and intra-
organizational (within organizations)
•• Conflicts are as a result of scarce resources, leadership wrangles, bad governance and economic

176
 challenges.
•• There are religious conflicts which happens as a result of differences in belief and how the religious
organisations should be run.
•• Leadership positions is the major cause of religious conflicts in Zimbabwe.
•• Differences in beliefs and practices cause religious conflicts.
•• Political conflict in Zimbabwe has led to the loss of human life, property, revenue and economic
progress.
•• Religion is a strongest force in preventing conflicts and maintaining peace in society.
•• Most of the political impasse in Zimbabwe with the possibility of causing war have been diffused
by Christianity as a religion.
Glossary of terms
Apostolic sects – these are subgroups of apostolic churches which share the same beliefs and
practices but differ in the execution of the practices.
Armed conflict – a conflict which involve the use of guns in solving disputes.
Conflict – is a serious disagreement between two parties.
Investors – these are people who commits capital with the expectations of getting profit.
Mediation – is process of helping two parties which are conflicting to agree to solve their
differences.
Property – things which belongs to someone.
Resources – these are material, money and other useful possessions that belongs to an
organisation or country.
Spiritual powers – faith in a higher power which involves communicating with the spirits.
Tension – is a feeling of fear produced by a difficult or important event.

Revision Exercises
Structured questions
1. Conflicts are endemic to any society.
(a) Define conflict. [2]
(b) Identify any four levels of conflicts. [4]
(c) Describe the causes of conflicts at national level. [6]
(d) Describe the role of religion in conflict resolution. [8]
2. There are several levels of conflicts.
(a) Define level of conflict. [2]
(b) State any four levels of conflict. [4]
(c) Describe conflicts which happens at personal level. [6]
(d) Explain the impact of personal level conflict. [4]
3. There are three types of conflicts.
(a) State any two types of conflicts. [2]
(b) List any four causes of the type of conflicts you have identified above. [4]
(c) Describe the causes of conflicts in your society. [6]
(d) Explain the role of religion in solving conflicts caused by armed conflict. [8]
4. Religious conflicts are common the world over.
(a) What is a religious conflict? [2]
(b) State any four religious conflicts in Zimbabwe. [4]

177
 (c) Describe the religious conflict in Zimbabwean churches. [6]
(d) Explain the causes of religious conflicts. [4]
5. Conflicts have negative effects on society.
(a) State any two effects of conflicts in society. [2]
(b) List causes of political conflicts. [4]
(c) Describe the role of Indigenous Religion in promoting peace. [6]
(d) Explain the negative effects of religion. [8]

Essay Questions
1. Describe the causes of religious conflicts at national. [25]
2. State the religious solutions to conflicts at national level. [25]
3. Explain the causes of dysfunctional conflicts in Zimbabwe. [25]
4. Describe measures that can be used to facilitate peace by various religions. [25]
5. Give notes on the impact of conflict in society. [25]

178
EXAMINATION III
Paper 1: Structured Questions
Time: 2 hours 30 minutes
Answer five questions
Choose at least one question from each section
Each question carries 20 marks

SECTION A: Indigenous Religion

1. Indigenous Religion is a source of morals values for indigenous people.
(a) Define morals. [2]
(b) List the moral values. [4]
(c) Describe the principles of Unhu derived from Indigenous Religion. [6]
(d) Explain the source of Unhu in Indigenous Religion. [8]
2. Conflicts happen any society.
(a) What is conflict? [2]
(b) Identify any four levels of conflicts. [4]
(c) Describe the causes of conflicts at national level. [6]
(d) Describe the role of Indigenous Religion in conflict management. [8]
3. Indigenous Religion was instrumental in the success of the second Chimurenga.
(a) What is second Chimurenga? [2]
(b) What led to the second Chimurenga? Give four points. [4]
(c) Describe the role of three Indigenous Religion practioners in the second Chimurenga. [6]
(d) C
 ompare the roles of Indigenous Religion practitioners and Christian practitioners in second
Chimurenga. [8]

Section B: Judaism

4. Most Jewish perceptions on disability are written in their scriptures.

(a) Define the term disability. [2]
(b) List any four examples of disability in Judaism. [4]
(c) Explain any three causes of disability in Judaism. [6]
(d) Describe four ways in which Judaism helps people with disabilities. [8]

5. The Jewish pays attention to sexuality.

(a) Define sexuality . [2]
(b) Identify any four features that characterise puberty for boys in Judaism. [4]
(c) Describe any three forbidden sexual relationships in Judaism. [6]
(d) Describe the role of the family in shaping the sexual orientation of children. [8]

6. Freedom of worship is one of a basic human right enjoyed by Jews in Zimbabwe.

(a) Define freedom of worship. [2]
(b) State any four ways in which Judaism is enjoying freedom of worship in Zimbabwe. [4]
(c) Describe what the constitution of Zimbabwe say on freedom of worship. [6]
(d) Explain the advantages and disadvantages of freedom of worship. [8]

