HRE

DESIGNING THE
HIGHWAY:

VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
TOPIC OUTLINE:
• Description of Vertical Alignment
• Gradient (Max and Minimum)
• Critical Length of Grade for Design
• Vertical Curves
• Climbing Lanes
• Sight Distances
• Consideration in designing Vertical
Alignment
 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

Highways shou ld be designed to encourage

unifor m operation thro ughout. Use of a selected
design speed is a means toward this end by the
correlation of various geometric features of t he
highw ay . Design values have been determined and
agreed upon for many highw ay features but few
conclusions have been reached on roadway grades
in relation to design speed . Vehicle operating
characteristics on grades and established
relationships of grades and their lengths to design
speed are discussed in this section .
 GRADIENT
The Phili ppine Natio nal Roads (PNRs) have a
rule reducing the max imum grade on sharp curves
by 0.1% for every degree over 6 degrees, and 7%
grades for tangents or curves o f less than 1 degree .
Grades exceeding these limits require permission
from the Secretary of Public Works & Highways .
Rolling grades to avoid heavy earthwork is
allowed with proper sight d istances . Adverse
grades should be avo ided on long climbs to
secure alignment and reduce excavation . Grades
should be established 0.50m above maximum
water level in inundation areas, above pipe
culver ts by 0.60m, and allo w 1.5 0m free board
above flood water elevations for debris streams .
 MAXIMUM GRADES
Maximum grades of 5% are considered
appropriate for a design speed of 110 kph. For a
design speed of 50 kph maximum grades are
generally in the range of 7 to 12%, depending on
topography. In the Philippines the maximum
grade widely used is 6%.
 MINIMUM GRADES
On through cut secti ons gr ades should be at least
0.5 0% to provide longi tudi nal dr ai nage. On
curved pavements a minimum of 0.30% may be
used on high type pavements and ac c ur ately
c r owned to facilitate dr ai nage. Flat or level gr ades
may be used on unc ur bed hi ghw ays w hi c h have
adequate crown for later al dr ai nage on hi gh fi lls.
 CRITICAL LENGTHS OF GRADE
FOR DESIGN

This is the maximum length upgrade wherein

a loaded truck can negotiate without
un reasonable reduction in speed . This critical
grade length is determined from a load ed
truck which will effect a reduction in speed of
2 5 kph belo w the averag e running speed. The
c ritical lengths of upg rad es in Table 3-33
when approached by a level section should
not be used as a control but should be
referred to as a g uid e.
VERTICAL CURVES

All in tersections of grad e tan gen ts shall be

conn ected by parabol ic ve rtical cu rve . The se
parabol ic vertical cu rves may eith e r be sy mmetrical
or unsymmetrical cu rves, al thou gh th e latter sh ou ld
be avoid ed when eve r possible . V e rtical parabol ic
curves should provid e ad equate sigh t d istance,
saf ety, comfort, g ood d rainage and pleasin g
appearance .
 VERTICAL CURVES

The r equir ed length of vertical cur ve to satisfy the r equir ements of minimum
stopping sight distance, comfor t and appear ance, should not be shorter than

L = KA
wher e:
L = length of vertical curve in meter s
A = algebr aic difference of grades in per cent
K = cor r esponding constant for var ying design speed, r efer Table 3 - 34

The minimum requirement of vertical curve length without considering a K value is

60 m.
CREST VERTICAL CURVES
The ma jo r design control for cr e st v ertic al cu rves is the provision o f ample sight distances f o r th e
design speed – r efe r to Section 3.6. 1. 1. Whereve r p r actical, longer stopping sight distances sh o uld b e
used, particularly a t decision points .
The bas ic eq uati ons for l ength o f a c re st v ertical c u rve in t er ms o f algebrai c diff er e nce in gr ade an d
sight distance fo llow :

