ECON 500 PS 1 Solutions

September 23, 2022

Problem 2. The proof relies on two claims that are stated and proved below.

Claim 1. For arbitrary partial order R and two elements a, b ∈ X such

that aRb and bRa there exists a partial order R′ such that R ⊆ R′ and a R′
b.
Proof. Let A = {x | xRa} and B = {x | bRx}. Define, R′ = R ∪ (A × B).
Note, that A ∩ B = ∅ as otherwise aRb from transitivity of R. Also, since
R is reflexive, a ∈ A and b ∈ B. Hence, (a, b) ∈ R′ . Hence, we left to show
that R′ is a partial order.
First thing to prove is that R′ is antisymmetric. Suppose, that x, y ∈ X
are such that xR′ y and yR′ x. Then either xRy or (x, y) ∈ A × B. Similarly,
yRx or (y, x) ∈ A × B. These gives four cases to consider. If xRy and yRx
then x = y. The case (x, y) ∈ A × B and (y, x) ∈ A × B is impossible as
A ∩ B = ∅. If xRy and (y, x) ∈ A × B then yRa and by transitivity of R, xRa
implying that x ∈ A ∩ B, a contradiction. The last case could be considered
similarly.
Second, I will prove that R′ is transitive. Suppose, that x, y, z ∈ X are
such that xR′ y and yR′ z. Then either xRy or (x, y) ∈ A × B. Similarly, yRz
or (y, z) ∈ A × B. Similarly to above, case (x, y) ∈ A × B and (y, z) ∈ A × B
is impossible. Hence, we left with three cases. If xRy and yRz then xRz by
transitivity of R and thus, xR′ z. If xRy and (y, z) ∈ A × B then yRa and
by transitivity of R, xRa. Hence, x ∈ A and z ∈ B implying xR′ z. The last
case could be considered similarly.

Claim 2. For arbitrary partial order R and two elements a, b ∈ X such that
aRb and bRa there exists an order R′ such that R ⊆ R′ and aR′ b.

1
Proof. The proof follows by finite number of applications of claim 1.
Let R be a set that contains all orders R′ such that R ⊆ R′ . Since X is
a finite set, R is also a finite set. Let, for concreteness, R = {R1 , . . . , Rn }.
Since, for each Ri R ⊆ Ri , R ⊆ ∩ni=1 Ri . Suppose, by contrary, that ∩ni=1 Ri is
not a subset of R. Then there exists (a, b) ∈ ∩ni=1 Ri such that aRb. Note,
that bRa as otherwise bRa implies bRi a for all i and we get a contradiction
with Ri be anti symmetric. Then according to claim 2 there exists an order
R′ ∈ R such that (b, a) ∈ R′ . The latest, however, contradicts to (a, b) ∈ R′ .

Problem 3.
Proof. Let, without loss of generality, X = {1, 2, . . . , m} for some m ∈ N.
For any pair (i, j) such that iT j define A = X\{i, j} and relations R1ij and
R2ij in such a way that they are both reflexive and for any x ̸= y, xR1ij y
iff [x = i and y = j] or [x ∈ {i, j} and y ∈ A] or [x, y ∈ A and x < y];
and xR2ij y iff [x = i and y = j] or [y ∈ {i, j} and x ∈ A] or [x, y ∈ A and
x > y]. It is easy to verify that R1ij and R2ij are orders on X. Finally, define
R = ∪ (R1ij ∪ R2ij ) where union is taken over all i, j such that iT j. Note,
that finiteness of X implies that R is finite. Then, M (R) = T as for all i, j
such that iT j, i is preferred to j by exactly 2 more relations among R.
Problem 4. I will first prove two claims that will be also used to prove
Problem 5.

Claim 3. tc(T ) = {x ∈ X | xT̄ y for all y ∈ X\{x}}

Proof. Denote A = {x ∈ X | xT̄ y for all y ∈ X\{x}}. It follows directly from
the definition of maximal element that A ⊆ tc(T ). Therefore, we only need
to show that tc(T ) ⊆ A. Take arbitrary x ∈ tc(T ) and arbitrary y ∈ X\{x}.
Since T is complete either xT y or yT x. If xT y then xT̄ y; if yT x then y T̄ x
and since x is a maximal element of T̄ , xT̄ y. Hence, we proved that for all
x ∈ tc(T ) and y ∈ X\{x}, xT̄ y. Therefore, tc(T ) ⊆ A.

Claim 4. If x ∈ tc(T ) and yT x then y ∈ tc(T ).

Proof. Suppose x and y are elements of X such that x ∈ tc(T ) and yT x.
Note, that yT x implies that y T̄ x. According to Claim 3 it is enough to show
that y ∈ A, where A is defined in the proof of Claim 3. Take arbitrary

2
z ∈ X\{y}. If z = x then y T̄ z. Suppose, z ̸= x. Then x ∈ A implies that
xT z and so, xT̄ z. Since T̄ is transitive [y T̄ x and xT̄ z] implies that y T̄ z.
Hence, we proved that for all z ∈ X\{y}, y T̄ z. Therefore, y ∈ A.
I will say that nonempty set Y ⊆ X satisfies property (∗) if: xT y for all
x ∈ Y and all y ∈ X\Y . Finiteness of X, transitivity and completeness of
T̄ together implies that tc(T ) is nonempty. To prove that tc(T ) is a minimal
set that satisfies property (∗) we need to show that tc(T ) satisfies property
(∗) and that any nonempty set Y that satisfies property (∗) contains tc(T ).
First, I will show that tc(T ) satisfies property (∗). Suppose, by contrary,
that there exist x ∈ tc(T ) and y ∈ X\tc(T ) such that xT y. Since T is
complete yT x. Then according to Claim 4, y ∈ tc(T ). We get a contradiction
with y ∈ X\tc(T ). Hence, tc(T ) satisfies property (∗).
Second, I will show that any nonempty set Y that satisfies property (∗)
contains tc(T ). Let, A = tc(T ) ∩ Y and B = tc(T )\Y . Suppose, by contrary,
that set B is nonempty. Then property (∗) implies that for any elements
x ∈ Y and y ∈ B, xT y. Then Claim 4 implies that x ∈ A and hence, A
is nonempty. Take arbitrary elements x ∈ A and y ∈ B. Then, according
to Claim 3y T̄ x. By definition of transitive closure, there exists sequence of
elements y = x1 , . . . , xm = x such that x1 T x2 , . . . , xm−1 T xm . According to
Claim 4, xi ∈ tc(T ) for all i ∈ 1, m. Then, since y ∈ B and x ∈ A there
necessary exist two elements xi ∈ B and xi+1 ∈ A such that xi T xi+1 . Recall,
that also xi+1 T xi (xi+1 ∈ Y and xi ∈/ Y ) which combining with xi T xi+1 leads
to contradiction with T be asymmetric.
Hence, we proved that tc(T ) is a non-empty minimal set that satisfies
property (∗ ).

Problem 5.
Proof. Since c is a maximal element of T, c is also a maximal element of T̄ .
Hence, c ∈ tc(T ). Suppose, by contrary, that there exists x ∈ tc(T ) such
that x ̸= c. Using Claim 3 we have that xT̄ c. By definition of a transitive
closure, there exists a sequence of elements x = x1 , . . . , xm = c such that
x1 T x2 , . . . , xm−1 T c. Since T is assymetric, cT xm−1 . We get a contradiction
with c be a Condorcet winner in X.