Business Communication

IPMZ
DIPLOMA
BUSINESS
COMMUNICATION
MODULE
Course Design Length : 200 hours
© THE INSTITUTE OF PEOPLE MANAGEMENT OF ZIMBABWE 2017
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Study Guide……………………………………………………………………………………….. 10
CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS COMMUNICATION………………….. 13
1.0 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………… 14
1.1 Definition of Communication………………………………………………………………. 15
1.2 Business Communication Defined………………………………………………………….. 15
1.3 Why is it important for you to study the Business Communication Course?......................... 16
1.4 Why is Business Communication important to the organisation?.......................................... 17
1.5 Summary ……………………………………………………………………………………. 17
1.6 Chapter Revision Questions ………………………………………………………………... 18
CHAPTER 2 : COMMUNICATION MODELS……………………………………………… 19
2.0 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………… 20
2.1 A Model……………………………………………………………………………………... 21
2.2 The Linear Model (Harold D. Laswell 1948)………………………………………………. 21
2.3 The Interactive Model………………………………………………………………………. 22
2.4 The Transactional Model…………………………………………………………………… 23
2.5 The Shannon Weaver Model………………………………………………………………... 24
2.6 A Theory…………………………………………………………………………………….. 26
2.7 Summary…………………………………………………………………………………….. 26
2.8 Chapter Revision Questions………………………………………………………………… 27
CHAPTER 3 : DIFFERENT FORMS OF COMMUNICATION INORGANISATIONS… 28
3.0 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………… 29
3.1 Forms of communication……………………………………………………………………. 29
3.1.1 The Oral Form of Communication………………………………………………….. 29
3.1.2 Characteristics of Oral Communication…………………………………………….. 30
3.1.3 Strengths of Oral communication include the following……………………………. 30
3.1.4 Weakness of Oral Communication………………………………………………….. 31
3.2 Written Communication…………………………………………………………………….. 31
3.2.1 Advantages of Written Communication…………………………………………….. 32
3.2.2 Disadvantages of Written Communication………………………………………….. 33
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3.3 Visual Communication……………………………………………………………………… 35
3.3.1 Advantages of Visual Communication……………………………………………… 35
3.3.2 Disadvantage of non-verbal Communication……………………………………….. 36
3.4 Non-verbal Communication………………………………………………………………… 37
3.4.1 Advantages of using non-verbal Communication…………………………………… 37
3.4.2 Disadvantages of non-verbal Communication………………………………………. 38
3.5 Summary…………………………………………………………………………………….. 39
CHAPTER 4 : GROUP COMMUNICATION……………………………………………….. 40
4.0 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………….. 41
4.1 Group Communication……………………………………………………………………. 41
4.2 Roles in a Group…………………………………………………………………………… 42
4.3 Pattern of Communication in a Group…………………………………………………….. 43
4.3.1 Top-Down Communication…………………………………………………… 43
4.3.2 Challenges associated with top down communication………………………... 44
4.3.3 Vertical Communication Upwards……………………………………………. 44
4.4 Ways of promoting Upward Communication……………………………………………... 45
4.5 Problems related to Vertical Communication……………………………………………... 45
4.6 Horizontal Type of Communication………………………………………………………. 45
4.7 Diagonal Communication…………………………………………………………………. 46
4.8 Disadvantages of Diagonal Communication………………………………………………. 46
4.9 Informal Communication………………………………………………………………….. 47
4.10 Intrapersonal Communication……………………………………………………………... 48
4.11 Interpersonal Communication……………………………………………………………... 49
4.12 Mass Communication……………………………………………………………………… 49
4.13 Influence of Group Culture on Communication…………………………………………… 50
4.14 Intercultural Communication………………………………………………………………. 50
4.14.1 Departmental Culture………………………………………………………….. 50
4.14.2 Power Culture…………………………………………………………………. 51
4.15 Task Culture……………………………………………………………………………….. 51
4.16 Person Culture……………………………………………………………………………..... 51
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4.17 Summary…………………………………………………………………………………….. 52
4.18 Chapter Revision Questions…………………………………………………………………. 52
CHAPTER 5 : BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION………………………………………… 53
5.0 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………..... 54
5.1 Definition of a Communication Barrier …………………………………………………….. 54
5.2 Sender Related Barriers……………………………………………………………………… 54
5.3 Message Related Barriers……………………………………………………………………. 55
5.4 Receiver Related Barriers……………………………………………………………………. 55
5.5 Verbal Barriers………………………………………………………………………………. 55
5.6 Non Verbal Barriers………………………………………………………………………… 55
5.7 Overcoming Communication Barriers………………………………………………………. 56
5.8 Summary……………………………………………………………………………………... 57
5.9 Chapter Revision Questions……………………………………………………………….... 58
CHAPTER 6 : CONFLICT IN ORGANISATIONS…………………………………………… 59
6.0 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………..... 60
6.1 Definition of Conflict………………………………………………………………………... 60
6.2 Types of Conflict…………………………………………………………………………….. 60
6.2.1 The Displaced Conflict…………………………………………………………….. 62
6.2.2 Lack of Compatibility of Goals…………………………………………………..... 62
6.2.3 Poor Leadership skills……………………………………………………………… 62
6.2.4 Power Struggles…………………………………………………………………..... 62
6.3 Types of Conflicts ………………………………………………………………………….. 63
6.3.1 The Displaced Conflict…………………………………………………………….. 63
6.3.2 Contingent Conflict………………………………………………………………... 63
6.3.3 Manifest Conflict…………………………………………………………………... 63
6.3.4 Veridical Conflict………………………………………………………………….. 64
6.3.5 Misattributed Conflict……………………………………………………………… 64
6.3.6 False Conflict……………………………………………………………………... 65
6.4 Conflict Resolution…………………………………………………………………………. 65
6.4.1 Arbitration………………………………………………………………………… 68
6.4.2 Adjudication……………………………………………………………………….. 69
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6.4.3 Negotiation………………………………………………………………………… 69
6.5 Summary……………………………………………………………………………………. 70
CHAPTER 7 : THE BUSINESS LETTER, MEMORANDUM, CIRCULAR, NOTICE……. 72
7.0 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………… 72
7.1 The Business Letter…………………………………………………………………………. 72
7.1.1 The Significance of a Business Letter…………………………………………….. 72
7.1.2 Features of a Business Letter……………………………………………………… 74
7.1.3 Sample Business Letter……………………………………………………………. 75
7.2 Task…………………………………………………………………………………………. 75
7.3 Memorandum………………………………………………………………………………... 76
7.3.1 Transport Assistance to all Workers from 01 June 2017………………………….. 78
7.3.2 Use of Social Media During Working Hours and its Effect………………………. 79
7.3.3 Disadvantages of the Memo……………………………………………………….. 79
7.4 Circular……………………………………………………………………………………… 79
7.4.1 Advantages of Using a Circular…………………………………………………… 80
7.4.2 Disadvantages of using a Circular………………………………………………… 81
7.4.3 Notice……………………………………………………………………………… 81
7.4.4 Notice of a Meeting……………………………………………………………….. 82
7.5 Summary……………………………………………………………………………………. 84
CHAPTER 8 : ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION………………………………………… 85
8.0 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………… 86
8.1 Definition of Electronic Communication…………………………………………………… 86
8.2 Importance of E-communication……………………………………………………………. 87
8.3 What is a Computer? .............................................................................................................. 88
8.3.1 Computer Networking…………………………………………………………….. 89
8.4 Local Area Network and Wide Area Network (LAN)……………………………………… 90
8.5 Wide Area Network (WAN)………………………………………………………………… 90
8.6 Internet………………………………………………………………………………………. 91
8.7 E-Mail……………………………………………………………………………………….. 92
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8.7.1 How the E-mail is used in Business Communication…………………………….. 92
8.7.2 Strengths of using the e-mail……………………………………………………… 93
8.7.3 Weaknesses of using the e-mail…………………………………………………… 94
8.8 Text Messaging……………………………………………………………………………… 94
8.8.1 Advantages of Text Messaging……………………………………………………. 94
8.8.2 Disadvantages of Text Messaging………………………………………………… 95
8.9 Instant Messaging…………………………………………………………………………… 95
8.10 Advantages of Instant Messaging…………………………………………………………… 96
8.11 Disadvantages of Instant Messaging………………………………………………………... 96
8.12 Myspace……………………………………………………………………………………… 96
8.13 Twitter……………………………………………………………………………………….. 97
8.14 The Skype……………………………………………………………………………………. 98
8.15 WhatsApp……………………………………………………………………………………. 98
8.16 Disadvantages of WhatsApp………………………………………………………………… 99
8.17 Laptop……………………………………………………………………………………….. 99
8.18 Smartphone…………………………………………………………………………………... 100
8.18.1 Advantages of the Smartphone…………………………………………………….. 100
8.19 Virtual Communication……………………………………………………………………… 102
8.20 Computer Virus……………………………………………………………………………… 102
8.21 Complications that come with the computer viruses………………………………………… 103
8.22 The Search Engine…………………………………………………………………………… 104
8.23 Telephone Communication………………………………………………………………….. 104
8.24 The Telephone System………………………………………………………………………. 104
8.25 Digital Lines…………………………………………………………………………………. 105
8.26 The Importance of Using the Telephone in Business………………………………………... 105
8.27 Disadvantages of the Telephone……………………………………………………………... 106
8.28 Summary……………………………………………………………………………………... 106
CHAPTER 9 : REPORT WRITING……………………………………………………………. 108
9.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………. 109
9.2 Definition of a Report……………………………………………………………………….. 109
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9.3 The Purpose of a Report…………………………………………………………………….. 110
9.4 Types of Reports…………………………………………………………………………….. 110
9.5 The Formal Report…………………………………………………………………………... 111
9.6 Informational Report………………………………………………………………………… 111
9.7 Analytical Report……………………………………………………………………………. 111
9.8 Recommendation Reports…………………………………………………………………… 112
9.9 Report Writing……………………………………………………………………………….. 112
9.10 Types of Reports…………………………………………………………………………….. 113
9.11 The Report Format…………………………………………………………………………... 113
9.12 Sample of a Report on an Accident at an Organisation…………………………………….. 114
9.13 Importance of Report Writing in organisations……………………………………………… 115
9.14 The Media Report……………………………………………………………………………. 116
9.15 Summary……………………………………………………………………………………... 117
9.16 Chapter Revision Questions…………………………………………………………………. 118
CHAPTER 10 : MEETINGS…………………………………………………………………….. 119
10.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………... 120
10.2 Definition of a meeting……………………………………………………………………... 120
10.3 Purpose of a meeting……………………………………………………………………….. 120
10.4 Types of Meetings………………………………………………………………………….. 121
10.5 The Decision Making meeting……………………………………………………………... 121
10.6 Innovation Meeting………………………………………………………………………… 122
10.7 Information sharing meetings………………………………………………………………. 122
10.8 Status Update meeting……………………………………………………………………… 122
10.9 Team Building……………………………………………………………………………… 123
10.10 Related Terms used in meetings……………………………………………………………. 124
10.11 Teleconferencing…………………………………………………………………………… 127
10.12 Summary…………………………………………………………………………………… 127
10.13 Chapter Revision Questions……………………………………………………………….. 128
CHAPTER 11: WORKSHOPS, PRESENTATIONS AND RELEASE……………………… 129
11.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………... 130
11.2 Definition of A Workshop…………………………………………………………………. 130
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11.3 Different Types of Workshop……………………………………………………………… 130
11.4 Training Workshop…………………………………………………………………………. 130
11.5 Purpose of Planning Workshop…………………………………………………………….. 132
11.6 How to runs a Planning Workshop…………………………………………………………. 132
11.7 A Stakeholder’s Workshop………………………………………………………………… 132
11.8 How to run a Planning Workshop………………………………………………………….. 133
11.9 Preparations for Workshops………………………………………………………………... 133
11.10 Summary…………………………………………………………………………………… 134
11.11 Chapter Revision Questions……………………………………………………………….. 134
CHAPTER 12 : PRESENTATIONS AND PRESS RELEASE………………………………... 135
12.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………… 135
12.2 Definition of a Presentation………………………………………………………………… 135
12.3 Why are presentations done?................................................................................................. 135
12.4 The Topic or Subject of the Presentation…………………………………………………... 137
12.5 The Audience or Addresses of the Presentation……………………………………………. 138
12.6 The Event i.e The Presentation…………………………………………………………...... 139
12.7 The Research around the Topic under Presentation……………………………………….. 139
12.8 The Writing of a Presentation……………………………………………………………… 140
12.9 How to Prepare for Presentation Opening………………………………………………….. 140
12.10 The Actual Presentation……………………………………………………………………. 141
12.11 What is an Interactive Board?................................................................................................ 143
12.12 A Press Release…………………………………………………………………………….. 143
12.13 Purpose of Press Release…………………………………………………………………... 143
12.14 How to make a Press Release………………………………………………………………. 144
12.15 What to avoid when writing a press release………………………………………………... 144
12.16 Summary…………………………………………………………………………………… 144
12.17 Chapter Revision Questions………………………………………………………………... 145
CHAPTER 13 : BUSINESS PROPOSAL………………………………………………………... 146
13.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………... 147
13.2 The Business Proposal……………………………………………………………………… 147
13.3 Informally solicited Proposal………………………………………………………………. 147
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13.4 Formally Solicited Proposal………………………………………………………………... 148
13.5 Developing a Business Proposal…………………………………………………………… 148
13.6 Writing a Business Proposal……………………………………………………………….. 148
13.7 Policy Documents…………………………………………………………………………... 149
13.7.1 What is a Policy Document? ……………………………………………………... 149
13.8 Summary…………………………………………………………………………………… 151
13.9 Chapter Revision Questions………………………………………………………………... 151
REFERENCES ……………………………………………………………………………………. 152
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BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
COURSE OBJECTIVES
By the end of the Course you will be able to:

1. Describe communication theories and models
2. Understand the importance of being an effective communicator in today’s changing work
place
3. Write a memorandum
4. Write different types of business letters
5. Write reports, policy documents and proposals
6. Write press releases
7. Develop effective business presentation skills
8. Communicate nonverbally effectively
9. Conduct successful business meetings
10. Effectively use social media in the work place
11. Communicate with the public and business partners via telephone communication
12. Build an understanding of different organisational cultures and business practices
13. Answer questions by applying acquired communication principles
STUDY GUIDE
Firstly, we would like to welcome you to this course and particularly to the “Business
Communication” module. We further congratulate you for taking this module, which covers
modern tools that every manager worth his or her salt must have.
Business communication plays a critical role in the achievement of business goals and
objectives. Usually institutions work in a team based environment where business
communication becomes the life blood of organisations. As employees and or workers take up
their tasks, their goals and values have to be aligned with the organisation’s mission and vision
hence communication skills play an important part as individuals relate to each other through the
reporting structures.Thus authority relationships rely on sound business communication skills
regardless of the sizes of the organisations whether large corporates or small organisations. This
module intends to equip you with the requisite skills that eventually lead to higher productivity,
improved work quality as well as financial gain across all departments.
Business communication has become increasingly important for all sizes of organisations in view
of globalization. Thus, to a large extent, organisations need to grow, and sustain their operations
and remain competitive on today’s volatilemarketplace. Top performers of an organisation
consistently provide high quality work, maintain high level of productivity and overcome
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obstacles or challenges if they have acquired sound communication skills. Today’s business
practitioners stand to be effective if they create an environment whose communication is well
set. Employees have to be trained in communication or else they may fail to meet organisational
goals. There is need to move away from haphazard communication.
A study of this nature ensures that organisations have ready, understanding and willing
workforce all the time. A background of well - developed communication systems provides an
effective platform for organisations to achieve their goals and compete on the market.
Literature
Berko, R.M. Wolvinad and wolvin, D.R. (1998) Communication: A Social and Career Focus. 7 th
Ed. Boston: Houghton. Miflin, Co.
Fielding, M. (1997) Effective Communication in Organisations; Preparing Messages that
Communicate. (2 nd Ed.)Kenwin: Juta and Co. Ltd.
Stoner, J.A.F. and Freeman (1989) Management 4th Ed. London; Prentice Hall.
Prescribed Books
Beach, D.S. (1990) Personnel: The Management of People at Work New York, MacMillan
Company.
Recommended Reading
Use of Prescribed books
We assume that most students would not be able to access the prescribed books and ensured the
module covers all the key information that is required for the student to pass the examination.
However students are recommended to purchase the prescribed book in order to fully
comprehend from an HR practitioner’s perspective, the complexities of systems delivery to
achieve real and lasting benefits from technology solutions.
In order for you to fully understand the subject, we encourage you to access the referenced
materials.
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Method of Study
This moduleis your primary learning resource. You may refer to the prescribed and reference
books in order to improve your knowledge and understanding of the material in the course and
enrich your learning experience. As business communication is in constant state of change, you
should attempt to remain up to date with the current developments regarding information that is
relevant to the HR service. You are encouraged to read journals (hard copy or on line) that cover
Business Communication as often as possible.
Review questions and exercises are given at the end of each Study Unit. These are meant to test
your understanding of the concepts covered in the module. In addition, the exercises are meant to
test your capability to apply the theoretical knowledge you have gained to real world scenarios.
Please attempt all the questions to test your understanding.
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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS COMMINUCATION
CHAPTER LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to:- Objectives are always framed in action
and behavioural verbs
1. Define business communication