When S is less than L, When S is greater than L,

L = A S2 / (100 ( (2 h1) 1/2 + (2 h2 ) 1/2 ) 2 L = 2 S – (200 (h1 1/2 + h2 1/2 ) 2 / A)
where :
L = length o f v ertical curve, m
A = algebraic difference in grade, %
S = sight distance, m
h1 = height o f eye above roadway surface, m
h2 = height o f o bject above roadway surfac e, m

When th e height o f ey e and the height of object are 1 .08 m and 0 .60 m re spectivel y, as us e d for
sto pping sight distance, the above equations become :

When S is less than L, When S is greater than L,

L = A S2 / 658 L = 2 S – (658 / A)
CREST VERTICAL CURVES

Table 3- 35 sho ws the comp uted K value s for leng ths o f v ertic al c u rves co rr espo nding to v ario u s
sto pping sight distances for each design speed . R ounded values o f K are sho wn in the right
co lumn fo r use in design .
CREST VERTICAL CURVES

Wh ere S i s grea ter than L, min imum len gths of

ve rti ca l c urve s in meters a re expr essed a s 0.6
ti me s th e de si g n spe e d i n kph .
De si gn va lue s of c re st vertica l c urves f or pa ssin g
si g ht di sta n ce differ f r om those f or stoppin g
si g ht di sta n ce because of the different sight
di stan ce a nd object height c riter ia . Using 1. 08
m f or th e hei ght of objec t results in the
f ol l owi n g spe c i f i c f or mula s :

When S is less than L, When S is grea ter than

L,
L = A S2 / 86 4 L = 2 S – ( 864 / A)

For the spe c if i c c a se s of loca l r ura l r oa ds a nd

r ural collector roads, Table 3-36 pr e se nts K
va l ue s f or stoppi n g sight dista n ce on both crest
a n d sa g v e r ti c al c ur v es .
CREST VERTICAL CURVES

Table 3- 37 sho ws the comput e d K value s for passing sight distance c o ntro l . G enerall y it i s
impr acti cal to design cres t vertical cu rves t hat provide sight distance beca us e o f the difficult y o f
fitting the resulting long vertical curves to the terrain and high cost where crest cuts are inv o lv ed .
 SAG VERTICAL CURVES

F or s a g verti c al cur ves, t he f ollowi ng crite r ia ca n be used f or esta blis hi ng t he le ngt hs of

sag ver tical curves ; (1 ) headli ght s ight dist ance, (2) pass enger comfort , (3) draina ge
control, a nd (4 ) genera l a ppea ra nce . While e ach of thes e cri teria a r e r eleva nt , he a dli g ht
sight distance is the rational basis recomme nded .
W hen a ve hi cle tra ve rses a s ag verti ca l cur ve at ni g ht , t he port ion of hi g hway lig hted
ahead is de pe ndent on t he posit ion of t he head li g hts a nd t he dir e cti on of the li g ht bea m.
A headlight hei ght of 0.60 m a nd a 1- degree upward d iver ge nce of t he li ght bea m fro m
the longit ud i nal axis of the vehicle ar e commonly ass umed . T he f ollowing eq uati ons show
the relationshi ps between S, L and A:

When S is less than L, When S is greater than L,

L = A S2 / (120 + 3.5S) L = 2 S – ((120 + 3.5S) / A)
where :
L = length of sag of vertical curve, m
A = algebrai c difference in grades, %
S = light beam distance, m
SAG VERTICAL CURVES

For drivers t o see the roadway ahead, a

sag vertical curve should be long e nough
that the light be am distance is
approximately the same as the st oppi ng
sight distance . Table 3 -3 8 shows t he
range of computed values and the
rounded values of K se le cted as design
controls . T hese le ngths are mi ni mum
values based on t he de sign spee d ; longe r
curves are desirable whe re ve r practi cal,
but spe ci al attenti on to drai nage should
be exercised whe re v alue s of K i n e xce ss
of 5 1 m per pe rce nt change in grade are
used .
 CLIMBING LANE

For Two-Lane Highways

• Freedom and safety of operation on two -lane highways, besides being influenced by the extent
and frequency of passing sections, are adversely affected by heavily loaded vehicle traffic
operating on grades of sufficient length to result in speeds that could impede following traffic.
In such cases the addition of climbing lanes improves operations on upgrades and reduces
crash potential .