179
Section C: Christianity

7. Religious beliefs influence people with health conditions.

(a) Define health. [2]
(b) List any four causes of sickness in Christianity. [4]
(c) Describe health conditions which are considered chronic. [6]
(d) Describe the religious beliefs influence people with health conditions? [8]
8. Christianity has religious intervention on disability.
(a) Define the term religious intervention. [2]
(b) List causes of disability in Christianity. [4]
(c) Describe religious attitudes towards disability. [6]
(d) Describe the roles of religious intervention measures to disability. [8]
9. Technology has proved to be a blessing as well as a curse for religion.
(a) Define technology. [2]
(b) State any four technological items. [4]
(c) Describe the technological items that is used in Christianity. [6]
(d) Describe the advantages and disadvantages of technology on religion. [8]

Section D Islam

10. There is a close relationship between rights and social responsibilities in Islam.
(a) Define social responsibility. [2]
(b) State any four social responsibility in Islam. [4]
(c) Explain the relationship that is there between rights and social responsibility. [6]
(d) Describe the role of Islam in social responsibility. [8]
11. Islam shapes leadership styles.
(a) What is leadership style? [2]
(b) List any four forms of leadership styles. [4]
(c) Describe the role of Islam in shaping leadership styles of your choice. [6]
(d) Explain the advantages and disadvantages of leadership style of your choice. [8]
12. An enterprise assists in solving economic problems encountered in Islam.
(a) What is an enterprise? [2]
(b) List any 4 products made in Islam. [4]
(c) Suggest any 3 forms of enterprise in Islam. [6]
(d) Describe 4 ways from which your society benefits through enterprise. [8]

180
Paper 2: Essay Questions
Time: 2 hours 30 minutes
Answer four questions
Choose at least one question from each section
Each question carries 25 marks

Section A: Indigenous Religion

1. Give notes on the contributions of Indigenous Religion to unhu/ubuntu. [25]
2. Explain how religious beliefs in Indigenous Religion help shape societal attitudes on femininity and
masculinity. [25]
3. Describe the role played by Indigenous Religion practitioners in the liberation struggle. [25]

Section B: Judaism

4. State the positive and negative religious influences in Judaism on people with health conditions.[25]
5. Describe religious attitudes towards disability. Answer this with particular reference to Judaism.[25]
6. Describe the role of Judaism in promoting enterprise. [25]

Section C: Christianity
7. With reference to Christianity, relate the role of religion in assisting people living with disability. [25]
8. Give notes on the role of Christianity in influencing leadership styles. [25]
9. Using examples, discuss the causes of religious conflicts at national level. [25]
Section D: Islam
10. Explain how Islam cares for the disabled. [25]
11. Describe the role of Islam in shaping any four leadership styles. [25]
12. State the role of Islam in enterprise. [25]