2. Explain the purpose of studying business communication
3. Identify the different dimensions which business communication can take.
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
You are welcome to learn and understand the concept of business communication. You
are not going to study it in a vacuum. You need a bird’s eye view that gives a full
perception of Business Communication as one of the core areas covered eye view that
gives a full perception of Business Communication as one of the core areas covered in
Human Resources Management (HRM). The HRM function is multifaceted and is
generally a strategic and comprehensive approach to managing people and the workplace
culture and environment. In so doing it targets the organisation’s effectiveness and
efficiency. A further breakdown of the human resources function, highlights that it deals
with issues relating to compensation, recruitment and selection, safety health and
wellness, training, motivation and such other areas inclusive of communication.
It is from this background that Business Communication has gained momentum as it is

the lifeblood of organisations. (Stoner 1997). The art of communication directly sustains
business operations.
Organisational structures cannot be functional without lubrication of sound

communication skills. It is within the organisational structure that the element of a
reporting structure emerges. The reporting structure reflects on authority relationships
whereby every worker/employee knows whom to report to for the sake of accountability.
As the workers/employees take their tasks, communication skills become prerequisite.
Note that when the people work together they need to share and exchange information
within and outside the organisation for the benefit of the organisation. Communication is
also important during the promotion of products and services.
This chapter therefore focuses on helping you to define what business communication is
and to make you appreciate the need to study business communication. You can then
notice how organisations benefits from an environment where sound communication
skills dominate.
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1.1 DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION
The basic term, communication has been defined from various perspectives. Devito
(1986:61) defines communication as, “The process or act of transmitting a message from
a sender to a receiver, through the channel and with the interference of noise”Berko,
Wolvin and Wolvin (1998) In this case, the several authors have not been cited above
(1984) views communication as, “The unintentional or intentional, conscious or
unconscious process in which feelings and ideas are expressed as verbal and non-verbal
messages sent, received and comprehended.”Berko, Wolvin and Wolvin (1998).In this
case, the several authors have not been cited above (1984) views communication as, “The
unintentional or intentional, conscious or unconscious process in which feelings and ideas
are expressed as verbal and non-verbal messages sent, received and comprehended.”
From the given definitions communication meaning is shared and understood between
any parties summarily providing a link or connection which is the sender and the
receiver. There is also a deliberate exchange in facts, views, ideas or even emotions.
Communication is essentially a bridge between parties as there is an interchange of
meaning and commonness of interests and purpose.
1.2 BUSINESS COMMUNICATION DEFINED
Aqil (2011) defines business communication as, “The flow of information, perception
etc. either within a business organisation or outside the organisation among different
parties. Aqil (2011) adds that business communication embraces inside and external
communication. Within the organisation there is need to set goals and objectives allowing
organisational members to work towards a common goal. The objectives for example,
could target product quality, market dominance, employee satisfaction, customer
satisfaction and others. Again within the organisation there is need to make decisions and
implement them. As decisions are made, people do communicate as they talk, listen,
speak or write messages.
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Appraisals on employee performance is yet another internal platform where business
communication is required as well as when employers communicate with their
employees. This can be done through policies, memoranda and even notices.
Business communication also embraces the following aspects:-attending to customer

needs, negotiating with suppliers and financiers, passing of information to investors and
also dealing with compliance bodies like in the local scene; the City Council, the
Zimbabwe Nation Revenue Authority (ZIMRA) and National Social Security Authority
(NSSA.)
It is important to note the distinction between social communication and business

communication. Business communication is characterized by formality and that it
concentrates on promoting business interests ensuring that organisations are effective and
efficient. As such business communication is regarded as the lifeblood of organisations.
Business communication is summed up as by Aqil (2011) as giving of instructions by

those holding senior positions, evaluating of reports, giving directions to workers at the
operational level, orienting new workers through familiarization as well as influencing
the staff.
1.3 WHY IS IT IMPORTANT FOR YOU TO STUDY THE BUSINESS

COMMUNICATION COURSE?
As a human resources practitioner, you should be an effective communicator who is able

to manage workers/employees despite their differences and indeed increase productivity
as well as offer quality service delivery.With business communication skills you excel in
team building, collaboration, problem solving, critical thinking, analysis and synthesis of
ideas and you eventually become an influential human resources practitioner.
The writing, speaking, listening and reading skills give a powerful background to your
ability to effective delivery of service. After acquiring business communication skills,
one becomes a professional communicator who is ready to meet the demanding
challenges of today’s businessworld.
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1.4 WHY IS BUSINESS COMMUNICATION IMPORTANT TO THE
ORGANISATION?
Organisations are deliberately set in order to purse their intentions in business. Bitner,
Egon (1965:175) reiterates that organisations are stable associations of persons engaged
on concerted activities directed to the achievement of specific objectives. As the people
engage in activities they rely on communication which has to be clear on all parties in
order to avoid misconceptions or misinterpretations which may even degenerate into
unnecessary conflict. To a given extend, the way people communicate can influence the
level of their commitment to work.
High engagement to the organisation reflects good working relationships among staff or
between management and staff and the clientele which is a product of good business
communication systems.While on the other end, poor communication skills affect
production or service delivery because of misconceptions, misinterpretations and possibly
negative attitudes.
The emergence of globalization seeks to increase connectivity in the business world and
it is through the study of such a course that the organisation becomes competitive on the
market.Berko, Wolvin and Wolvin (1998) concur that, studyingbusiness communication
helps professionals to understand cross cultures and how they impact on work.
Fororganisations to survive today, they need a paradigm shift from the traditional means
of communication to the more modern ones making today’s organisations relevant to the
demands of the 21st Century.
Summarily today’s employers impress upon hiring employees with advanced business
communication skills who assist in grabbing of new business opportunities on the globe.
Sound business communication is required in organisations if they have to survive the
competition.
1.5 SUMMARY
You have been introduced to business communication. The world has become a global
village where communication systems facilitate business activities, hence it has become
an important skills development area. Summarily this chapter helped you to a) define
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business communication b) to appreciate why business communication is important for
an organisation. The next chapter unveils the complexity that comes with the models of
communication and how they help to sustain business operations.
1.6 CHAPTER REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Define communication
2. Define business communication.
3. Explain why it is important for you study business communication.
4. Explain why it is important for organisations to have sound communication patterns.
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CHAPTER 2: COMMUNICATION MODELS
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
Upon the completion of this chapter, you will be able to:
1. Explain the communication process
2. Identify a few of the communication theories and or models

3. Apply the various models on how communication should take place within and outside
the workplace.
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2.0 INTRODUCTION
Communication takes place, through a defined process which basically looks at the
various channels that are a determinant of the level of effectiveness. Fiske (1992) concurs
that a communication process focuses on channels of communication and their
effectiveness Adler and Towne (1978) posit that the communication process begins with
at least two people when one wants to communicate with the other. It begins with mental
images that include ideas, thoughts, pictures and emotions. The person who desires to
communicate is called the sender, who translates the message into symbols that the
receiver can understand. The process of translating images into symbols that the receiver
can understand is called encoding. Once a message has been encoded it is transmitted to
the receiver. There are various ways that the message can be sent. It can be in a written,
verbal or visual or non-verbal manner.
Once a message is received by another party Adler and Towne (1978) add that decoding
takes place. During decoding the receiver senses and interprets the symbols and translates
the messages back into images, emotions and thoughts that make sense to them. It is
important to note that when messages are decoded in the manner that they were sent, then
there is a match in meaning and communication reportedly becomes effective.
Basic communication Model
A model is a set of statements about some system under study.Models are usually
descriptive or prescriptive in nature. An interpretation of a model gives the model its
meaning. Through a model deductions can be made(Ed Sedwitz, 2003). In studying any
communication model, there are fundamental elements that have been summarized by
Fiske (1992) which include:-
i) The sender who is also called the communicator or source of the message.
ii) The aim of a message within the sender which holds the purpose of the
communication.
iii) The information which is otherwise regarded as the message.
iv) The encoding of the message where the message is placed in a defined medium
and it gets sent to the receiver.
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v) The medium, which is the instrument that is used to transfer the message either in
the oral, written or visual form.
vi) The channel referring to the physical means by which the medium slots the
information to be passed through either a large outdoor board that can be used to
display advertisement or notice board or even the postal boxes of various courier
organisations.
vii) Decoding, referring to the act of receiving a message and interpreting it for
meaning and thereby giving the relevant response.
viii) The recipient who is also called the message receiver who decodes the message
ix) Feedback if the message that is sent back to the sender.
Figure 1: A simple communication model
2.1 A MODEL
Ed Sedwitz(2003) says that a model is a representation of reality or rather a purposeful

representation of reality. It provides a testable idea. The idea can be used to predict things
with similar situations. The reality in this case refers to how communication would
purport to be taking place. The following models are examined in this moduleand these
are the: - Linear, Interactive and Transactional Models.
2.2 THE LINEAR MODEL (HAROLD D. LASWELL 1948)
The Linear model belongs to the transmission models of communication which are
sometimes known as the Linear Process Models. The Linear Model propounds that
communication is one directional. (McQuil and Windal, 1995). Harold D. Laswell(
1948) explained that the model is interchangeably regarded as action model or a one way
model of communication.
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Berko et al (1998) add that the Linear model is perceived as a one way fixed process. In
Laswell’s (1948) perspective, a message is sent to the receiver through a channel in the
presence of noise and the receiver does not give a response or feedback or a reply. The
message starts at one point and ends at another.The model advocates for the idea that the
meaning of the message is solely in the message and that the sender and the receiver have
equivalent power yet there is an imbalance.
Additionally, the model is known to base its approach on asking the following questions:
- Who?
- Says What?
- In What Channel?
- To Whom?
With What Effect? (McQuil and Windal, 1993)
The application of the model according to Laswell (1948) is primarily concerned with the
execution of mass communication and propaganda and it concentrates on effect rather
than meaning.Laswell (1958) postulates that the model uses a channel that recognizes use
of the five human senses which are sight, touch, taste and smell and hearing.
The Linear model tends to be easy to use where compliance is called for, as well as in
broadcasting where the audience do not need to give a reply. It is also suitable for
propaganda messages. Critics for this model argue that communication is not one way but
rather a two way process. On challenging the linear model, other models have emerged
like the Interactive Models.
2.3 THE INTERACTIVE MODEL
This model was a development of Laswell’s (1948)’ view of the communication. The
Interactive model challenges the idea that communication is a one way process and
argues that it is a two way process. The model came into place as a reaction to the
shortcomings of the Linear model. The Interactive model criticizes the linear model for
having no feedback.
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The model also adds that the meaning of the message is in the receiver making the view
contrary to the Linear model which says that the meaning of the message is in the
message.
Dimbley,(1992) posits that the interactive models do not view communication as a one
way process because there is always an intentional or unintentional reaction to every
communication. Berko et al (1998) concurthat the interactional model is characterized by
the receiver’s responses or feedback which in turn influences communication flow.
From the above views, the interactive model implies that there is a vivid exchange of
messages and changing of roles between the sender and the receiver as the
communication goes on. The model also acknowledges that interaction can be between
humans or between machines (i.e. computers) hence communication is seen as a dynamic
process. The advancing of technology tends to promote interaction through the use of the
computer, the internet, the digital and various other mobile devices. The other model is
the Transactional Model.
2.4 THE TRANSACTIONAL MODEL
Berko et al (1998) unveil the transactional model as a process of communication where

meaning of a message is constantly negotiated between the sender and the receiver.
While the recipient decodes and receives, encoding and sending evolves. There is a
simultaneous exchange of messages. In other instances the model is referred to as a
circular model which regards both the sender and the receiver as communicators. In the
linear model, the sender is the one called the communicator. The Transactional model
highlights the reversal of the roles between the communicating parties as communication
is seen to take place at the same time. This model is well recommended for interpersonal
communication.
Berko, et. Al., (1998) add that the transactional model presupposes the interchangeable
roles played by the communicators throughout the communication process. Messages are
processed concurrently and this brings the aspect of the transactional model being
multidimensional. As the process goes on it is reported to include the non-verbal
communication such as the use of gestures as an add-on to the verbal
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communication.Below is an illustration of the Transactional model.
Figure 2:The Transactional Model
Source: Berko, et al (1998)
The other model to be studied is called the Shannon Weaver Model.
2.5 THE SHANNON WEAVER MODEL
Theories and models tend to be further developed when more information is unveiled
about an idea. In this case communication models acknowledge the contributions from
Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver (1949) who advocate for communication as a
process that is unique. It is important for you to study this model carefully because it is
regarded as a generic or basic model of communication. Shannon Weaver’s model is
regarded as a Mathematical model that is eventually regarded as the Mother of all
communication models.
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Source: Shannon Weaver (1949)
One of the major characteristics of this model is that it acknowledges the aid of
technology in the communication process. The model is primarily based on having six
elements, namely the source, encoder, message, channel, decoder and receiver. The
model adds that communication can be verbal, written or in a non- verbal form giving
more specifics to the communication process.
Shannon and Weaver (1949) stress that communication takes place in the presence of
noise which eventually attracts distractions. The noise reveals itself in different forms
which can include visual distraction, inadequate understanding of messages, wrong
signal, noise and even attitude noise. Such noise can eventually create barriers to
communication.
From these few selected communication models, communication is a phenomenon that is

explained from different viewpoints. Hence whenever people are communicating in
business, they have an option to select the most relevant model at the time or borrow
from the different models as the patterns tend to overlap.
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2.6 A THEORY
A theory is viewed as a tentative explanation of a given phenomenon. Schuttdefines a

theory as a logically interrelated set of propositions about empirical reality.It can have a
set of statements that are developed over a long time through abstractions, concepts or
ideas.
The other characteristics of a theory include the following:
 It is usually considered as a statement based on the knowledge that exists at a given

time of a matter at hand and it is capable of offering the best possible explanation.
 Theories are really never static because they are subject to criticism such that once
new ideas are lined up for a given phenomenon, the theory or view changes. For
example Darwin’s Evolutionary theory has since been challenged with new theories
explaining the origin of man. Management theories have also evolved from the
classic approach to the contemporary ones.
 You should have capacity to criticize the existing theories and come up with better
applications.
2.7 SUMMARY
Your study of communication models directs your understanding on different patterns in

which business communication can take place. If one model has shortcomings in a
particular setting then a different model can be adopted to suit the environment where the
business is taking place. There is need to compare and contrast the models that have been
listed so far. While we have focused on the Linear, Interactional, Transactional and the
Shannon Weaver Models, it does not mean that these are the only views trying to explain
the communication process. You are therefore advised to read widely and appreciate the
complexities that are associated to the explanation of how communication takes place in
organisations. The next chapter focuses on the different forms of business
communication.
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1. Define a theory and a model.

2. Explain clearly how Laswell’(1949)’s communication model explains the process
ofcommunication.
3. Compare the Linear and the Interactive models of communication with the help of
relevant practical examples.
4. Assess the use of the Shannon Weaver model in today’s world of business.
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CHAPTER 3: DIFFERENT FORMS OF COMMUNICATION IN ORGANISATIONS

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:-
1. Analyse the different forms in which business communication can take place between
parties within or outside the organisation which are oral, written, visual and non- verbal.
2. Describe the different forms of communication and that, there can be barriers that can
impede or distort the communication process.
3. Express how to overcome so as to realize the organisational goals.
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3.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last chapter we learnt about the various communication models that can be
employed during the communication process in organisations which include the Linear,
Interactive, Transactional and the generic, Shannon Weaver model. Each model
advocates for different processes, but you can always choose the model to use
situationally. Remember that there are other models that have already been studied. Now
we need you to focus on the different forms of communication in an organisation. The
study directs you to learn about each form and consider their strengths and weaknesses
during application. As you learn the different forms, they seem independent of each other
but in reality they tend to complement each other.
3.1 FORMS OF COMMUNICATION
Berko, Wolvin and Wolvin (1998) reiterate that there are different forms of
communication which include the oral, written, visual and non- verbal communication.
HR practitioners require to know the different types of communication that are suitable
for the situations. As we discuss the different forms, you need to observe the reality of
what is happening in your own organisation and note where you need to improve
effectiveness of operations through sound communication skills. We start focusing on the
Oral form of communication.
3.1.1 The Oral Form of communication
Sillars (1998: 117) presents oral communication as, “The exchange of ideas or
information by the spoken word.” Thus oral communication is a process or an
ongoing activity where ideas are expressed by word of mouth.
In organisations, these are observable where employees engage in formal

communication following the existing reporting structures. The workers or
employees may also use oral communication amongst themselves or with the
outsiders. The use of oral communication depends on its relevance at the given
time.
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3.1.2 Characteristics of Oral Communication
Fielding (1997) recommends that oral communication can be used but users
should be aware of the following:-
i) Oral communication is a less formal way of communicating

ii) It carries no permanent record unless it goes under video or tape
iii) It concentrates in passing of messages via the mouth.
Oral communication is usable during formal meetings, interviews, chance

meetings, lectures and sometimes the telephone call. It is however prudent to
acknowledge its strengths and weaknesses which need to be overcome.
3.1.3 Strengths of oral communication include the following:-
i) It allows further probing for more information between the

communicating parties e.g. during an interview session
ii) It allows getting immediate feedback between the sender and the receiver
during a formal meeting.
iii) Immediate clarification can always be sought as the conversation

continues.
iv) Non-verbal communication can be used as an add - on to emphasize

points.
v) If it is a face to face conversation, facial expressions can be interpreted for

meaning.
vi) It is usually accompanied by courtesy and concurrently helps to develop

trust between parties (Fielding, 1997).
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These are some of the strengths of oral communication in organisations however
it is important for HR practitioners to observe oral communication’s weaknesses
as follows:-
3.1.4 Weaknesses of oral communication

i) It can be affected by lack of creation of a permanent record
ii) It can be affected by poor expression by either of the parties in

conversation
iii) It may be difficult to use oral communication on detailed information e.g.