The following three criteria, reflecting economic considerations, should be satisfied to justify a
clim bing lane :
• Upgrade traffic flow rate in excess of 200 vehicles per hour,
• Upgrade truck flow rate in excess of 20 vehicles per hour, and
• One of the following conditions exists :
• A 15 kph or greater speed reduction i s expected for a typical heavy truck,
• Level of service E or F exists on the grade (refer to Table 2 -1), or
• A reduction of two or more levels of service is experienced when moving from the approach
segment to the grade .
 CLIMBING LANE

For Multi -Lane Highways

• Climbing lanes are generally not as easily justified on multilane facilities as
on two -way highways, because on two -lane facilities vehicles following other
slower moving vehicles on upgrades are frequently prevented from passing in
the adjacent traffic lane by opposing traffic. On multilane facilities there is
no such impediment to passing. Because highways are normally designed for
20 years or more in the future, there is less likelihood that climbing lanes will
be justified on multilane facilities than on two -lane roads for several years
after construction, even though they are deemed desirable for the peak hours
of the design year. Where this is the case, there is economic advantage in
designing for, but deferring construction of, climbing lanes on multilane
facilities. In this situation, grading for the future climbing lane should be
provided initially.
 SIGHT DISTANCE

Ability to see ahead is of the utmost importance in the safe and efficient operation of the
highway. Sight distance in the road design is the distance at which a driver of a vehicle can see
an object of specified height on the road ahead, assuming adequate sight and visual acuity
and clear atmospheric conditions.
The sight distance to be provided should be as great as practicable and be not less than
the distances required for certain selected maneuvers – refer to the warrants given in the
DPWH May 2012 Highway Safety Design Standards. Designers are BORCELLE
encouraged to calculate and
report the percentage of road length where the sight distance is adequate for safe overtaking
as a useful design safety indicator
STOPPING (NON-PASSING) SIGHT DISTANCE

The design stopping sight distance is the minimum distance required for a vehicle,
travelling at the design speed, to stop before reaching an object in its path. It is the sum of
the distance travelled during perception, brake reaction time, and the distance travelled
while breaking to a stop on wet pavements. The sight distance at every point of a highway
should be as long as possible.
Minimum stopping sight distance is the sum of two distances; one, the distance
BORCELLE
traversed by a vehicle from the instant the driver sights an object for which a stop is
necessary, to the instant the brakes are applied; and the other, the distance required to
stop the vehicle after the brake application begins.
STOPPING (NON-PASSING) SIGHT DISTANCE
The calculated minimum stopping sight distance for various assumed speeds is developed in Table 3-8,
while Table 3-9 provides minimum stopping sight distances on grades.
For purpose of design, wet conditions govern in determining stopping sight distances due to the lower
coefficients of friction on wet pavements compared to dry pavements.

BORCELLE
DECISION SIGHT DISTANCE

Decision sight distance is the distance needed for a driver to detect an unexpected or
otherwise difficult-to-perceive information source or condition in a roadway
environment that may be visually cluttered, recognize the condition or its potential
threat, select an appropriate speed and path, and initiate and complete complex
maneuvers. Because decision sight distance offers drivers additional margin for error
and affords sufficient length to maneuver at reduced speed, BORCELLE
its values are substantially
greater than stopping sight distance.
DECISION SIGHT DISTANCE

The decision sight distances in Table 3-10

may be used to provide values for sight
distances that may be appropriate at
critical locations, and serve as criteria in
evaluating the suitability of the available
sight distances at these locations. If it is
not practical to provide decision sight BORCELLE

distance because of horizontal or vertical

curvature, or if relocation of decision
points is not practical, special attention
should be given to the use of suitable
traffic control devices for providing
advance warning of the conditions that
are likely to be encountered.
PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE
Design passing sight distance is the minimum distance required to safely make a
normal passing maneuver on 2-lane highways at passing speeds common to nearly all
drivers, commensurate with design speed.
The minimum passing sight distance for a 2-lane highway is determined as the sum
of four distances:
• Initial maneuver distance is the distance traversed during perception and reaction
time and during the initial acceleration to the point of encroachment on the left
lane. BORCELLE