181
INDEX
A E
Adhara 59
African Identity 61, 70,71,72,73,112,116
Almsgiving 57, 85,102,102,118,119,141,142,176
Ancestors 2,8,9,10,15,68,69,71,73,77,94,95,96,116,1
26,127,129,130,134,136,146,157,163,164
Aqeeqah 51,59
Attire 15,16,17,18,19,21,22,23,28,29,30,31,34,36,45,
46,47,49,50,54,55
Autocracy 156
B 03,106,108,112,122,136,150,156
Baptism 37,38,39,43,45,46,48,49
Birth Rite 8,22,23,36,37,48,50,59
C Funeral rites 41,53
Capacity building 75,78,80,83,84,85,87,88,89,114
Chief 16,19,20,21,49,77,95,96,117,161,162,163,168
,169
Chisi 19, 20, 22
Christian wedding 42
Christianity 2,4,5,6,7,12,36,38,42,43,44,45,46,48,6
2,69,73,75,76,77,78,83,84,104,109,11
0,113,114,117,118,119,124,125,127,1
28,129,130,132,138,139,140,143,144
,147,151,157,158,159,161,165,167
Christmas 43, 45, 48,117
Circumcision 23,24,27,35,47,51,59
Confirmation 37, 38, 51
Conflict Management 182,185,186,187
Conflicts 64,70,76,84,85,87,92,108,126,147,148,179,
182,183,184,185,186,187,188,189
Cultural change 6  1,62,63,62,63,64,65,66,73,74,84,1
12,144
D Indigenous religion 1,4,4,5,8,13,15,16,17,21,22,49,6
Day of Atonement 29,32,34,35
Day of Hajj 57
Death 23,26,36,38,39,40,41,42,43,45,48,50,59,63,67
,72,77
Disability 107,133,134,134,135,136,136,137,138,13
9,140,141,142,143,144,149,189,190,191
Discrimination 86,88,121,130,135,139,140,142,143,
144,145,149,154,160
192
182
Education 75,77,78,79,80,82,83,84,85,86,87,88,103,
112,113,142,152,154,155,167,168
Educational institutions75,77,78,79,80,84,87,89,112
Enterprise 96,170,172,172,174,175,176,177,180,181
,190,191
F
Family 23,26,37,40,41,42,45,47,53,58,61,62,63,64,65
,66,67,68,69,71,72,73,74,80,81,84,87,91,92,1
Femininity 106,115,123,124,125,131,132,191
Fontanelle 9,126
Freedom 4,33,95,96,145,146,147,148,149,158,159,1
62,163,164,166,168,189
G
Gender roles 90,110,111,112,113,114
Gender Based Violence (GBV) 90,107,108,109,110
H
Health 53,81,85,94,108,115,126,127,128,129,130,13
2,140,152,164,168
High priest 28,29,33,35,168
Hijab 54,55,59,150
Human Rights 65,73,107,150,154,158,159
I
ICT 92,107,109,121,126,133,134,137,147,149,153,1
55,
Ill-Health Conditions 128,130
Indigenous Knowledge systems 67,123
5,69,70,76,77,80,109,110,114,1
15,118,119,120,122,123
Initiation 11,12,21,51
Islam 48,49,50,52,55,56,57,59,60,70,84,85,87,101,1
02,103,110,110,113,119,128,132,133,141,147
,157
J Religious Tourism 175,178,178,179,180
Rights 12, 65,103,107, 148,149,150,151,155,159
Judaism 106,110,112,114,117,118 Rituals 13,15,20,21,66,69,71,72,73,,74,94,95,102,124
,129,131,162,163
K
S
Karanga 4,11,14,71
Sabbath 19,22,23,32,34,35,44,47,64,78,79,82,176
L Sacred days 19,22,23,34,35,36,43,44,46,47,49,50,64
Sexuality 34,52,94,98,99,115,121,122,123,130,131
Laissez Faire 156,157
Shangani 64, 71,91,92,93,94,95,96,116,117
Laylat al Qadr 56
Shariah 103,142,150,159
Leadership 77, 95,109,126,155,156,157,158,159
Social Responsibility
Liberation Struggle 95,160,161,162,163,165,
77,150,151,153,154,155,156,157
M Social roles 91, 98,102,103,112
Spirits 10,17,69,77,87,95,122,127,150,158,175,183,
Marriage 8,12,13,21,23,25,26,39,40,41,46,47,48,52,5 Stigma 86,130,135,144,148
6,62,63,73,92,98,102,118,141,150 Symbols 6,24,72,73
Masculinity 99,115.124,131
Mediums 16, 94,106,109,161,163,164,168, T
Missionaries165, 167
Taboos 49,67,69,73,131,136
Morals 74,115,131
Threat 63,107,112,113,121
N Tonga 9, 93, 71, 92, 93,115,150
Torah 24, 28, 30,82,83,97,100
Naming ceremony 10 Totems 67, 68,72,73,74
National values 61, 66, 69,70,73,74 Transactional 157
Ndebele 8,10,18,71,72,91,92,93,115,116
New Year day 57 U

P Unhu 61,63,64,68,69,70,73,80,81,115,159,177

Passover 33, 34 V
Pentecost 44, 45, 82,184
Values 61,66,67,69,70,74,80,84,85,87,88,113,117,11
Political roles 95,100
9,147,157
Post marital rite 21
Venda 8,10,71,91,92,94,95,115,116
Prayer Shawl 34
Puberty 8, 11,37,46,47,60,81,94 W
R Worship 4,24,27,33,44,45,51,56,76,102,145,146,147
,148,158,159,
Ramadan 48, 56,57,59,60
Religion 49,50,55,59,61,63,64,65,66,68,69,70,72,73, Z
74,75,76,77,80,84,86,87,88,89,90,91,93,94,
95,97,98,103,104,110,112,114,115,119,130, Zakat day 57
134,146,147,148,149,150,156,157,158,161
Religious attitude 133,134
Religious Conflict 68 86,147
Religious Identity 15, 30, 31,147,148,158,
Religious roles 93, 97,102,104

193
183
 A practical Approach to Family and Religious Studies | Form 1 – 4

Updated Curriculum

A Practical Approach FORM

to

4
A Practical Approach to Family and Religious Studies | Form 4

This is a learner centred comprehensive book which gives learners an effective Family and Religious Studies
understanding of the learning area. It constitutes of the following features:
• well-structured content as outlined in the syllabus from known to unknown.
• interesting facts about the subject that motivate and stimulate interest in the
learning of Family and Religious Studies.
• activities that require learners to actively participate in their learning process.
• content that helps learners to understand, interpret and apply religious and
moral concepts to their everyday life.
• a multi-faith approach to the study of religion which makes learners to be
aware of their respective religious identities in the context of Unhu/Ubuntu/
Vumunhu, religious plurality as well as promoting the value of family as a social
institution.
• simple language to enhance understanding.
• attractive illustrations that reinforce concepts being taught.
• thorough revision exercises at the end of every unit, chapter and follow
up examinations meant to evaluate the extent to which taught skills and
knowledge have been understood.

Approved by the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education

Wilson Zivave

d Religious Studies.Form 4indd.indd 1 06-Feb-19 8:35:47 AM