emanating from budgetary reports, thus difficult subject areas cannot
easily apply it.
iv) It tends to waste time during the conversation as parties may have personal
differences and extend arguments unnecessarily against productivity time
(Fielding, 1997).
After critically observing the trends around oral communication, one should be
able to establish where and how to effectively use the oral type of communication.
The other type of communication is called the written form which is going to be
studied now.
3.2 WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
Berko,et al., (1998) postulate that written communication is one of the forms of
communication which plays a significant part in the achievement of organisational goals.
Formal organisation rely use of documents. Today the documents can be in the form of
hard or soft copies. The following are examples of written documents used in
organisations:-
Some of the various forms of written communication that is used internally for business
operations include: - reports, employee manuals, e mails, memoranda, instant messages,
letters, proposals, job descriptions, contracts, advertisements, brochures, newsletters and
such others.
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You will notice that while written communication is used in organisations, it is important
to be aware of its strengths and weaknesses. This module studies the advantages and
disadvantages of using written communication.
3.2.1 Advantages of written communication
Every human resources manager ensures that proper structures are put in place in
order to have jobs done. The synchronization of all the work strongly relies on
how tasks are coordinated through sound communication. On a new incumbent
joining an organisation, it is important that one is given a well inscribed job
description so as to improve transparency on both the employer/employee side.
Witten communication therefore helps to support accountability on the part of
organisational members. If tasks were to be handed over orally, some information
would naturally be missed and eventually bring contention between employer and
the employee.
Again, because the job description is in a written form it can be stored for further
reference in the event that either of the parties need to refer to it as they work
towards effectiveness and efficiency. In fact, delegation of duties is to a large
extend dependent on clarity of instructions. If work is not clearly delegated that
might result in role ambiguity which deteriorates into role conflict. Yet, if conflict
is not well attended to, it may result in the organisation being dysfunctional. The
importance of written communication cannot be under estimated.
All organisations rely on effective records management, thus all records whether
in hard or soft copies remain necessary for the proper administration. In this case
examples of records include e.g. employee data base, the organisational structure,
the salary structure, the code of conduct and many others. As the business
environment changes, records of operations require a revamp and that is possible
if there are some existing records. Written records are an important source of
reference for decision makers. In addition, whenever new employees join an
organisation they rely on studying the previous records for them to map the way
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forward in sustaining business operations. Again at a certain point, all businesses
need a legal arm that addresses statutory requirements affecting company
administration, hence this very important function cannot be effective without
written records.
It is also argued that the way records are presented internally and to the public
reflects on the image of the organisation. The appearance of an organisation’s
records, a company’s records can communicate to both the internal and external
publics through non-verbal communication. In this case the way people see the
records sends a message about the status of the organisation.
Written communication is also very useful for interorganisational

communication when dealing with clients, customers or even the various
compliance bodies like ZIMRA etc. Besides the few points highlighted above,
written communication can also be of advantageous use, because the writer has a
chance to hold better control of expression in a more consistent manner as
compared to the oral discussions. Good choice and use of vocabulary can be done
and get properly edited before the document is passed on to the relevant receivers
hence it attracts precision.
From a critical point of view, it is necessary to notice that while written

communication can be usable by organisations it is reasonable to be aware of the
disadvantages they carry. Wherever possible it is best to try and overcome the
shortcomings of written communication.
3.2.2 Disadvantages of Written Communication
Written records are best when prepared with accuracy, conciseness and accuracy,
hence without these aspects, the documents may misrepresent their intentions to
the receiver. They are subject to distortion if prepared by a writer who lacks good
writing skills. Passing of inappropriate messages can have a negative effect on the
growth of business. Imagine where a budget report is being presented and the
figures are not correct. This can mislead decision makers.
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Again, it is not automatic that the receiver of the written document will
understand the messages passed. The level of the audience should be known so
that the messages can be understood or designed to meet the receiver.
When documents are not properly filed, an organisation can lose crucial records.
Even when the records are computerized, if there is no proper back up, an
organisation may again lose crucial documents because of viruses and such
related problems. A further observation reflects that a written record can be
misinterpreted or misunderstood at the detriment of the organisation. A written
record may not always offer an immediate response which allows further probing
as in oral communication. There is a delay in response to matters at hand. If the
written document is sent through an e mail and there is no power or poor network
where the recipient is, then the delays work against business objectives.
Typing of documents using the computer may not be as easy for every sender of
messages. Some are not computer literate and have to wait for a typist to do it and
it is quite a taxing exercise hence written communication tends to suffer
disadvantages arising from delay. The typing can be very tedious and time
consuming. Another disadvantage of written communication is that the written
record can be an embarrassment to the owner of the document at a certain point in
the future. For example, written contracts have to be honoured, because e.g. when
produced in a court of law, it may embarrass the employer. Another embarrassing
situation is where an inaccurate report is used in a disciplinary hearing by a senior
official in an organisation.
Because the world is slowly moving towards a paperless era, too much of paper
work can make organisational members feel like they are tracking behind
technology. Moreover hard copies may take time before reaching their
destinations as compared to the electronic messages which are instant.
Notwithstanding that the volumes of emails may also be laborious to handle.
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As an effective human resources manager, it is important to realize that while written
communication can be employed, it faces several challenges which have to be guarded.
The other form of communication that can be used in an organisation is called visual
communication.
3.3 VISUAL COMMUNICATION
The visual communication is closer to the non - verbal communication which is usable in
organisations. In this case, the communication of messages is done through more of
pictorial images (Fielding, 1997).Some forms of art or signs or even photography
represent visual communication. It may also make use of charts, graphs and electronic
messages. A drawing of a human skeleton without any message written on it,can send a
message of danger and it deters the reader from proceeding. A sign can be displayed
reflecting a message of no entrance to a restricted area. Road signs can also form visual
communication and they are very effective in sending messages. Note that visual
communication has some advantages which you will now focus on.
3.3.1 Advantages of Visual Communication

Visual communication can be used to pass messages quickly to the viewers. The
meanings from the pictorial message can be interpreted quickly by its recipients.
They are very effective in advertising services and products to a variety of
audience. When organisations are involved in teaching and learning, the delivery
becomes more - clearer and meaningful. A traffic safety board can decide to put
up road signs that deter excessive speed by showing an extensively damaged
vehicle. The reader gets immediately cautioned by the message. The picture is an
effective add- on to both oral and written communication for emphasis. Most
presentations also find visual communication helpful when putting points across
as it increases ease of understanding. For example a chart can quickly show the
trend in sales of a company or a significant decline helping managers to make a
decision.
Visual communication is useful where there are language barriers and someone
totally relies in pictorial representations e.g. a picture of a gentleman and a lady
on toilet doors or even arrows in in some building complex will direct the
recipient of the message without much difficult.
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Generally ideas are send faster and better and the audience tend to enjoy the
pictorial messages. The following are illustrations on visual communication.
Figure 3: An example of Visual Communication
3.3.2 Disadvantages of Visual Communication

Image 360 (2016) Sign and Graphics Operations, hint that visual communication
refers to the transmission of ideas using symbols and imagery. Visual
communication is advantageous because it is immediate, memorable, evocative,
persuasive, credible and powerful.
Visual communication tends to be relevantly used as an add-on because it may

fail to deliver a full message from the sender. Certain information requires to be
fully explained rather than be represented by a graph or picture.
At times organisations also require detailed presentations, which visual

communication cannot sustain. It has also been noted that, not everyone in an
organisation can interpret visual communication well. At certain points, the reader
of the visual communication can only do so if they are technical enough in the
area being communicated e.g. reading a building plan.
From a different perspective, one may note that the putting up of pictorial
representations may not always be cheap especially where graphic input is
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required. The other form of communication that HR practitioners need to
understand is called the non - verbal communication.
3.4 NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Eunson (2012:256) asserts that, non-verbal communication embraces all body language
communication, as well as clothing and adornment, environmental factors and even the
manner in which we use time.
– Non-verbal form of communication is usually referred to as communication without

words. It is characterized by behaviours that are then interpreted for meaning. These
behaviours include facial expressions between parties that are communicating, gestures,
proximity or spatial distance between communicating parties, tone of voice, form of
dress and even touching. When this communication takes place world-less clues are in
action but they can be interpreted for meaning.
– Non-verbal communication embraces the use of body language referred to as kinesics.

It also covers proxemics referring to distance between the communication parties e.g. a
supervisor and a supervisee. Haptics is another form of non-verbal communication
business parties cannot touch each other at will, without offending the other party. The
appearance of a physical environment can also sends a message. What is key to non-
verbal communication is the use of cues emanating from use of body language.
Non-verbal communication embraces even the eye contact and use of gestures. One’s
sitting position during an interview sessions can also send a message of humility or even
arrogance, confidence or non - confidence.
The behavior of an organisation can be promoted or tarnished through the non-verbal

patterns that are prevalent. We now try to observe the advantages of using non-verbal
communication in an organisation.
3.4.1 Advantages of using non-verbal communication

Dickson and Hargie(2003:50) in Baden Ian Eunson (2012) explain the advantages
of using non-verbal communication include the following:- replacing verbal
communication, complementing verbal communication, modification of the
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spoken word, regulating a conversation, expressing emotions notwithstanding that
every action can be interpreted well.
Non-verbal communication is very interesting especially during the conduct of a

job interview that if the interviewee arrives late for the session, it can be
interpreted as one who is not time conscious. It may also mean the interviewee is
very irresponsible and disorganized. More studies indicate the use on non-verbal
communication is powerful in building of relationships between parties. For
example, at the beginning of an interview a very strong, firm and short handshake
with each of the panel members signifies the beginning of a business relationship.
To some extent it is very important to be conversant with some of the advantages

of such communication but there is absolute need to criticize the use of non-
verbal communication. This takes us to consider the shortcomings of non-verbal
communication within organisations.
3.4.2 Disadvantages of non-verbal communication

While non - verbal communication is usable in organisations there is need to
observe its shortcomings. Baden Ian Eunson (2012) argues that while non-verbal
communication can be very useful, its communication can be very ambiguous.
He adds that, we should not presume that we can ‘read other people’s minds
because of what we think they are saying nonverbally. We may be right, but
equally we may be wrong.
Thus non-verbal communication vagueness at times and being imprecise. It tends

to be continuously sending messages which may be misinterpreted by the receiver
because of bias.
The non- verbal form of communication has been found to engage multi channels
at the same time which ends up with confusion between the two parties.
The effect of differences in culture also results in different interpretations of the
non - verbal messages. Hence that social conflict can raise misinterpretations
among people coming from a diversity of cultures hence it suffers many
distortions.
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3.5 SUMMARY
This chapter focused on the different forms of communication ranging from the oral,
written, visual then the non-verbal communication which can all be used in organisations.
However, with a closer look to each, it is important to note that each is usable at a
relevant situation only, or else the anticipated smooth flow of communication suffers.
Hence it is important for you to be able to define each form and assess its applicability in
real life situations within organisations.
The next chapter will introduce you a very important concept in business communication
which is referred to as group communication.
1. Define each of the following forms of communication.

2. Explain the difference between oral and written communication
3. Identify the differences between non-verbal communication with visual
communication
4. Imagine that you have just been appointed as a Human Resources manager and
you have tasked to explain the importance of written communication. Clearly
outline what you would include in your paper.
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CHAPTER 4: GROUP COMMUNICATION

Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to:-
1. Define a group
2. Analyze the different patterns of communication in a group and how they facilitate
operations in an organisational set up.
3. Distinguish how different cultures impact on business communication.
4. Apply the concept of group dynamics and relate how it is linked to business
communication.
5. Identify and interpret the effect of informal communication within a business set up.
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4.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last chapter we focused on the different forms of communication that can be used
in an organisation which included, oral, written, visual and non - verbal communication.
It is critical for you to remember how and at what point each one is best usable in an
organisation notwithstanding their weaknesses. This chapter takes you further to learn
about group communication.
4.1 GROUP COMMUNICATION
4.1.1 Definition of a Group
Although some scholars distinguish a teams and a group,Katzenbach&

Smith(1993) give no much distinction between a team and a group. The two terms
are used interchangeably and they refer to it being composed of two individuals or
more, they exist to perform organisational tasks, they share one or more common
goals, they interact socially, they exhibit task interdependence (Alderfer et al
1977 cited in Steve, Kozlowski and Bell, 2001).
A group is defined as a collection of individuals who have regular contact with

each other and who frequently interact and are meant to have mutual influence
sharing the same feeling and accepting responsibility over each other. They are
also set to work together to achieve set the designed goals.
In the next chapter we move further to learn about the complexities that come
with group communication under conflict as a concept.
Summarily there are three major factors that sustain a group:-
i) Every member is proud of membership and identifies himself/ herself with

the group hence they see themselves as belonging
ii) They share the same purpose
iii) They also accept responsibility over each other.
It should be noted that the consistency of the factors above sustain group cohesion
or unity. The moment these elements lose position, the group disintegrates. The
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interpersonal skills as well as personalities of its members are critical for high
group performance. Robbins (2004) reiterates that positive attitudes relate to high
productivity, high morale amongst staff, cohesiveness, sociability, openness as
well as flexibility. While on the other hand authoritarianism complemented by
dominance, bears aloofness, hostility, withdrawal and passive resistance.
However when these individuals work, they handle defined tasks through their job
descriptions and this is where business communication skills become absolutely
necessary.
4.2 ROLES IN A GROUP
Roles of members in a group basically refer to how a person behavesand what function
the/she performs within the group as a whole. Ellis (1992) asserts that communication in
a group depends upon reading, speaking, listening and writing skills. These skills
enhance the interchange of messages.
As group members work, there is need for control, consensus and cohesion which again
is largely cemented by communication the above mentioned skills. Basically, there is
need to minimize disruptions that can possibly arise from poor exchange of
communication among members of the group.
Disruptions in groups result in loss of cohesion and growing a feeling of isolation

coupled with loss of interest. Loss of interest is detriment to the achievement of
organisational goals. From this perspective, it may be seen that communication flows
need to be readily available to all organisational members covering both internal and
external communication. Clear policies should be in place so that the extent and nature of
communication in the group should be guided by the roles in place.
Summary effectuation of roles cannot be separated from well-organized communication

that include the top down, bottom up, horizontal, diagonal and the informal type of
communication.
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4.3 PATTERNS OF COMMUNICATION IN A GROUP
Larkin and Larkin (1994) highlight that a group can have four basic types of
communication which are the downward, upward, cross- channel and horizontal ones.
However, communication patterns evolve around the organisational structurecreating the
various networks in a work group. The main functions of communication patterns are
summarily to inform, persuade and promote goodwill amongst group members. We begin
to examine the top down communication.
4.3.1 Top - Down Communication
The top-down communication pattern reflects on managerial hierarchy which

works to transfer information from the highest levels in the organisation to the
company staff. Larkin and Larkin (1994) insist that downward communication is
more effective if top managers communicate directly with immediate supervisors
and immediate supervisors communicate with their staff. The communication
could be instructions, in the form of policies from the highest ranking officials to
the employees for the sake of getting work done within a defined sphere of
accountability. Larkin and Larkin (1994) argue that when communication follows
the above procedure, then supervisors get empowered because they get to know
any changes before the staff in general.
Ober (2009:13-14)adds that, “The downward messages of the boss tend to receive
more attention, faster responses and more approval than messages coming from
lower levels of organisation or from peers. More examples of top down
communication include the passing of regulations from super ordinates, through
policy. It can also be through the giving of information to the subordinates. This
can be done through notices or even newsletters. Another way in which top down
communication takes place is when subordinates are send on errands.
Familiarization or acclimatization also introduces top down communication when
e.g. a supervisor inducts new employees.
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4.3.2 Challenges associated with top down communication
i) Lack of clarity within the goals and objectives from management leading
to blurred, instructions.
ii) Seclusion of top management from the shop floor can cause serious
communication problems breeding lack of cooperation from workers
simultaneously breaking group cohesion.
iii) Middle management obstructing ideasbetween worker and top
management resulting in alienation which eventually breeds counter-
productivity.
4.3.3 Vertical Communication Upwards
Vertical communication is where crucial information moves form subordinates to

superiors which is necessary for decision making. This can be done as a form of
feedback by way of making reports. Whenever decision makers get inadequate
information, they make misguided decisions that are detriment to the achievement
of organisational goals.
Gibson (1985) concur with Gibson and Hodgetts(1991) that employee satisfaction
with upward communication tends to be lower than their satisfaction with
downward communication. McClelland (1988) adds some employee based
reasons as to why upward communication tends to be poor. These include, fear of
reprisal from the seniors, lack of confidence to express themselves.
The advantages of vertical communication upwards include solving of problems,

sharing of ideas (collaboration), clearing grey areas and building of counter
strategies to sustain operations. While managers have capacity to conceptualize
operations, the workers grapple with the reality and have to subsequently give
feedback, through vertical communication upwards.
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As a human resources manager the following are some of the ways in which
vertical communication upwards should be observed i.e. through receiving
grievances, accepting suggestion schemes, as well as opinion polls.
4.4 WAYS OF PROMOTING UPWARD COMMUNICATION
Upward communication should not be left to be thwarted because it assists management

in decision making. Dulye (2003) suggests the following ways of improving upward
communication in an organisation.
i) Be consistent and gracefully accept feedback.

ii) Involve employees in decision making.
iii) Offer options that allow for anonymous input.
iv) Invite employees from different areas to sit down.
v) Hire a neutral party to gather feedback.
4.5 PROBLEMS RELATED TO VERTICAL COMMUNICATION UPWARDS
i) Cultural differences between management and workers affect vertical

communication upwards. Sometimes information gets filtered.
ii) Workers have limited channels to communicate with management.
iii) Middle management tend to reflect their own opinions, not workers’
iv) Poor education background makes worker feel too inferior to suggest ideas to
management.
4.6 HORIZONTAL COMMUNICATION
Horizontal communication refers to the flow of messages across functional areas on the
same level of an organisation. It enhances problem solving and collaboration and builds
cohesive work units. However,Ober (2009) warns of factors that often lead to obstruction
of free flow of information and these are intense competition of scarce resources, lack of
trust among co-workers, concerns about job security or promotions.Horizontal type of
communication attracts departmental rivalry and personal clashes arising from resource
shortage.
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4.7 DIAGONAL COMMUNICATION
Wilson (1992) defines diagonal communication as, communication between managers

and workers in different functional divisions. It is a later development in communication
patterns designed to arrest the new communication challenges associated with new
organisational forms like the matrix and project- based organisations (Wilson, 1992). As
an example, we can have a lower level manager communicating with a higher level
manager in relation to changes in operational objectives and how best that can be
achieved.
This type of communication serves a wide purpose in overcoming barriers in

communication, because it has capacity to reduce distortion and misinterpretations. It is
quick to transfer information across structural levels and relies on verbal links as opposed
to written records. When an organisation is faced with unrest or even imminent lock out
of management, diagonal communication becomes handy. Figure 4 below illustrates
diagonal communication
Figure 4: Diagonal Communication
4.8 DISADVANTAGES OF DIAGONAL COMMUNICATION
While diagonal communication may be usable, note that it has its own advantages and
disadvantages. The advantages include it, being very direct and quite fast in order to
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serve a crisis in the work place making its use quite relevant in critical situations.
The disadvantages that militate against this type of communication include its capacity to
destroy lines of authority and the existing chains of command. This is exacerbated by
leaving superiors uninformed on sub-ordinates activities leading to conflicting commands
within organisational members. Because it is verbal, it may fail to create a record, thus
making it difficult to account for any information that could be circulating.
4.9 INFORMAL COMMUNICATION
Gerstner (2000) views informal communication as the grapevine, which transmits

information through non-official channels within the organisation. It is observable in
conversations, e - mails, text messages and even phone calls among socializing
employees.It encompasses simple unprepared exchanges of information in the passages,
bathrooms and canteens concerning organisational matters. Managers use this channel to
collect information from employees that seek favors from them.
However, informal type of communication remains important to organisations for the

following reasons:-
i) It is used as a means of testing reality or employees/ workers responses to an issue

ii) It provides the shy ones a stage to vent their views
iii) It provides emotional relief especially when workers have stress
iv) It passes information quickly and feedback is also very fast
v) It supplements the formal communication
vi) It creates a sense of belonging to an organisation in a way helping to build
corporate identity
vii) Employees/workers have a way of communicating their concerns without fear of
victimization since it has no source
viii) It helps management to test responses especially when new policies are coming
aboard.
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While the informal type of communication is important, it should be noted that it has its
own disadvantages that a human resources practitioner should be aware of. These include
the following:-
i) If informal communication if allowed to grow, tends to undermine authority.