• Distance travelled while the passing vehicle occupies the left lane.
• Distance between the passing vehicle at the end of its maneuver and the opposing
vehicle.
• Distance traversed by an opposing vehicle for two-thirds of the time the passing
vehicle occupies the left lane, or 2/3 of the distance travelled while the passing
vehicle occupies the left lane.
PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE
Appreciable grades increase the sight distance
required for safe passing. The sight distance
required to permit a vehicle travelling upgrade
to pass with safety is greater than that required
on a level road. This is due to reduced
acceleration of the passing vehicle, which
increases the time of passing, and due to the
likelihood of opposing traffic speeding up
BORCELLE
increasing the distance travelled by it. For
passing to be performed safely on upgrades, the
passing sight distance should be greater than
the minimum. The designer should recognize
the desirability of increasing the minimum
shown in Table 3-11, which is sufficient for a single
or isolated pass only
HEADLIGHT SIGHT DISTANCE
For night driving on highways without lighting, the length of visible roadway is that
roadway that is directly illuminated by the headlights of the vehicle. For certain conditions
the minimum stopping sight distance values used for design can exceed the length of
visible roadway.
First, vehicle headlights have limitations on the distance over which they can project the
light intensity levels needed for visibility, particularly on low beam. Second, sight distance
is limited where there are horizontal and vertical alignment curves.
There is some mitigating effect in that other vehicles provide warning
BORCELLE illumination via
their headlights and taillights. Furthermore, drivers are aware that visibility at night is less
than during the day, and they may therefore be more attentive and alert.

Vertical Control for Stopping – A height of object of 0.15 m is assumed for measuring
stopping sight distance on crest profiles.
CONSIDERATION IN DESIGNING
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

In ad dition to specific controls for vertical alignment, there

are sev eral g en eral controls t o b e considered in the d esig n :

• A smooth grade line with gradual chang es, consistent

with the type or class of highway, road or street, and the
character of terrain is preferred to a line with numerous
breaks an d short lengths of grade. Specific design criteria
are the maximum grade and critical length of grade, but
the manner in which they are applied and fitted to the
terrain on a continuous line determines the suitability and
appearanc e o f the end resu lt.
• The ‘ro ller coaster’ or ‘hidd en dip’ type of profile should
be avoid ed by using gradual grades mad e possible by
heavier cuts and fills, or by introducing some horizontal
curvature o n relatively straight sections
CONSIDERATION IN DESIGNING
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

• Undula t ing gra de lines , involving subs tantial lengths of

momentum grades, s hould be appra ised for their
effect u pon tra ffic opera tion s ince they ma y resul t in
undesirably high downgrade speeds of trucks.
• A broken -back grade line (two vertical curves in the
same direction sepa ra ted by a short s ection of tangent
grad e) general ly should be avoided, part icularly on
sags.
• On long grades, it is pref era ble to place the steepes t
grad es at the bottom and to flatten the grades near
the ascent, or to break a susta ined grad e by short
interv als of flatter grade instea d of pro viding a uniform
sustained gra de tha t is only slightly below the
recommended maximum . This is particula rly
applicable to low design speed highways .
CONSIDERATION IN DESIGNING
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

• Where at -gr ade intersections occur o n highway

sections with moderate to steep gra des, it is desirable
to reduce the gradient through the intersection .
• Sag vertical c urves should be avoided in cuts unless
adequate drainage can be provided .
• Climbing lanes should be considered where the critical
length of grad e is exceeded and the Design Hourly
Volume (DHV) exceeds the design capa city on the
grade by 20% in the case of 2-lane roads or by 30% in
the case of multilane roads .
THANK YOU
-THE END-