ii) It can be very disruptive.
iii) It exposes information to competitors.
iv) It destroys positive attitudes.
v) It can be very harmful to management.
vi) It gives incomplete information which can misguide operations.
vii) It may tarnish the image of the organisation.
4.10 INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
“Intrapersonal communication takes place within a single person, often for the purpose of
clarifying ideas or analyzing or analyzing a situation, it is undertaken in order to reflect
upon or appreciate something. The three aspects of intrapersonal communication are self
-concept, perception and expectation.” From the given view, intrapersonal
communication tends to reflect on a communicator’s internal use of language or thought.
Occurring in the individual’s mind is the sender, receiver and the feedback. It is a self-
talk touching on imagination and visualization. Intrapersonal communication is known to
assist in overcoming negative feelings and emotional distress and it eventually build a
positive talk.
Intrapersonal communication users suffer some disadvantages because they are usually
isolated. They are viewed as anti-social and arrogant as they always prefer to work alone.
Figure 5 below illustrates intrapersonal communication.
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Figure 5 Intrapersonal communication
There is yet another level at which communication takes place and that is called the
interpersonal level.
4.11 INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
Direct interpersonal communication involves face to face relationship between the sender
and the receiver of a message who are in an interdependent relationship. It is
characterized by a strong feedback. In interpersonal communication, people exchange
information, feelings, and meaning through verbal and non-verbal messages as it is
usually face-to-face communication.
4.12 MASS COMMUNICATION
Mass communication is a more public form of communication between an entity as well

as a large and diverse audience mediated by some form of technology. This may be on
real time or on a taped delay basis or it may be rooted in the usually recent past. It takes
place through the radio, television and newspapers and magazines. The same message
reaches the audience at the same time. Messages can be sent through the newspapers,
radio, magazines, internet and television. Politicians tend to use mass communication, as
they gain political mileage from it. While it disseminates information quickly, it suffers
lack of feedback as a setback.
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While we have learnt several concepts within group communication we now introduce
you to the influence group culture on communication.
4.13 INFLUENCE OF GROUP CULTURE ON COMMUNICATION
The set of attitudes, values, beliefs and behaviours shared by a group of people, but
different for each individual communicated from one generation to the next. (Matsumoto
1996) in Spencer -Oatey(2008) posits that culture is the collective programming of the
mind which distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another.
A group culture therefore draws attention to the awareness of shared culture, building of
trust, cohesion and a sense of safety among the members as they work together.
4.14 INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
Intercultural communication goes beyond group culture. It is a discipline that studies

communication across different cultures and social groups. Organisations employ people
from different religious backgrounds, social, ethnic and educational backgrounds.
Intercultural business communication focuses on hoe people encode messages, how they
choose the communication medium as well as how messages are interpreted.
4.14.1 Departmental Culture
Deetz in Cahn defines departmental culture as the values, norms, symbols, images
and social practices underlying daily events.Some organisations are dominated by
what is called Departmental Culture. In Zimbabwe for example the government
runs different ministries that operate a departmental culture supported by a
bureaucratic structure where people have distinct responsibilities.
However while departmental culture is prevalent in government ministries, they

promote rigidity as communication is not very flexible and follows rules and
regulations in a very strict manner. Such organisations are affected by what is
known as red tape and creativity gets stifled resulting in lack of growth in the
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organisation. A culture can set the way people communicate within and outside
the organisation. It is also important to note that the taller the organisation, the
longer the communication takes. The other form of culture that can influence
communication is called power culture according to Handy.
4.14.2 Power Culture
The power culture is different from the departmental culture which is dependent
on departments and that communication has to follow the hierarchical patterns.
Communication is greatly influenced by where power is concentrated around a
few people. There is usually one most powerful person who controls
communication. An example is seen in charismatic leaders but this also extends to
the business community. Note that, while in departmental cultures decisions take
long to be made, in power cultures decision making time is much shorter. The
quality of the decisions to be made in power culture also depends on the caliber of
the decision maker.
The power culture is much less structured but it is too dependent on one powerful
person. If that person is no longer there, the group tends to disintegrate.
4.15 TASK CULTURE
Task culture allows people to work in teams that target to solve problems. The members
of the team thereby share expertise to solve defined problems. This is noticeable in the
matrix structure
4.16 PERSON CULTURE
The Person Culture has horizontal structures where each individual is seen as valuable as
and more important than the organisation itself. The culture has setbacks arising from
competing priorities.
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4.17 SUMMARY
The concept of group communication is very wide. In this chapter you have learnt about
the nature of a group and that in groups we have different patterns of communication
taking place which include top down, bottom up, horizontal diagonal and the informal
one. Basically communication in organisations should not be haphazard, it should follow
the designed patterns as it is the lifeblood of organisations.
In addition you have also learnt that culture has a bearing on communication in
organisations. Hence success in business cannot be, without following the organisational
cultures. While group communication unveils various ways in which communication can
take place in organisations, it is important to note that communication flows are
sometimes affected by communication barriers and that the barriers have to be overcome.
Chapter Revision Questions
1. Define a group.
2. Identify three major factors that sustain the existence of a group.
3. Explain the terms top-down and bottom up communication in a group.
4. Briefly explain the challenges that are associated with top down communication within
an organizational set up.
5. Explain why it is seldom difficult for workers to raise grievances to management.
6. Identify the differences between horizontal communication and top down communication
7. Briefly explain each of the following terms with the aid of practical examples:
interpersonal communication, intrapersonal communication and mass communication.
8. Narrate the effect of culture on group communication.
9. Explain the difference between departmental and power culture.
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CHAPTER 5 :BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
Upon completion of the chapter you should be able to:
1. Define communication barrier

2. List examples of communication barriers
3. Identify the causes of barriers
4. Overcome communication barriers
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5.0 INTRODUCTION
You have so far learnt that communication is process and is made up various elements.
Various theorists have also tried to explain how communication takes place in
organisations. In this chapter you will learn that all forms of communication can be
affected by barriers such that organisations may end up failing to achieve their goals
because of communication related problems.
5.1 DEFINITION OF A COMMUNICATION BARRIER
Ober (2009) highlights that a communication barrier is a factor that impedes or breaks
down the continuous communication loop by way of blocking, distorting or altering
information. A barrier prevents the receiver from betting the original meaning of a
message.
The barriers are known to occur at different points within the communication process.
Some barriers may be sender related, be receiver related or message related. When people
are communicating, clarity, correctness, courtesy, conciseness and completeness are
required. Fema (2002) confirms that barriers can be sender, message and receiver related.
Fema (2002).
5.2 SENDER RELATED BARRIERS
The sender is the origin of the message and effort has to be made to ensure that the
message gets to the receiver without distortions. Fema(2002) advises that the message
should carry one main idea and should be simply presented. If explanation is required,
that should be done when it is needed. If there is need, the sender may repeat the message
and encourage feedback in order to complete the communication loop. There is need to
read in between the lines, such that choice of vocabulary can be revisited and that
appropriate body language and the tone can complement the delivery of messages.
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5.3 MESSAGE RELATED BARRIERS
Message related barriers have to do with the message at hand whether verbal or non-
verbal. Fema (2002) recommends that, use of correct terminology, clarity in message,
timing if the message dispatch, use of appropriate vocal tone and volume, relevance of
the message are of utmost importance.
5.4 RECEIVER RELATED BARRIERS
The receiver needs to have a good listening capacity and or ability to interpret messages
at hand. Thus active listening is necessary. Observing eye contact with the sender
minimizes barriers as well. Fema (2002) adds that distractions by the receiver must be
avoided as well.
Besides the sender, message and receiver barriers, there is also the verbal barriers
5.5 VERBAL BARRIERS
Ober (2009) specifies that, verbal barriers affect messages as they are said. These include
inadequate knowledge or vocabulary, variations in interpretations, language differences
and inappropriate use of expressions as well as ambiguity and polarization.
5.6 NON-VERBAL BARRIERS
The non-verbal barriers emanate from actions between the sender and the
receiver.Fielding, M. (1997) adds a list of other communication barriers that need to be
guarded against. These include:-
i) Lack of attention
ii) Cultural differences
iii) Physical disabilities like hearing impairment
iv) Use of jargon or technical language
v) Lack of interest
vi) Differences in perception
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5.7 OVERCOMING COMMUNICATION BARRIERS
Ober (2009) indicates that barriers in communication obstruct the achievement of

organisational goals, hence they need to be attended to wherever they are identified.
There several ways in which barriers can be eliminated but we deal with a few
suggestions in this module.
i) Dealing with Differences in Perception

Doing away with differences in perception between the sender and the receiver is
key to overcoming barriers. Organisational members should be able to handle
people of diverse backgrounds.
ii) Use of Simple Language

There is need to make use of simple words when communicating as well as
avoiding use of technical jargon. Ambiguous words should also be avoided as
meanings will end up distorted. Vocabulary should be chosen with care so that it
matches the recipients’ understanding. The understanding of a low level worker
e.g. a less educated general hand cannot match that of a manager.
iii) Avoiding Information Overload

There is need to make use of simple words when communicating as well as
avoiding use of technical jargon. Ambiguous words should also be avoided as
meanings will end up distorted. Vocabulary should be chosen with care so that it
matches the recipients’ understanding. The understanding of a low level worker
e.g. a less educated general hand cannot match that a manager.
iv) Noise Reduction

Noise comes in different forms, so it is best to identify the type of noise that is
causing disruption of the message being overlooked especially where oral
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communication is largely applicable. It can also affect colleague to colleague or
employee to customer.
v) Correct Choice of Media to be used
It is not all communication that needs to be oral, sometimes you need to use
written communication which will create a permanent record and can use
controlled expression. There are different types of documents which must be
used for either internal or external communication. For example, employees
should be able to know when to use circulars, memorandums or even business
letters so that communication remains effective.
vi) Maintaining an organisational structure

There is need to ensure that communication patterns rely on the organisational
structure for the sake of accountability over what is being communicated. If
communication is haphazard it ends up bringing confusion between parties and to
some extend the authorities may end up undermined. For example there is
confidential information which can only circulate around management and should
never get to lower level employees.
5.8 SUMMARY
Communication remains the lifeblood of organisations but if it is negatively affected

by barriers, organisations cease to be effective and efficient. Some of the barriers that
we have studied include the sender and the receiver related barriers. Human
resources managers should observe the trend in organisational communication
patterns and find ways to overcome the barriers. It is also key to manage people of
diversity as some of the communication problems emanate from cultural differences.
Today’s world is fast becoming multicultural hence, there is need to observe global
trends in communication. The next chapter introduces you to a very important
concept of conflict in organisations as it is linked to group communication.
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1. Define the term communication barrier
2. Explain different types of barriers that can impede communication in

organisations.
3. Explain clearly how you can overcome barriers
4. Define each of the following terms which are found within the area of barriers to
communication:
i) Perception
ii) Attitudes
iii) Ideological factors
iv) Physiological factors
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CHAPTER 6 CONFLICT IN ORGANISATIONS
Upon completion of this chapter you should be able to :-
1.Define conflict
2. Identify and explain causes of conflict
3. Identify and explain the different types of conflict
4. Explain conflict resolution through sound communication skills
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6.0 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapters, we learnt about how people or employees communicate in an

organisation following the different patterns of communication like the top down, bottom
up and so forth. We also learnt, that as we communicate it is important to respect the
effect of culture on organisations where some are dominated by the departmental culture,
power culture and such others. However fundamental to successful business
communication is understanding the effect of communication barriers and how they can
be overcome. The distortion effect on communication should not be ignored. However in
addition to these concepts, we now unveil how conflict is linked to communication.
6.1 DEFINITION OF CONFLICT
Conflict has a ubiquitous and pervasive nature hence has acquired a multitude of
meanings. Nicholson (1992) defines conflict as an existing state of disagreement or
hostility between two or more people. In another perspective, Coser (1967) conflict is a
struggle over and claims to scarce status, power and resources in which the aims of the
opponents are to neutralize, injure or eliminate the rivals. Defined in broadest terms,
conflict denotes the incompatibility of subject positions. (Diez et al, 2006: 565). Thus
conflict may be viewed as a state of discord caused by the actual or perceived opposition
needs, values and interests between formal authority and power and those individuals and
groups affected. In political circles it may end up in violence between the different
groups. Conflict seems unavoidable but it brings chances for organisations to grow.
6.2 TYPES OF CONFLICT
Conflict can reveal itself in the following ways:
Intrapersonal Conflict
Conflict can also be intrapersonal. This refers to a state of implosion in an individual by
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the state of mind and is dictated by circumstances around him. Such situations are anger,
depression, confusion, frustration, which could lead to aggression, erratic behavior,
addiction and in extreme cases, suicide. (Ross 1993).
Interpersonal Conflict
Nikolajeva (2005) confirms that conflict can also be interpersonal where two or more
people have different desires or have opposing views. A cold attitude towards one
another underscores conflict between two people. For example, superordinate can have a
problem with his/her subordinate on procedures to be followed during a work process. A
manager might assume that he is more knowledgeable than the worker while the worker
is giving suggestions as a response to the real work experience on the ground.
Intergroup Conflict
Conflict can also be intergroup where heads of different departments are disagreeing on
how to improve quality of products or services amid stiff competition on the market.
They could be debating on pricing of products or the packaging of the products. Without
proper influence in the different thought processes conflict becomes rife.
Intragroup Conflict
i) Conflict can also be intragroup, where members in one group disagree on the
decision to make pertaining a problem that has arisen within the work place. A
panel where officials have been attending an interview can disagree on which
candidate to offer a new job.
Inter Organisational Conflict
Conflict can also be interorganisational where there are differences between e.g. an
organisation and its service provider. A bread making company could be in conflict with
an organisation that is responsible for power supply as its inconsistency in power supply
disrupts operations.
The following factors breed conflict in organisations: lack or shortage of resources, lack
of compatibility and poor leadership skills, power struggles, conflict of interests and
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many others.
6.2 1 Shortage of Resources
When employees are at work they are usually allocated resources that range from
financial, human, material and even time. If the resources continually run short
such that the distribution among the workers becomes noticeably unfair, the
different workers begin to exchange hostile messages. Another possible cause of
conflict is lack of compatibility in the goals of the organisation.
6.2.2 Lack of Compatibility of Goals
When individuals are working they have their personal goals while thy have to
meet the organisational goals again. The incompatibility can arise on time
management as an example. Workers may want to work from Monday to Friday
and not come to work on Saturday. However management may see production
going down and seek to increase working time. On trying to effect this change
management has to communicate well with a combination persuasion, influence
and some directives.
6.2.3 Poor Leadership skills
Leadership is an art of having influence, power and authority over followers. The
interchangeable use of the three forces highlighted are not automatic in one’s
command. If the ability to make subordinates follow the leader is inadequate in a
manager, then conflict arising from different interests and different tastes would
undermine group cohesion and the subsequent achievement of organisational
goals. Fred Fiedler, highlights that leadership should change with the situation.
6.2.4 Power Struggles
Power struggles are a reality among organisational members. This arises from
employees flexing different power basis ranging expertise, political or even socio
economic status. Different power bases can be a source of conflict in the work
place.
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6.3 TYPES OF CONFLICT
6.3.1 The Displaced Conflict
In this type of conflict the parties usually argue about a wrong thing. One party
might feel that the way he/she is treated being treated at work reflects lack of
respect form the other parry when it is in fact not the idea. It could be genuine
lack of resources that is attributing to unfair distribution of resources. In reality
what the two parties will be dealing with is the manifest type of conflict, when in
fact the real conflict could be caused by yet an underlying conflict not yet
unveiled. The other type of conflict is called contingent conflict.
6.3.2 Contingent Conflict
The contingent type of conflict occurs usually because some arranged

circumstances are not being recognized by the two parties (Deutsh, 1973). They
are usually attributed to a lot of emotional tension between the two parties. The
parties are again described to be caught up in insufficient cognitive and problem
solving resources. Beside this type of conflict, there is also the manifest conflict.
6.3.3 Manifest Conflict
Mitchell (1989) explains that the manifest conflict usually expresses the
underlying conflict. The underlying conflict may be too sensitive and dangerous
to deal with. The actions seen in relation to this type of conflict reflect irritation
and severe tension between parties because of unresolved underlying conflict.
Such underlying conflict could include arguments between the CEO of a company
and the Board over budgetary issues. It must be noted that a manifest type of
conflict can only be temporarily resolved, because what needs to be attended to, is
the underlying conflict which must be separated from the surface issue.
There is therefore a need to separate the issues, thus the manifest and the
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underlying issue. All such events can be smoothened between parties if their
communication skills are developed. For example the information being
exchanged between the arguing parties must be correct, concise, clear and
courteous. Hence learning communication skills is very important so that
wherever people are working in a group and they have differences, they should be
able to communicate with each other in a sound manner which does not
jeopardize business operations. Remember that if conflict is not attended to it
makes an organisation dysfunctional. There is yet another type of conflict called
the veridical conflict.
6.3.4 Veridical Conflict
The veridical type of conflict exists objectively because the conflict is clearly
visible. It is usually viewed as true conflict. An example of such a conflict may
arise where employees are expected to use the same facility at the same time, e.g.
a room for private work. Each employee feels he/she has the right to use the room
on their only free time. Such a conflict may cause tension but the solution relies
on cooperation from both sides otherwise shifting production time to suit their
problem would even create new problems. Summarily there is need for joint
mechanism to address the conflict of interest arising from spatial use of the room.
However note that Deutsh (1973) comments that the veridical type of conflict is
to some extent difficult to resolve especially where there is no alternative solution
in sight. The other type of conflict that you can learn about is the misattributed
conflict.
6.3.5 Misattributed Conflict
The misattributed type of conflict can be a reality in an organisation. It

materializes where wrong parties are in conflict over wrong issues. This could be
evident where placement of workers from a head office of a company ends up
with overstaffing in certain skills area. The employees that get entangled in the
over staffing issue start to exchange heated views over placement.
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Yet on the ground the matter has been instigated at the top at a higher office. To
some extent, this calls for basic understanding between the parties as the matter is
not really theirs but at a different and higher office to settle. Yet another type of
conflict is the false conflict.
6.3.6 False conflict
The false conflict is a situation where the existing conflict has no objective basis
at all. It emanates from misconceptions or misunderstanding between parties.
Because of inaccuracy in information the parties find themselves immersed in
unnecessary conflict. Ideas start as false then they degenerate it a real conflict.
Mitchell (1989) postulates that such a transformation of views is prevalent where
the work environment is laced with rife competition compounded with suspicion
as opposed to an environment where cooperation, trust and discipleship is the
order of the day. Really the interactive patterns between any two parties
determine the work relationship, hence there is need for HR practitioners to be
well trained in communication skills.
After having observed the various types of conflicts that may occur in the work
place, it is of paramount importance for you to learn about conflict resolution.
6.4 CONFLICT RESOLUTION
Conflict resolution refers to a process where at least two or more parties work towards a
peaceful solution to a disagreement among them. The sources of disagreement seem to
vary from personal, social, financial and emotional dimensions. Whichever way the
underlying action for all forms of disagreement require sound negotiation skills between
the parties. In addition, as the negotiation unfolds, communication skills do enhance the
settlements between the conflicting parties.
ButrosButrosGhali (1994) speculates that conflict resolution is not just an exercise that
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can be done at random. It follows some steps that are critical for the resolution. The
authority has suggested that the initial step would be to attract the attention of the inter-
group or intra-group conflict and then create a latitude or opportunity to explain the
conflict related factors leading to conflict resolution.
You need to note that, the ability to attract or draw the necessary attention from either
side is dependent on sound communication skills by the parties involved or the leader in
that situation. Without meeting of minds the resolution might never take off leaving the
conflict in perpetuation. The second step according to the above author is that there is
need to possess or build the will that is important for escalating responses to the
compounded, multifaceted and complex matter at hand. At this point there is need to cool
tempers between the parties, otherwise they both become temperamental or
undependable.
According to ButrosButrosGhali (1994) the third and last step involves the need to have
sound communication skills that enable the parties to see a clear vision for the solution/s
at hand. Once that is achieved, doors for the much needed cooperation between the
parties are opened and they finally work together for a solution. To a large extent conflict
resolution is greatly linked to sound communication skills like listening in this case is
critical. The leader in conflict resolution has to listen and capture the correct information
from either side or else misinterpretations can raise further temper and worsen the
differences. Again speaking as a skill is roped in, because how one speaks can cool or
ignite tempers on the warring parties. The use of non-verbal communication also plays its
part because if wrong and suspicious actions are read in the process of conflict resolution,
a stalemate is likely to be reached at the detriment of business success.
Summarily conflict resolution is not an easy process, but you should note how sound
communication skills enhance the whole process. While one may have intellectual ability
to deal with the matter, there is need to be equipped in sound business communication
skills. There is a different school of thought that suggests other conflict management
styles that can be employed in the work place.
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Thomas (1976) advocates for conflict management through the use of different styles
which summarily include, i) avoiding, ii) forcing, iii) accommodating, iv) compromising
and v) collaborating.
When avoidance style is used, it means that the conflicting parties deliberately avoid
conflict than to take time pursuing their personal needs in the matter. Thomas (1976)
commends that while this style is usable both parties forego or lose their interests.
When the forcing style is employed, it means that competition materializes and each side
creates a win-lose situation on either side. No side is interested in the other side’s affairs.
Each side is convinced about winning the argument while the other side loses at all costs.
The effect of using such a style is noticeable when solutions being advocated for are
divorced for institutional goal achievement.
The other style that can be employed is called the accommodating style where the two
conflicting parties settle for cooperation and support for the other party’s intentions at the
expense of their own. The accommodating style is suitable when one party acknowledges
that they are on the wrong side. However, too much use of the accommodation style on
the part of the leader makes him lose respect. Thus the way one communicates when
using this style must be known to militate against maintaining authority.
The other conflict management style according to Thomas (1976) is compromising. This
style unveils a give and take approach in combination with use of concessions or
markdowns. The parties may then be seen to have positive perceptions but does not
guarantee satisfaction on either party. Thus eventually both parties may be left
unsatisfied.
According to the above authority, the other style that can be used is the collaborating
style which is mainly characterized by cooperation and assertiveness on either side .Each
side mutually expects to work with the other party for a resounding or unquestionable
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solution. Summarily the collaborative style in management brings a win-win situation.
Besides the two schools of thought discussed above, there are other perspectives on
conflict resolution where they recommend arbitration, mediation, adjudication and
negotiation as the as very effective.
6.4.1 Arbitration
Arbitration is a more formal process and is different from conciliation. It does not
promote the continuation of collective bargaining and negotiations. Both parties
are listened to before a final settlement is done in the form of an arbitration award.
An award is imposed on the parties after evidence is given. The award, in this
case is legally binding.
There is need to understand that arbitration is summarily characterized by the

following :
i) It is consensual which means settlement is taking place only when both

parties have agreed and have submitted their agreement on record.
ii) The process is neutral such that the parties agree on a suitable place or
venue to hold the session, the relevant language to be used and the law
that is applicable then. It is done to do away with possible bias on either
side.
iii) The parties in dispute have a responsibility to choose the arbitrator
iv) The process is highly confidential
v) The decision of the arbitrator is final and usually enforceable.
From the above presentation in relation with arbitration, conflict can be resolved
to this effect, but it must be done procedurally otherwise the effort falls away.
Arbitration remains as a private dispute resolution procedure which avoids taking
matters to the court of law. With sound communication skills conflict resolution
can bring order in a business environment. The other way in which conflict can be
resolved is called adjudication.
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6.4.2 Adjudication
Adjudication is defined as accelerated and effective form of dispute resolution

that, unlike other means of resolving disputes involving a third party
intermediary, the outcome is a decision by a third party which is binding on the
parties in dispute and is final unless and until reviewed by either arbitration of
litigation.
This can occur between individuals and corporates. An example could be about
unfair labour practices. Sometimes an arbiter cam be dealing with a private
organisation versus a public institution e.g. a shoe making company contesting a
matter with a national revenue authority or an electric power supply company or a
city council. Negotiation is another way that can be employed to bring conflict
resolution.
6.4.3 Negotiation
Notini (2008), defines negotiation as to confer or to discuss with a view toward

reaching agreement where some interests may be shared and some may be
opposed. Negotiation is indeed a conflict resolution process. Within the business
fraternity this situation is usually associated with wage and salary negotiations
between workers/employees and management or the employer. Both parties
require bargaining power where both parties have the ability to force acceptance
of his proposals and reject those of the opposing party. The negotiation process
relies on each party’s strength. There is also a lot of manipulation that takes place
hence is not a simple process. Having bargaining power is a pre-requisite before
going into the next step which is referred to as a negotiation process. The negation
process is understood to have three steps which are:-
i) Preparation
ii) Face to face negotiation
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iii) Implementation of the agreement
During preparation, objectivity is called for on either party so that they stipulate
what they need to achieve during negotiation. Preparation requires each side to
have three key areas which are:
i) the ideal solution i.e. that is sought

ii) the reasonable solution after the arguments are presented
iii) the fall - back position which emerges reflecting all concessions
As the negotiation unfolds, there is need to assess, measure or evaluate the

strengths of the other side and then focus on the areas that must be won during
negotiation. A typical example is where workers’ representatives are negotiating
over salary increases. The workers could present tangible figures of the current
poverty datum line, cost of living in Zimbabwe and base their arguments on that
premise. These are universal points that even any court of law would stand by.
There are many other ways in which conflicts can be resolved but you are
encouraged to understand that conflict resolution goes hand in hand with sound
communication skills.
6.5 SUMMARY
This chapter introduced you to the concept of conflict which primarily is a result of
disagreements between parties. Whenever people are working in a group they do have
differences in perceptions, personalities, approaches and many other areas. Sometimes
they differ in goals, or have conflict in roles or they may fail to honour authority
relationships in the work place resulting in misunderstandings or misconceptions. It is
however good for an HR practitioner to comprehend how communication skills help in
defining the conflicts and coming up with conflict resolution so that the growth of the
organisation is not hampered.
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The next chapter introduces you to the presentation of varying documents that include the
business letter, the memorandum, the circular, the notice, the report as well as how to
handle presentations.
1. Define the terms conflict and conflict resolution.
2. Explore the various causes of conflict with practical reference to your

organisation
3. Identify and explain at least three types of conflict and show how they have been
handled at your work place.
4. Case study
A company in Harare has been having the post of a line manager in the
production department. The line manager has been with the company for the past
four years In the previous three years each of the workers working directly
reporting to him have resigned after one year of joining the company. On
checking the labour turn-over of the company, his department was the worst
affected. Of concern to the company are the signs of productivity levels going
down. No one of the workers who resigned was taken for a disciplinary hearing.
However, his supervision records show that all those workers who resigned were
showing signs of insubordination.
Task
Imagine that you have just joined that organisation as an HR manager and you are
expected to make investigations of that department and find out why there has
been a very high labour turn-over rate. Remember that you need to use your
communication skills to settle this problem that is beginning to show so that
productivity levels do continue to go down.
Write a short report of how you would turn round this department so as to keep
the goals of the organisation achievable.
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CHAPTER 7: BUSINESS LETTER, MEMORANDA, CIRCULAR, NOTICE
7.0 INTRODUCTION
The previous chapter introduced you to the concept of conflict and conflict resolution
drawing your attention to how business communication skills can be used to resolve
conflict so that the organisations can grow. There were many situations that were raised
which made us to understand why we are likely to have conflict in organisations. Conflict
is inevitable but once it appears it needs to be attended to. If it is not attended to, it makes
the organisation dysfunctional. However this chapter takes you further to how several
documents or official papers are handled professionally. We will begin with business
letters then study the other listed in this chapter. As you study it is important for you to
relate and see how these documents are applicable in your organisation.
7.1 THE BUSINESS LETTER
Sigband and Bateman (1981) state that business letters enable organisations to
accomplish their objectives. These authorities also argue that the business letter can tell a
great deal about an organisation. A business letter is a very important document used by
formal organisations and it has some characteristic features that reveal its significance.
Below, we will first look at the importance of a business letter and also its generic
features.
7.1.1 The Significance of a business letter
i) it creates a formal method of communication between people within and

outside the organisation
ii) it is there to provide information on business related matters
iii) it creates a permanent record on business matters
iv) it serves a legal purpose
v) it creates correspondence between organisations and their customers and
clients
vi) it creates correspondence between organisations
vii) it reflects the image of the organisation they serve
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viii) it can be used to advertise a company through the image that it gives
(quality of paper, the contents)
ix) it creates contacts
The business letter is a very important document hence you should understand more
about it. Try to see how the communication skills that you have learnt so far will
relate to the business letter. The different purposes of the letter can include the
following:-
i) an enquiry
ii) a confirmation
iii) a request
iv) a transaction
v) a complaint
vi) an application
vii) a sales
viii) an acknowledgement of payment
Try to list a few more purposes of a business letter with reference to your own
organisation. You may note that business letters can be written to:
i) employees
ii) the customers
iii) potential customers
iv) suppliers
v) company lawyers
vi) other external parties
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7.1.2 Features of a Business Letter
The following are the general features that make a business letter. When you write
your own business letters, you should consider these important features:-
i) Name and address of the sender (note that letterheads are now mostly in
use so they carry the sender’s address)
ii) Name of recipient and address
iii) A date in full e.g. 12 April 2017
iv) Salutation e.g. Dear Sir or Madam
v) The heading of the letter in bald
vi) The reference of the letter in bald
vii) The concise message with ideas presented in paragraph form separated by
a missed line.
viii) A complimentary close reflecting the end of the message
ix) Signature of the sender at the left side of the page
Sigband and Bateman (1981) assert that whenever a business letter is written,
there are principles that need to be observed and these are presented in short as
Five Cs. These include clarity, conciseness, completeness, correctness and
courtesy. Correct use of grammar and correct language use are a priority.
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7.1.3 Sample Business Letter
Hillton Supermarket
12 Hammond Street
Uptown
15 April 2017
The Sales Manager

Pistow Bakery
Victoria
Dear Sir/Madam
RE: REQUEST TO INCREASE HILLTON SUPERMARKET SUPPLY OF

WHOLE WHEAT BREAD DURING WEEKENDS AS FROM 01 MAY
2017
HilltonSupermarket, has been ordering six dozen of whole wheat bread per day
throughout the week. We would like to officially request you to supply us with 10
dozen every Saturday and Sunday in order to enable us to meet our demand.
Kindly inform us on the additional cost on the new weekend order. Kindly
confirm whether your company will be able to supply as form 01 May 2017.We
are looking forward to a favourable response.
Thank you.
Yours faithfully
…………………...
Purchasing Officer
7.2 TASK
Find out how a letter of complaint and a letter of collection are structured and practice
writing them out.
The other type of document that is written in an organisation is called a memorandum

and you are now going to learn more about it.
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7.3 MEMORANDUM
Fielding (2006:304) stipulates that the word memorandum was derived from the Latin
word meaning, “That which was remembered”. The memorandum (memo) is a written
document that is different from a business letter. It is written mainly for internal
communication between organisational members. Sillars (1988) reiterates that a memo is
a document that is used to pass on information or instruction to someone within your
organisation reminding someone of a fact or detail. Fielding (2006) adds that the
memorandum is written to remind staff of important matters. It can again be used to
convey instructions. Kitty (2006:1) states that a memo is used within a company or
organisation to report information, make a request, or recommend an action…..
At times it is used as part of office routine to respond to requests, to follow up telephone

conversation as well as initiating action. It can also be used to attract immediate attention
to issues. It can again be used to throw suggestions over an issue. When a memo is
written it usually carries a single issue at hand.
However the memo carries equal importance to the business letter as it is there to
facilitate all the internal communication allowing the work flow to be smooth. The
difference between the memo and the business letter is that the business letter reaches
both the internal and external world of business relations. However it should be noted
that whenever a memo is written, it may not use very polite and courteous language that
is found in a business letter that is going out of the organisation. Although the
memorandum circulates information within the organisation, it is designed to follow the
properly designed structures for the communication flows.
Nevertheless the memorandum can be written from the top going down or from the
bottom going up exchanging important information. In this instance it can be the human
resources manager sending an instruction to the human resources officer about deadline
of updating company database. The other way round it can be line manager writing the
departmental manager about problems picked at the operational level. The writing of the
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memorandum is regarded as a fast means of internal communication, implying that a
memorandum will not take too long to write as what the business letter demands.
Because it usually written with speed, the memo tends to be less formal. Besides the
memorandum being written from the top going down or from the bottom going up,
sometimes it can be written across departments concerning cross departmental issues.
When it is written across, it could be mainly about maintenance of standards across so
that there is total quality management within the organisation. Sometimes all departments
could be working towards creating the desired image which will make the organisation
remain competitive on the market. It can be the departmental heads communicating with
senior management.
Note that the layout of a business letter and that of a memorandum is quite different.We
will now introduce you to the standard layout of the memorandum. You are required to
notice the differences.
MEMORANDUM
To: Marketing Manager Date: 01 June 2017
From: T. Andrews, General Manager Ref: TA/MM
SUBJECT: MARKET SEGMENTATION OF HARARE NORTHERN SURBUBS
The area covering Harare northern suburbs needs market segmentation looking at the rate at
which new suburbs have been developed. You are expected to conduct a survey on customer
needs in relation to the service we provide in these areas. Your report should be in by the 01
September 2017 for management consideration.
Regards
The following is a summary of features that characterize a memorandum:-
i) There is no address as you would find in a business letter
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ii) There are no greetings or salutation as you would find in a business letter
iii) There is no formal farewell like “Yours faithfully”
iv) There is “To and From” headings so that a proper record is maintained reflecting that
communication
v) The memo carries the title of the sender and the recipient so that a recognition is
made over the office titles then at the time of communication
vi) It always needs a date for reference of the correspondence at hand. This is usually
important later when need arise to look back on how matters transpired. It helps to
settle disputes between the sender and receiver in the case of mudslinging.
vii) There is also a ‘Ref’ section with the sender’s initials so that the document is well
linked with its sender and receiver
viii) The memo has a subject heading which helps to clearly relay the topic in short
ix) The content of the memo is expected to be relevant to the heading and it should be
short and straight to the point concentrating on passing the important message.
In addition, when writing a memo the same principles of using ‘Four Cs is still applicable;
i.e. clarity, conciseness, correctness and courtesy. However the memo is less courteous than
the business letter where all expressions have to be well controlled.
Below are examples of the contents of a memo that is written in a brief and to the point
manner.
7.3.1 Transport Assistance To All Workers From 01 June 2017
Following several requests from workers for transport after they finish work late,
we therefore gladly advise you that a bus service will be offered as from 01 June
2017 from the work premise into the City Centre. The bus will serve you after
work only. Everyone is expected to be seated in the bus by 7.00pm. Everyone is
expected to keep the bus clean at all times.
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7.3.2 Use of Social Media during Working Hours and its Effect
Attention has been brought to management that, too many people are losing
production time due to overuse of cellphone, especially over Wattsapp. As from
Monday 01 June 2017, no one is allowed to use their cellphone except during tea
break and lunch hour periods. We therefore expect maximum cooperation from all
workers so that productivity does not go down.
7.3.3 Disadvantages of the Memo
1. With the developments in technology the memo seems to be an outdated

way of communication especially where the use of hard copies is
prevalent.
2. The memo focuses on one single topic and has no capacity to handle
complex matters. A memo is not suitable for multi messages which is
quite obvious in a work environment. It is rare to deal with single cases. It
cannot be used to handle complex cases.
3. When a memo is written, hard copies are then printed for circulation and
that can waste administrative time. In addition the use of hard copies
attracts cumulative costs as the memos are constantly absorbing paper and
ink. The distribution of the memo costs some time.
4. If the memo is sent as a soft copy, it may remain unread if the receiver
does not open his/her mail in good time. If network is not available the
memo may not be read barring the necessary and important business
communication
5. The memo cannot be used to communicate sensitive information like
salary increases or pending disciplinary issues
6. A memo has a tendency to rely on one way communication and it gives no
chance to the receiver to immediately exchange views with the center.
Another document that is used in organisations is the circular, which you are
going to learn about.
7.4 CIRCULAR
A circular unlike a memo can be used to communicate both internally and externally
depending on the purpose at hand. A circular can be used to give information to worker/
employees of an organisation. A circular can be used to give similar information to
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workers or employees. For example an organisation may use the circular to advise all
workers about the change in canteen hours as from a stipulated day.
A circular can also be used to communicate internally externally. When a circular is sent
out of an organisation for advertising, it can be termed a flier. For example a message can
be sent to customers about a new product on the shelf so that customers maintain loyalty
to the organisation. In other instances it can be used as an advertising tool. For a circular
to be effective, the distribution must be well organized so that it reaches its recipients in
good time. You now need to focus on advantages of using the circular.
7.4.1 Advantages of Using a Circular
1. The use of a circular is not very expensive and yet it is a fast way of
distributing information. A circular can be printed and reproduced in large
numbers for quick circulation
2. A circular is brief but highly informative
3. It is time effective and cost effective.
4. It is capable of providing a permanent record.
5. It is capable of reaching wide audience.
6. It is a good way of offering guidance to staff of issues of compliance
where the code of conduct needs to be reiterated.
7. It is capable of addressing a specific audience. The existing customers can
get a circular while the prospective customers can access the circular as an
inset of the available newspapers.
8. It makes use of a heading which attracts the readers to know more about
the information that is circulating as recommended by AIDA (attention,
interest, desire, action). Thus when someone reads it, interest is stimulated
and one can grow a desire to seek for the product being advertised and
eventually purchase the product.
9. It is highly effective for dissemination of information as that can be done
through supermarkets bulletin, within daily newspapers, at door to door or
in mail package.
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10. Sometimes internal circulars are signed for by the workers or employees
which means that no one can ignore the document and is expected to take
the respective action
7.4.2 Disadvantages of using a Circular

1. It is viewed as an outdated form of communication.
2. When a hard copy is produced, it is in a rigid form, limiting flexibility of
the amount of information carried
3. May fail to reach all the potential readers because of limited access in
some situations
4. It is also not possible for the illiterate to read the circular, they have to
rely on other people who may also represent the information.
5. Use of jargon on the circular may create barriers to communication.
You have taken your time to learn about the business letter, the circular
and the memorandum, now you will learn about the notice which is also
useful in business communication.
7.4.3 Notice
It is a document that is generated to pass information within an organisation. It is

also classified as a method of mass communication. It provides a fast and
attractive means of communicating. It is usually written in big fond size so that
individuals can read it from a distance and grasp the meaning in a short space of
time. It is usually displayed at a bulletin board where everyone within the
organisation has access. It may also be displayed where most people converge
like in the canteen, or even the staff room. It is necessary to display it at a point
where most people have a chance to read it.
The message on the notice is usually simple and precise. It carries a clear heading
and space utilization is designed in such a way that the few words that are
inscribed are not congested within the page used. Preferably use of border lines
keeps the words intact and easy to read. A notice uses key words and sometimes
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phrases using capital letters or the major words can be underlined. Most visible on
a notice are dates, time and even telephone numbers.
In addition, an important point to note is that, a notice is rightly put up by an

individual in authority and the information is disseminated going downwards the
structures usually outlining instructions. A notice demands compliance from the
recipients. A notice requires a specific outlook which is different from the
circular, memo and business letter. You are encouraged to note the difference
among the various documents that organisations are making use of. Figure 6
below illustrates a notice.
Figure 6: Image of a Notice
7.4.4 Notice of a Meeting
There is yet another aspect of notices that you are expected to. You should be
accustomed to how notices for meetings are prepared. The way a notice is written
for a more formal meeting and a less formal meeting is written is slightly
different.
Whenever a notice is prepared, adequate notice must be given to the members of

that gathering of the date, time and agenda or the purpose of the meeting, with
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specific reference to organisational requirements. By the time the members of the
gathering meet, they should be ready and acquainted with what is to be discussed
so that they can contribute meaningfully. The notice should always be dispatched
by the proper authority. For example a company secretary could be calling for a
senior management meeting and this should be consistent with the Companies Act
in terms of how the notice is done. Where the Companies Act is not available for
use, the constitution for the organisation can direct how the notice should be
designed.
A notice of this nature discussed above is very important because it has legal
implications. In this case there is need to study the existing policies indicating
how the notice should be administered.A notice is expected to be very clear so
that there are no misconceptions or misinterpretations from the readers. From an
academic point of view, when a notice fails to serve its purpose, it means goals of
the organisation may be prejudiced especially where important decisions are to be
made. Sometime it is important to know that if members do not prepare adequate
information that affect the decisions or resolutions to be made for the organisation
to survive e.g. competition on the global market.
Carefully study a sample of a notice displayed below;-

NOTICE OF MEETING FOR STRATEGIC REVIEW BY SOZANA SHOE
COMPANY
NOTICE IS HEREBY GIVEN FOR THE 2016 END OF YEAR STRATEGIC REVIEW
MEETING that will be held on Friday 22 November 2016 at 09.00 at the Townhouse office No.
129 Gregory Street, Harare for the following purposes:
1.To receive a report and approve a report of the Directors

2. To review and appoint new strategies to penetrate the market in the year 2017
3.Any other matter of which due notice has been given
By order of the Board
T. Drully
Corporate Secretary
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If communication of a notice in this case is not done to standard, business goals and
objectives tend to suffer.
7.5 SUMMARY
This chapter has focused on key documents that are used to facilitate business activities
and these include the business letter, the memorandum, the circular and the notice. It is
important for you to understand the value of each type of document and how best it can
be used in your organisation. Due care must be given so that the design of each document
follows the expected standards so that meanings or content of each document is not
distorted. The F Cs remain very critical so that documents send clear, concise, correct and
courteous messages. The next chapter focuses on electronic communication as part of the
global trends in today’s business world.
1. Define each of the following:- notice, circular, memorandum.
2. Explain the difference between a notice and a circular.
3. Write a memo to staff advising them of an additional safety rule. Reflect all the
important details of the memorandum.
4. Explain each of the characteristics of a business letter.
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CHAPTER 8: ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION
Upon completion of this document you should be able to:-
1.Define electronic communication
2. Explain the various ways in which electronic communication takes place
3. Identify the advantages of electronic communication to business
4. Identify the disadvantages of electronic communication to business.
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8.0 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapter, you learnt about the various documents that are used to
disseminate information within and outside the organisation. These include the business
letter, the memorandum, the notice and the circular. It is therefore important for you to
assess and understand the applicability of these documents so as to improve business
communication. This chapter however takes you to yet another very important concept
called electronic communication. The advent of globalization has seen the world being
exposed to developments in technology which have indeed impacted on communication
systems. As such you need to be conversant with how today’s communication has been
influenced by technology.Technology is not static and human resources managers have to
track developments in communication so that their organisations are not seen to lag
behind as that will ultimately impact negatively.
8.1 DEFINITION OF ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION
The Electronic Communications Act, Norway, 2003 defines electronic communication

as, transmission of sound, text, pictures or other data using electromagnetic signals in free
space or by cable in a system for signal transmission.
The term electronic communication refers to the transfer of writing, signals, data, sounds,
images, signs or intelligence sent via an electronic device. There are several examples of
e-communication that include the following:-
i) E-mail
ii) Text messages
iii) Social media messaging
iv) Image sharing
v) Instant messaging
vi) Social networking websites
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vii) Voice mail
viii) Video chat
Today’s business cannot be divorced form the various forms of electronic

communication. Organisation have to move with the times. When people are at work they
interact with each other or with those that are outside the organisation. Electronic
communication is a way of communication that is driving people away from the
traditional means of communication. You need to know that electronic communication is
set to enhance business because it is fast, user friendly and has a chance to reach anyone
on the globe. Hence in this case the various forms of e-communication stated above can
always be employed depending on the suitability if the form required.
E-communication is enabled through computer technology. A computer is a

programmable electronic device that is designed to accept data, perform prescribed
mathematical and logical operations at high speed and display results of these operations.
The desktop, laptop, tablets and smartphones are examples of different computers that
can be used in today’s organisations to ensure communication is more effective and
efficient. There is need to learn why it is important to use E-communication in business.
8.2 IMPORTANCE OF E-COMMUNICATION
E-Communication is ICT based and is basically passing of information socially and in

business.Anyakoha (1991) defines information technology as the use of manna made
tools for the collection, generation, communication, recording, re-management and
exploitation of information. It enhances business and enables long distance
communication with clients or customers and or any stakeholders of different companies.
i) It helps to interact with many people

ii) The interaction is easy as it is computerized
iii) One message can be sent to many recipients which was not possible with
traditional approach
iv) The use of instant message is even faster than the email at the point of pressing
“Enter” on the keyboard.
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v) Use of social media like the Face book, connects people through mass sharing of
life events
vi) It excludes the tedious paper work
vii) Use of Skype allows for teleconferencing as well as holding job interviews with
candidates around the globe taking away the traditional need to see the candidates
physically at the employer’s premise
viii) Purchases and banking can now be done through online saving a lot of literal
movement to e.g. cue for bank transactions as what used to happen traditionally.
ix) E-communication is highly flexible as a lot of activities can happen to facilitate
business e.g. the video, photo text or sound can all be used
x) Allows for virtual communication to take place i.e. where transmission of
information is achieved through to remote or distant locations where people
cannot be face to face. Schools and colleges are also going virtual.
While we have viewed the importance of using e- communication in our organisation,

you need to understand one of the most important electronic gadgets that has assisted in
transforming business communication. It is the computer.
8.3 WHAT IS A COMPUTER?
SeemaSirpal, Dehli University Computer Centre, defines a computer as an electric device

that stores, retrieves and processes data and can be programmed with instructions. The
University Computer centre adds that a computer is composed of hardware and software
and can exist in a variety of sizes and configurations.
It is understood as an electronic device that is capable of receiving information (data) in a

particular form and then performs a series of operations. The computer is able to do so in
accordance to the given set of instructions. The instructions also refer to the program that
produces a result in the form of information or signals.
The computer can be used in communication but it relies on its connectivity to the
internet. Internet refers to the global system of interconnected computer networks that
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utilize the internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to link devices worldwide. The computer
therefore relies on what is called computer networking.
8.3.1 Computer Networking
A computer network refers to a set of computers that are connected for the
purpose of sharing resources like the internet, printer or even the file server. The
internet is also a network of computers. The networking allows for exchange of
information. If there are two computers and we need them to share information
we need both the hardware and the software.
Figure 7: The Computer Hardware
Hardware refers to the collection of physical parts of a computer system.The hardware

includes the computer case, monitor, keyboard, and mouse. The hardware also includes
all the parts inside the computer case, such as the hard disk drive, motherboard, video
card, and many others. Summarily the computer hardware is what can be physically
handled.
The software refers to a universal word for organized collections of computer data and
instructions as well as application software used to accomplish specific tasks. In real
work situations there various computers that are used and at some point they need to be
linked thus an understanding of hardware and software enlightens the actions to be taken.
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Below are examples of computer software:-
Figure 8: Computer Soft Ware
Networking involves the use of the following jargon which you need to basically
understand likethe local area network (LAN) and the wide area network (WAN).
8.4 LOCAL AREA NETWORK AND WIDE AREA NETWORK (LAN)
A local area network is a group of computers and associated devices that share a common
communications line or wireless link to a server within a distinct geographical area such
as an office or a commercial establishment. LAN enables computers and other mobile
devices to share resources like the printer or storage network.
8.5 WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN)
A wide area network (WAN) is a geographically distributed private

telecommunications network that interconnects multiple local area networks (LANs). In
an enterprise, a WAN may consist of connections to a company's headquarters, branch
offices, colocation facilities, cloud services and other facilities. Typically, a router or
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other multifunction device is used to connect a LAN to a WAN. Enterprise WANs allow
users to share access to applications, services and other centrally located resources. This
eliminates the need to install the same application server, firewall or other resource in
multiple locations, for example.Besides learning about the (LAN) and the (WAN) you
need to understand more about the internet as it is capable of improving business
communication.
8.6 INTERNET
The Federal Networking Council defines internet as the global information system that is
logically linked together by a globally unique address space based on the Internet
Protocol (IP) or its subsequent extensions/follow-ons. It is a means of connecting a
computer to any other computer anywhere in the world via dedicated router and servers.
It is proper for organisations to use the internet for business communication because it
enables the sending and receiving of all kinds of information which include the text,
graphics, and voice, video and computer programs. The internet has capacity to offer
virtual communication. You can conduct job interviews on the Skype as opposed to the
traditional interview where a candidate needs to physically appear at the company
premise.
The internet also provides the talk and chat packages where employees can connect to
other users and hold conversations pertaining to business issues through a microphone.
As one talks, messages are send back on headphones through the microphone that is worn
by the user. The employees eventually gain more knowledge in the field from all over the
globe. Another advantage of being connected to the internet is that free software can be
obtained.
Purchases for company items required in the production process can also be obtainable
on line instead of making physical advances to make transactions. The internet provides
the platform to search different products or services on line. Understanding the facilities
that come with the internet is crucial for organisational members. The internet gives
access to the use of the e-mail which is a very important business communication tool.
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8.7 E-MAIL
The Halifax Public Libraries define an e-mail as a message sent from one computer to
another over the internet. E-mail means electronic mail. However you need to note that
you can also use the e-mail independent of being connected to the internet. It is similar to
the traditional postal service. It is usually usable through web mail service like the Gmail
or Yahoomail. Besides the use of the email sending messages we also have the text
messaging, instant messaging, live chat and video mail which you are soon to learn
about. We are going to study how the email is usable in business.
8.7.1 How the E mail is used in Business Communication
The original use of the email was in the social media but to date it has been
adopted in the formal arena and has proved to be very effective. It is quite
inexpensive to use although it requires internet communication which would
readily be available in the organisation. It relies on delivery of soft copies as
opposed to the traditional mailing which would require volumes of paper work to
be printed and sent through the post office.
All the soft copies of mail send or received can be saved and sent to archiving but
all mail would still be retrieved when required for use. In fact most organisations
are making use of the email, which means that if your organisation has not yet
adopted it, it tends to be behind technology thereby losing valuable information
for business activities.
It is however important for organisational member to know how to send and

receive emails, otherwise information can be sent and remain unread which
eventually creates communication barriers. Every Email user is expected to have
an Email address which is created by way of registering a password that is
individually owned. The best way to understand the use of the email is to get to
practice how it is done. It is important to know the icons on the computer which
will help you to give instructions to the computer so that your mailing process
becomes successful.
When sending letters on email, other documents can also be attached to the mail
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so that the receiver can access more information on business. Basically, all the
mail that is received reflects on the user’s inbox while all the letters that are sent
reflect on the outbox. What is important for users in organisation it to have time to
constantly check the mail and give the necessary responses in order to make the
communication process complete.
When information has been received through the e mail the user can desire to
download it and make personal copies. This is quite possible as long as the
computer is given the right instructions for the download.
Because of electronic communication the concept of e-commerce has emerged

with high impact on the market. E-commerce stands for electronic commerce
which means that individuals can make business transactions through buying and
selling on line. The internet affords your company to buy products and services
from other companies through e-commerce and it is faster and user friendly.
While email is very effective you need to consider its strengths and weaknesses
on application.
8.7.2 Strengths of using the email
i) It helps to share information with colleagues within an organisation
ii) Helps to dispatch messages to all staff instantaneously
iii) It is very fast and easy to use and inexpensive
iv) When the email is saved, it can become proof of a message send or
received between parties. Messages can be archived and searched later
v) It can be used to market products
vi) It is capable of increasing productivity especially on marketing and getting

new clients and provide customer service
vii) Information can be accessed on the phone or on the computer
viii) Communication lines can be kept open and collaboration is increased
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ix) Communication access is available even out of office
x) Can be effectively used in collaboration with colleagues during business

operation
xi) The filing of information is not cumbersome as compared to parework.
8.7.3 Weaknesses of using the email
i) Email can be hacked and sensitive information gets exposed
ii) Can lie idle on the machine if not opened
iii) Can lie idle if the receiver is computer illiterate
iv) If there is no power supply the internet can be down causing barriers in
communication
v) It takes away the face to face social interaction which is very important in
relationships
The email is not the only way to send messages as organisations can also make
use of the following facilities that include text messaging, instant messaging,
twitter, my space, you tube and others. However it is important to note how these
can be gainfully used for business communication.
8.8 TEXT MESSAGING
Text messaging is a practice that involves the sending of an electric message over a
cellular network from one cell to another. It usually uses the shortened forms of
vocabulary. The messaging has several advantages which include the following:-
8.8.1 Advantages of Text Messaging
i) Most of the text messages do not lie idle like in the email, thy get read
quickly.
ii) The message is time sensitive and immediate and the receiver usually gets
it
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iii) The message is quite personal and it can be accessed anywhere
iv) It does not require internet connection
v) It is download free
vi) Allows organisations to own their audience and always keep in touch with
customer/clients
vii) Messages can be received silently
viii) Messages can also be sent in a conference form
While organisations can make use of sending business messages through the text,
it is important to observe the shortcomings that go with this method of
disseminating information.
8.8.2 Disadvantages of Text Messaging
i) Despised as an unprofessional way of communicating
ii) Makes use of short messages that include slang which attracts message
distortion
iii) It is difficult to tell the tone that comes with a text message as compared
with face to face communication
iv) They can distract the required attention and it is time consuming to keep
on checking messages
The other way of sending business communication is through instant messaging

and you are now going to critically study this facility.
8.9 INSTANT MESSAGING
Instant messaging is a way of sending messages electronically where it uses internet chat
conversations to relay information back and forth in real time. While it originated from
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the social media platform, organisations are also making use of it. However as it is used,
there is need to consider the advantages and disadvantages encountered.
8.10 ADVANTAGES OF INSTANT MESSAGING
i) It is cost saving as compared when paying for the long distance phone
ii) It offers convenience as one can answer while looking at the computer screen
doing other business
iii) Provides record keeping hence archiving of messages is possible for future use.
8.11 DISADVANTAGES OF INSTANT MESSAGING
i) Viruses and spyware can come along with the messages and they can damage the
computer.
ii) Sensitive information can be exposed when someone is reading your message
behind your shoulder
iii) Confidential information can be hacked especially that which interferes with
business intelligence.
It is also interesting to note that the internet also unveils the use of twitter as a method of
sending messages in business. My Space can also be used to send messages in
businessbut you need to have a critical look of its utility.
8.12 MYSPACE
Myspace is a social networking website offering an interactive, user submit network of

friends, personal profiles, blogs, groups, photos, music and videos. It can be used to
obtain new business partners and suppliers. Note that my space is mostly used on the
social media platform.
The Face Book is another way in which organisations can pass messages.
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8.13 TWITTER
Twitter is a free online social networking service used to send/receive short messages
within a specified group. The twitter is capable offending messages to a predetermined
list, however it can only transfer short messages. It helps in exchange of messages among
workmates. Besides communicating in social circles, twitter has several ways in which it
can be used in business communication.Helps to transmit instantaneous messages and log
information
i) Drives traffic to a blog and or a website so that many people access information
ii) New ideas are discovered and developed in your industry
iii) Breaking news in the industry can be accessed
Another way in which are sent is through the Facebook. Companies can have a Facebook
page which is a popular free social networking website that allows registered users to
create profiles, upload photos and video and send messages to others. Companies can use
it to publicize events and contact are readily made available. The other way in which
business communication can take place is through the Skype.
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8. 14 THE SKYPE
The Skype can be used or on the phone or on the computer to share experiences. In the
work place, customers and business partners can be brought together for business
activities. Today’s organisations are using the Skype for holding job interviews saving
costs of travelling and saving time as well.
8.15 WHATSAPP
This facility is termed WhatsApp Messenger which is an ad-free messaging service for
all major smartphones from WhatsApp wholly owned by Facebook. It uses the internet as
an alternative to SMS text messaging.
Whatsapp is yet another popular facility that is being used to pass messages
The use of WhattsApp has become prevalent organisations as well though it was mainly
dominating in the social media. Some of the advantages of using this facility include:
i) Increased connectivity around the globe
ii) Ability to share videos, photos, audio and documents
iii) Uses call over data or WhattsApp call using voice around the globe
iv) Able to make effective group messaging
v) Capable of making smart replies
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While the facility has several advantages it has some weaknesses as well:-
8.16 DISADVANTAGES OF WHATTSAPP
i) Time is lost while user is unaware
ii) Suspends relationships
iii) Reduces productivity
iv) Nuisance if not on mute
Share
The other related concept that you need to learn about in business communication is the
use of mobile internet, while one is outside the office. In this case the laptops and
smartphones become very handy.
8.17 LAPTOP
A laptop is a computer that is portable or easily carried from one place to another.
Because it is portable one can use it while travelling or out of office. The laptop then
relies on satellite connections for it to access information. The use of the laptop has
several advantages that promote business communication.
i) It offers extended use outside the office giving convenience to business

communication
ii) They give remote access to e-mail
iii) Supply full functionality of a desktop offering the variety of office software
iv) Have capacity to be connected to the internet or one’s business computer network
via the wireless technology
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v) Is usable for a variety of purposes by sales people as they make business
presentations, make quotations and make online orders while on customers’
premises. It takes the hustle away from the buyer having to travel to the supplier’s
premise for purchases.
vi) Offers flexible working outside the office creating convenience for the user.
vii) Promotes contact between user and hi/her company while out of office
The use of laptops is effective but it has its own shortcomings which you should be aware
of.
i) Tablet keyboards can be too small and cumbersome to use
ii) The laptop can easily be stolen presenting security issues after losing valuable
business information
iii) The Wi-fi can be used to access the internet, but you cannot always access the Wi
fi.
8.18 SMARTPHONE
A smartphone is an electronic gadget that is usable and performs functions of a computer.

It has a touch screen interface, internet access. Its operating system is capable of running
downloaded apps. It is mobile phone that performs many of the functions of a
computer.Organisational members can use smartphone to facilitate business
communication but there is need to learn about the associated advantages and
disadvantages.
8.18.1Advantages of the Smartphone
i) Can be used for customer service getting to know complains so that they
can be attended to through twitter and Face Book
ii) Helps to check email regularly and even access bank account records
while out of the bank
iii) Private information can be protected
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iv) Eliminates reliance on the phone network as you can access the public
Wi-fi hotspots
v) You can make use of Google maps as you travel around on business
vi) You can use it to write a business report
vii) You can connect to all your business files while on the travel
While the use of the smartphone can promote your communication lines you need
to observe its weaknesses which include the following:-
i) Smartphone can be highly addictive, disturbing other activities that need

to be done within or out of business.
ii) One can lose courtesy and become rude because you have to attend to
your phone at the wrong place and wrong time
iii) Because of its size, it is easy to lose and if the battery is low, it is difficult
to get it.
iv) It is expensive to buy and calls are more expensive on the smartphone than
the home phone
v) Smartphone pause security risks on losing it since it carries a lot of

information
vi) A smartphone has a risk of being hacked and one can be traceable
wherever you are.
vii) Smartphones are threatened by water, if exposed they breakdown and the
screen also beaks on falling down.
While studying more about electronic communication there is need for you to
understand the concept of virtual communication.
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8.19 VIRTUAL COMMUNICATION
Virtual communication refers to a modern technological phenomenon through which

transmission of information and or action is achieved to the remote or distant location.
Virtual communication has become a topical issue because most organisations are
making use of it. It has several advantages that include bringing people close to each
other via the web despite long distances. Employees can literally attend business
meetings without having to travel. The exercise eventually reduces cost and saves time
between the communicating parties and it even faster and simpler for both parties. For
example human resource officers from different branches of a company could be meeting
virtually to discuss and planning training and development for the oncoming year. Virtual
communication can help to build business relationships and can end up securing long
lasting business contacts. While virtual communication can be employed for business
communication it has its own shortcomings which include the following:-
i) If there is power disruption the virtual meeting cannot materialize

ii) It takes away the very important face to face interaction
iii) Computers in use can be attacked by virus which disrupts operations.
iv) The building of close relationships suffer because of elimination of face to face
interaction.
v) Companies tend to face stiff competition as they observe the adverts from their
competitors
vi) Hacking can also affect virtual communication
vii) Sometimes individuals tend to cheat on who they are in terms of capacity
We have studied various ways in which business communication can be facilitated by

computer systems effectively, but there is yet another area which needs your knowledge.
The concept that you should be aware of is about computer viruses.
8.20 COMPUTER VIRUS
A computer virus is a piece of code that is capable of copying itself and typically has a
detrimental effect of corrupting a system or destroying data in a computer. The computer
virus is capable of attacking the computer and the networking systems through
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contaminated or infected data files. The viruses can be introduced into the system via
disks or the internet. When the virus attacks, it automatically replicates itself and it
spreads t other computers or networks. The only way to continue using electronic
communication successfully is to be well versed in dealing with the computer viruses.
Computer viruses can threaten entire networks and websites and that can impact
negatively on business. At times the viruses can even cause a computer to crash.
Sometimes viruses come with emails as an attachment and if its run it attacks the user’s
machine.
8.21 COMPLICATIONS THAT COME WITH THE COMPUTER VIRUSES
i) They can ruin a system and render is useless

ii) It is capable of changing the existing systems
iii) It replicate itself and disperses to other victims
iv) It makes systems to run slowly than the expected speed
v) Systems may freeze and may fail to reboot resulting in loss of data or information
crucial for the business
vi) They attach worms that will exploit systems vulnerability in an application that
the computer is running.
It is therefore to make use of computer experts that check computer systems for
organisations who can recommend and effect ways in which the computer viruses can be
counteracted. The following are a few examples of how to secure operating systems from
the computer viruses:-
i) Defense from a computer worm requires a personal firewall or a corporate

firewall.
ii) There is need to regularly run an anti-virus software and should be updated
weekly.
iii) If an email is identified as having a virus, the message should be deleted before
opening
iv) Scan for viruses even if there is no sign of viruses on the machine
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Note that much of such operations to deal with the anti-virus in your organisationis best
dealt with ICT specialists who understand the jargon better. Last but not least, it is
important for you to understand that organisations can also make use of what are called
search engines.
8.22 THE SEARCH ENGINE
The search engine is associated with the use of the World Wide Web (www). It is a
software system that is designed to search for information on the World Wide Web.
When searches have been done, information consisting of the web pages, images and
other types of files are obtained.
Examples of search engines include the following:-
1. Google which is the best search engine in the world and is the most visited site.
2. Bing
3. Yahoo
There are several other search engines but these are the best three in the world.
8.23 TELEPHONE COMMUNICATION
Telephone communication is a device that converts sound and electrical waves into
audible relays, and is used forcommunication. The telephone consists of two essential
parts; a microphone and a speaker. ...Telephones are made in a variety of forms,
including a subset of the device called a cell phone or mobilephone also called phone.
The telecommunication uses voice and it is linked to a service provider like Tel One in
Zimbabwe.
8.24 THE TELEPHONE SYSTEM
The telephone system is very essential in organisations as it has capacity to link different
offices within the organisation and with other outside links. Now we look at a business
phone system. A business phone system can range from just a few telephones in a small
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business up to a complex private branch exchange (PBX) system utilized by large
businesses. Business telephone systems can function over the Public Switched
Telephone Network (PSTN) and/or over the Internet (Internet telephony or VoIP).The
telephone system can be found in two set ups named analogue and digital one. The
analog lines are also referred to as the Plain Old Telephone Service (POTS). These
support standard phones, fax machines and modems. Such phones are found in homes or
the smaller offices while in large or corporate organisations, the digital lines are made use
of.
8.25 DIGITAL LINES
A digital telephone line or digital trunk is a type of telephone line that carries voice
and/or data by using digital sampling. By converting analog signals to digital, these types
of trunks allow for more information to be transferred over a single connection.
Note that the analog is the old telephone system service (POTS) which supports the
standard phones, fax machines and modems while the digital phone is the one that uses
technology that breaks an audio or video signal into binary code.
8.26 THE IMPORTANCE OF USING THE TELEPHONE IN BUSINESS
Although the telephone is slower than the digital phone it is reasonable to use it because t
offers:-
i) Immediate contact with partners using voice

ii) It offers a personal contact
iii) Is capable of picking a receiver’s emotion
iv) It is effective because probing can be done for further understanding
v) It offers interaction
vi) Offers confidentiality
vii) Safe to use because it is used when one is not driving as on cellphone
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8.26.1 Advantages of the Telephone
i) it is quick and easy to use
ii) it is less expensive
iii) can access long distances
8.27 DISADVANTAGES OF THE TELEPHONE
i) absence of face to face communication
ii) voice may not be clear
iv) limits face to face interaction
iv) is slower
8.28 SUMMARY
The chapter on electronic communication is very necessary for you to understand because
most organisations are relying on e- communication these days. This means that if you
are to be an effective business communicator you need to understand the technology that
is unveiled in e-communication. You are therefore reminded to remember the following;-
The use of the e-mail, text messaging, instant messaging, Skype and such others
notwithstanding that each facility faces its own challenges. However the advances in
technology cannot guarantee us sticking to the traditional means of business
communication which is expensive, slow and not user friendly. As the technology in
communication advances there is need to obtain the skills that make our business
operations relevant. Without catching up with globalization our business will remain
uncompetitive, will fail to grow or sustain themselves. Therefore business
communication is a very important area which must be understood by human resources
practitioners so that their organisations can become more effective and efficient.
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1. Briefly explain each of the following terms:-
i) electronic communication
ii) e- commerce
iii) Computer
iv) computer virus
v) hardware
vi) software
2. Explain the differences between Local Area Network (LAN) and Wide Area
Network (WAN) and explain their application to your organisation.
3. Assess the use of the email in business communication.
4. Evaluate the use of virtual communication with reference to practical examples.
5. Justify the importance of the Internet use on modern business communication.

6. With the aid of relevant examples explain the challenges that are associated with
the use of the internet in your organisation
7. Outline the various social networking facilities that can be adopted for use by
formal organisation giving practical examples of how they can be applicable.
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CHAPTER 9:REPORT WRITING
Upon the completion of this chapter you should be able to:-
1. Define a Report
2. Identify different types of reports
3. Identify the various formats of reports
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9.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapter, you learnt about electronic communication. The coming of
globalization has introduced a lot of technology which has largely impacted on
communication in organisations. From what you have studied in the previous, chapter
you can see the paradigm shift from the traditionally based form of communication to the
modern aspects. The 21 st Century has witnessed the transformation of communication
systems, hence the individuals working in today’s organisations cannot be left behind.
Thus new skills are required to deal with the computerized information systems. The use
of the internet has largely improved communication locally and globally, so it is very
important gain more skills in this area so that our organisations remain relevant.In this
chapter thefocus ison how to handle report writing.
9.2 DEFINITION OF A REPORT
Sillars (1988) highlights that report writing differs in nature but the principles are
generally the same. The principles according to Sillars (1988) include the following:-
knowing why the report is being written, knowing the content, keeping records accurate
relevant and concise, logical presentation of ideas, use of language that is suitable to the
reader using clear headings and using experience when judging as well as giving
suggestions and recommendations.
A report can be presented in varied ways like, narrative, graphic or tabular form. At times
it is produced periodically, thus making it recur after a defined period or it can be
prepared on ad hoc basis. It is necessary to realize that a report can be presented orally or
in a written form.
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9.3 THE PURPOSE OF A REPORT
When a report is written, it is meant to communicate information which has been

compiled as a result of research and analysis of data and of issues. A report can take
different forms but it is best to know the format of the required report before presenting
one. Reports serve different purposes.
However it is expected to clearly explain the circumstance at hand usually dealing with a
problem in detail. The information compiled should assist management to solve complex
issues. The information compiled must be reliable so as to give limelight to management.
The report must create a record that will be a future reference. Reports can cover a wide
range of topics but it must be focused on its purpose and meet the demands of its
audience. The scope and the style of writing differs with the purpose. Some reports are
called monthly or yearly reports, while others may be reporting on an incident after a
problem has occurred e.g. an accident in the factory. To a large extent a report can be
used to judge the performance of a department.
9.4 TYPES OF REPORTS
Reports can be formal or informal.
The Informal Report
The informal report is used to inform analyze and recommend and it can be in the form of
a memo or even a letter. It is not lengthy and usually written according to an
organisation’s style. Mainly an informal report addresses daily problems. It is short and
meant for narrow and internal organisational readership reader-ship. Examples of the
informal report includes the progress report, financial report or an evaluation report.
9.5 THE FORMAL REPORT
Humber Liberal Arts & Sciences states different types of business reports and these
include, the periodic, conference, progress, investigative, recommendation and feasibility
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reports. The reports are official documents that contains detailed information, research
and data necessary to make business decisions and are written to solve a problem. The
reports are usually divided into three sections namely front section, main section, and
back section.Noticeable on a formal report is that data has to be collected and interpreted
and the task is usually complex in nature as it requires a high official level. In fact it is
usually a written account of a major project. The following are examples of formal
reports; inspection, safety, compliance, audit, incident, annual and situational. A
company’s annual report can be used at board meeting for major decisions hence it
attracts correct details. At times a study is called for and it requires a formal report.
Within the formal reports we have the informational and the analytical reports. The
informational report is meant to gather data and facts that can be used to draw
conclusions while the analytical report has the same information as the informational
report but it offers some recommendations to solve the problem.
9.6 INFORMATIONAL REPORT
The informational report gathers data and facts used to draw conclusions. The analytical
report contains the same information as the informational report, but it also offers
recommendations to solve a problem. The informational report is meant to understand the
make the reader understand a particular situation. An example of such a report can be that
which gives e.g. statistics on the number of people that require medical services in a
given residential area. When such information is collected it will give indicators as to
whether a clinic or medical centre would be required as a full utilized facility. An
analytical report is more detailed than an informational report.
9.7 ANALYTICAL REPORT
The analytical report is different form the informational report because it endeavour to
provide more detail other than just a mere exposition of results. While results are
presented, they are further analyzed allowing conclusions to be drawn founded form the
existing results. The analytic is known to address the why and how of a happening giving
a further account or clarification of the results. The presentation is not general. In
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addition the analytical report, based on its results will suggest options or actions to be
taken to address an identified problem. Sometimes it even spells out some recommended
procedures. An example could be how to ensure safety procedures are in place in an
industry that uses boilers like in a thermal power station. Workers become prone to
accidents if reports of previous and related incidents are not well documented in the form
of analytical report. Besides the informational and the analytical reports we also have the
recommendation reports.
9.8 RECOMMENDATION REPORTS
When a problem has occurred, investigations are done that follow report writing. With
recommendation reports, particular course of action are presented for possible
implementation. A recommendation report is also analytical but it goes further to justify
which course of action to take. After a problem has been analyzed. It closely examines
the costs and benefits aligned to the implementation of a decision. For example when
there is a debate over product quality, it may be necessary to upgrade the machinery or
equipment which could be more efficient in churning out the desired quality of product
against the time that the product is manufactured. Generally recommendations are based
on justification of the actions to be taken. Recommendations are characterized by a cost
and benefit analysis. There is an absolute need to weigh the options to be taken.
9.9 REPORT WRITING
Report writing is guided by proper planning and it strictly depends on the recipient/s of
the report who may have specified expectations. Before the report is written, it is
important to outline the purpose of the report after which specific or explicit questions are
formulated. Once the questions are there they guide the collection of the relevant data in
the form of a research. The questions do help to reveal some responses that are used to
draw valid conclusions. Usually when conclusions are made, it opens up for
recommendations to be made which suggest how a problem is solved.
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9.10 TYPES OF REPORTS
The common types of reports are the narrative, specialized or may be reporting on an
accident.A narrative report is usually done as an appraisal presented in a descriptive form
but written in a logical manner, while a specialized report is done based on specialized
law enforcement following a particular chronology. The accident report provides a
detailed description of the location of the accident and how it occurred. It is however to
note that report writing is very important and it is necessary to know the format of report
writing.
9.11 THE REPORT FORMAT
The format usually has a standard set up which encompasses the following steps:
i) The Title Page which must include

 The title
 The name of the author of the report
 The recipient of the report
 Date of submission
 The Department
ii) Acknowledgements
 A list of people and organisations who have helped you in the compilation of
report and other related work.
iii) Contents Page which includes the following
 A well formatted list of all the sections and sub-sections of the report
 Information should located by the correct page number
iv) The Abstract
 covering a summary of the major points, conclusions and recommendations
v) Introduction
 explaining the nature of the problem
 illustrating why the report has been compiled
vi) Body carries the Analysis
 it is usually the longest section, revealing the facts that have been discovered
including the investigation details
 information is presented in simple but explicit manner making it easier for the
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reader to understand the conclusions and recommendations.
 regarded as the main section of the report, subdivided by several subtitles. The
sub titles include Review of Related Literature, Research Methodology
 discussions over the findings are inclusive of the significance of each finding
vii) Conclusions and Recommendations
 These are drawn from the implications of findings with deductions which are
emanating from the stated facts in the main body or rather based on the
emerging datainclusive of the emerging trends. The significance and relevance
of the study is also discussed.
 Recommendations is the section where directives or advice based on the
research and conclusions are presented.
viii) References
 Indicates details of the sources referred to in the document
 These can be citations from journals, periodicals, websites, and studies.
The end of a report can also include what is called an Appendix where additional
information supporting the report is inserted. These can include charts, graphs that
can be referred to.
Summary outlook of a report contains the following important main sections

1. Front Section
2. Main Section
3. Back Session
It is important for you to look back and identify the major components of each
section of a report.
9.12 SAMPLE OF A REPORT ON AN ACCIDENT AT AN ORGANISATION
The format differs from company to company but Goedhalls et al (199:115) provided the
following sample:-
Name of injured person………………………………………….
Occupation……………………………………………………….
Department……………………………………………………….
Time………………………………………………………………
Place………………………………………………………………
Date……………………………………………………………….
Description of Accident…………………………………………...
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…………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………….
Witness…………………………………………………………….
Report compiled by………………………………………………..
Signature…………………………………………………………..
Reference Number………………………………………………...
Date………………………………………………………………..
9.13 IMPORTANCE OF REPORT WRITING IN ORGANISATIONS
It remains an important internal communication tool in organisations as it is able to give

feedback to employees supplying information as well as offering direction as to how the
problem can be handled. Whenever a report is written, it is meant to assist the decision
makers and planners as they will rely on the reliable information being supplied. Reports
are also known to unveil unknown information for long term planning which can even
open up new business opportunities. Managers and heads of departments also make use
of the information for improvement on operations. Reports are supposed to be kept safe
because they are an important source of reference to business operations.
Future activities are designed after observing information from the previous reports of a
company. An example can be the accident related report that helps to redesign safety
policies in the organisations. When accidents are prevented then an organisation stands to
save costs arising from damaged property or even loss of life where a company
eventually has to compensate the deceased’s family.
Reports are based on data collection such that all the information that the managers
receive is very valuable to business in various ways. The information can be used to
compare e.g. profits in defined periods and meaningful comparison can be done in order
to make more meaningful decisions. Progress can be properly gauged using information
from periodic reports. At times the formulation of budgets is becomes more workable
looking at the previous budgets. It is not usable for formulation of budgets alone, but may
also be used to identify products mostly on demand and hence be able to plot a demand
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curve of a defined product. Where a problem has been identified product research can be
recommended. If there are any weaknesses or any areas that were being overlooked the
reports will show the trend. Planning of business activities is closely related to reports.
When an organisation needs to expand business are required to produce previous

operations e.g. to a financier or may need to produce tax returns. All such information
adds value to business operations. In some instances the business may need to be sold,
hence the asking price needs to be justified and the reports become a basis for the value
of the business.
In some instances the annual report is a pillar to corporate business, especially where the
company may need to look for new clientele or may need to create an identity or an
image. Thus with a detailed annual report employees, investors and clients can build a
complete picture of a company’s operations. The annual report is equally usable as a
marketing tool. Expansion of business also relies on business reports because the
financial history of a company is always required.
9.14 THE MEDIA REPORT
This is a special type of report that is based on a story that can appear on social media. It
highlights what a company does and, what has been happening and what will be
happening. It can also present quite some argumentative issues trying to justify the
relevance of products or services on offer. It can be a story about customers of a
company. This can be complied every week talking about on-going developments in the
company and are a means of communicating to a large group of people through the news,
radio or even the television.
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Writing of media reports is quite dynamic because the ideas to be incorporated include
getting ideas in front of your customers with the aim of expanding the brand. The media
report is effective if it can maintain the reader’s interest. For example the media report
should be eye catching, such that from just looking at the heading, the customers want to
read the material and then strive to maintain continuous interest.
There are many ways to catch a reader. For example, the use of interesting language or
expression will maintain the readers’ interest and they get to know more about the
company. Media report writing demands accuracy of facts and that they should address
the what, when, why and how questions about the services or products on offer by a
company. Because it is a media report it has to be done in an entertaining manner.
It has been noted that when handling media report writing there is need to engage what is
called the inverted pyramid style of writing where details of the presentation are written
in a descending manner, i.e. This implies that details are given in an order of their
importance, beginning with the order of importance. The important and newest
information comes first and the oldest information comes last.
Because media reports are very important, there is need to ensure that they are properly
proof read so that all spellings and grammar are correct. There is no room for errors and
there is also a need to verify dates, times, addresses and even the name check of
spellings. Lastly the media report should be in time with the planned circulation time or
broadcast time so that it remains relevant to the readers. It is also critical to ensure that
the readers should be able to follow up on details from the media story.
9.15 SUMMARY
A report is a very important record within an organisation, hence it has to be written with
precision. Normally it is written to the higher office so that a record is created about
events or occurrences within the business operations. Reports are done in different forms
depending on the purpose. However each report is identifiable by its title, the receiver,
the author and even the date when it was generated. A report has three main parts which
are the front, the main body and the back section.
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Reports serve a very important purpose as it forms the basis for decision making for the
business. You may look back to your organisation and locate some reports and observe
how they were written and compare with the module notes.
CHAPTER REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Define a report
2. Identify the different types of reports.
3. Clearly explain the different sections of a report.
4. Why is report writing important to organisations.
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CHAPTER 10 : MEETINGS
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
By the end of the chapter you should be able to:
1. Define a business meeting

2. Identify the different types of business meetings
3. To appreciate the importance of meetings and knowing what is involved in formal
meetings
4. Realize importance of meetings to organisations
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10.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapter, we dealt with the concept of Report Writing which is key to
business operations. Reports are written following specific types of formats depending on
the reader of the report. Usually they are written for the supervisor or the super ordinate
within a work situation. Report writing carries precision because the reports have a
multiple value to the organisation. In this section, we now introduce you to the concept of
Meetings.
10.2 DEFINITION OF A MEETING
Hanna and Wilson (1984) highlight that meetings are different and each type calls for a
distinctly different treatment and each is based on different expectations and assumptions.
A meeting is an act of coming together for a common purpose. Meetings are an important
communication tool as they are a means of conveying meaning or information in a social
or business environment, thus they can be formal or informal. However we concentrate
on the formal meetings.
10.3 PURPOSE OF A MEETING
Organisations are set to achieve set goals, however as people work together they face
challenges or may have different views on how to attend to issues arising in the business.
Eventually they call a meeting to deliberate on such matters to discuss and possibly
debate over the decisions to be made. A meeting is also meant to they discuss pertinent
issues. When meetings are done, they eventually become a tool that enhance
communication among organisational members and at the same time promote a sound
coordination of activities. The meetings are set to deal with planned matters for
discussion, thus they attract the setting of an agenda. Note that the focus of each meeting
depends on the type of meeting at hand and on this note we will introduce you to
different types of business meetings.
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In a nutshell business meetings serve various and important purposes like inspiring other
on the direction to take e.g. driving employees towards the culture of excellence. At times
it is during meetings that different individuals are assigned with their roles and
responsibilities. It is also a time for members of the meeting to analyze complex
situations and come up with resolutions to pending issues. After critical analysis
important and binding decisions can be made as the members will be generating ideas
that are subject to criticism. Another important point to note is that meetings are there to
promote exchange of ideas which then can be subjected to criticism and the subsequent
justification for the necessary adoption. Meetings serve yet another purpose of having an
opportunity to influence and persuade colleagues towards the organisational goals. Even
though people may have divergent views, it is a time to build or resuscitate relationships.
10.4 TYPES OF MEETINGS
While meetings can be viewed generally, there is need to scrutinize the purposes of each
meeting as that eventually helps to demarcate one meeting from another.This module will
introduce you to five different meetings which include: decision making meetings,
innovation meeting, and information sharing meeting, status update meeting and team
building meetings. Other types of meetings could be the Regular Monthly meeting and
the Participative Management Group Meeting. Whatever is being communicated in the
meeting should be categorized in terms of its focus. In short, its meeting should have its
own goals and should be well planned for because meetings require sound organisation.
The goals should meet individual organisational needs.
10.5 THE DECISION MAKING MEETING
Hanna and Wilson (1984) explain that the decision making meeting follows the proper
identifying, definition and delimitation of a problem. It is essential that the problem is
understood thoroughly. The decision making meeting follows after a problem has
occurred and decisions have to be made to address the shortcoming or perhaps an
opportunity in business has arisen and there is need to decide on how best to expand the
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business. The decisions usually emanate from several options which are weighed and
then a final decision is made. For example does a chain supermarket require an outlet in a
high density area or in a low density area and a decision has to be made depending on
proven facts.
However effective decision making meetings can be successful if consultations are made
on one to one basis before the actual meeting. Thereafter there is need for an agreement
on the suitable agenda to deliberate on the matter/s at hand. The meeting has to have
someone who manages it and should have sound communication skills and should ensure
that all members have the agenda before the meeting. Chances for meaningful
participation and contributions at the meeting are higher if the agenda is released ahead of
the meeting. Ownership of the decision is also higher. The other type of meeting is the
Innovation Meeting
10.6 INNOVATION MEETING
An innovation meeting is about brainstorming and bringing new ideas amongst the
members in the gathering. Such meetings determine the success of organisations. For an
innovation meeting to yield good results there is need to take notes of suggestions coming
up, following them up and maximizing participation. The ideas that are brainstormed
have to be weighed because some may not tally with the organisational goals. We also
have information sharing meetings.
10.7 INFORMATION SHARING MEETINGS
Such meetings are usually educational in nature and hence concentrates on giving
information to members. Organisational members may need to be sharing on the need to
catch up with technology in as far as business communication is concerned. Yet another
type of meeting is the status update meeting.
10.8 STATUS UPDATE MEETING
This is usually where members of a group meet to update each other on a project. Such
meetings are difficult to handle as members may not be thinking at the same wavelength.
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The other is called the team building meeting which depends on whether the company
has the team culture.
10.9 TEAM BUILDING
Such a meeting is done for people in different groupings who would have common
responsibilities. The purpose of such meetings is to motivate employees to make bonds
that can stay for the benefit of goal achievement.
All meetings have procedures and these include the following:-

1. Every meeting needs to have a structure so that it becomes productive
2. Every meeting must have an agenda which is prepared and circulated to members in good
time. The agenda should show all items to be discussed, the time, date and the venue. A
meeting without a structure dissatisfies all. Minutes of the prior meeting should be
circulated at the time when the agenda is issued out amongst members.
The following table summarizes a standard structure of a meeting.
The Opening of the meeting by the Chairperson

The meeting will only begin when the chairperson declares the meeting open. The opening is
however subject to the members making a quorum. If there is no quorum the meeting cannot
start because the people may be too few to make reasonable debates or the members may be
too few to vote over decisions. It should be noted that the unavailability of a quorum within
the first 30 minutes attracts cancellation of the meeting by the chairperson. The procedure is
then to allow the meeting to be rescheduled at the same time and the same venue at least
seven days later. At the second time of calling the meeting, it must be observed that if no new
members come, the meeting can go on in their absence. In the event that the chairperson is
not present the members are expected to select another temporary chairperson amongst
themselves and continue with the meeting.
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10.10 RELATED TERMS USED IN MEETINGS
1. Apologies
This is a stage at which the chairperson announces apologies from members who are not
able to attend the meeting and the names are formally recorded.
2. Minutes of the Previous Meeting

The chairperson has to make a move whether the minutes are passed as a correct record
or not. Once corrections are done the minutes are adopted as a correct record. Once the
minutes are passed as a correct record that should be signed on every page by the
chairperson and handed to the secretary for signing. Not much debate is expected from
the arising, but that if a members more to say he/she can raise the matter during the
dealing with the related matter or can be tackled on any other business (AOB) time. It is
important that minutes of the previous minutes should always be read.
3. Business arising from the matters arising

At this point, it should be noted that any business that arises from the previous minutes is
usually documented on the agenda. Hence any reports or information can be debated and
a vote is taken on appropriate action to be taken.
4. Attending to any correspondence sent to the meeting

The letters can be tabled and debated if the meeting wishes to do so. The chairperson
shouldacknowledge reviewing the correspondence and that it will be worked on. If the
correspondence is suspected to be offensive a motion is raised to stop it.
5. Presentation of reports prepared for the meeting.

The reports are presented and debated if there is need to. The information from the
reports should be relevant to the current work. Before a report is presented there is need
for a motion to support the need to discuss it. Motions can be put up for the
interpretations of the reports. The recommendations are also looked at and if there is need
amend a motion can be taken to alter the report.
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6. Submissions
Following the presentation of report comes the submissions where the general business
agenda items are debated after the chairperson’s call for a motion. If a motion is
supported, by a seconder/s, it converts into a resolution worth for adoption. The meeting
then proceeds to “Any Other Business” (AOB)
7. Any Other Business

This a procedure where then chairperson calls for any other matter not discussed in the
agenda to be debated. It should be noted that whatever is not fully exhausted from the
“Any Other Business” section can be tabled for the next agenda for further discussion.
After Any Other business, the meeting procedure allows for closure.
8. Closure of the meeting

As soon as all the matters have been discussed and closed, the date and time for the next
meeting is tabulated and the meting becomes officially closed.
9. Related terms used in meetings

There are other terms closely related to the administration of meetings which include
point of order, notice, ex- officios, law and procedure that you need to know.
10. Point of order

The point of Order in meetings refers to a term of parliamentary law and procedure which
refers to an interjection during a meeting by a member who does not have the floor to call
the attention of the chair to an alleged violation or breach of the assembly’s or meeting’s
rules of order. Examples of the point of order include:-
i) A meeting having no confidence of the chair
ii) That the chair’s ruling be overturned
iii) That a specified standing order be suspended for a specified reason for a specified
length of time
iv) That a vote be by a secret ballot
v) That a meeting be adjourned or closed
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vi) that the meeting has no confidence in the Chair;
vii) that the chair's ruling be overturned;
viii) that a specified standing order be suspended for a specified reason for a specified
length of time;
ix) that a vote be by secret ballot;
x) that a meeting be adjourned or closed and several others
Ex-officios
Holding of a position or membership due to the power or influence of one’s office and
not by election or appointment. A chairperson, for example can be an ex-officio member
of all board appointed committees. Such positions and their attached voting and other
privileges are detailed by by-laws of the organisation.
Kitty (2006:1) states that a memo is used within a company or organisation to report
information, make a request, or recommend an action…..
A Notice
Pearson Longman defines a notice as a formal means of communication which seeks to
announce or display information to a specific group of people and that is usually pinned
up on specific display boards. A notice is characterized by a word limit of about 40-50
words.
A notice can be written to advise an oncoming meeting. Such an official notice is

dispatched to the members of a meeting at least 14 days in advance for an annual general
meeting and ten days in advance of an ordinary meeting.
The Role of Social Media on meetings

i) allows for wider distribution of information to more audiences
ii) can be used to monitor attendees’ activities
iii) can be used to collect and evaluate feedback
iv) can attend to virtual attendees
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v) helps to reach broader audience
vi) information isn’t scarce, it is abundant
10.11 TELECONFERENCING
Tiwari, Gupta and Tiwari (2015:276) highlight that teleconferencing means meeting
through a telecommunications medium. It is a generic term for linking people between
two or more locations by electronics. Teleconferencing is a real and liveactivity and is
highly interactivewhere one set of participants are at one or more locations and the other
set of participants at some other. Tiwari, Gupta and Tiwari (2015).
Meetings can also be conducted through the facility called teleconferencing which is
capable of connecting people all over the world. Teleconferencing is a less expensive
way of holding meetings as compared to the face to face ones. While it is very effective,
teleconferencing can only succeed if well planned for just like any other meeting. The
group in the teleconference must not be too big so that it remains manageable. There is
also a need to have a voice controller otherwise the meeting will have a lot of
unnecessary interjections.
10.12 SUMMARY
In this chapter you have learnt about meetings which play a very important role within
organisations. There is need to understand how formal meetings are. From this chapter
you should have noticed that meetings have a certain procedure which has to be followed
so that the record is correct as provided for by the law. Organisations rely on records
from meetings. Most decisions are at arrived at in meetings and they are always used as a
source of record. Now you need to examine how meetings have been handled in your
own organisation and then compare with what you have learnt and identify points of
corrections where necessary.
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1. Define a meeting
2. What is the main purpose of a meeting?
3. Describe the main procedures that have to be followed during the conduct of a
meeting.
4. Explain each of the following terms with reference to meetings: ex- officio,
minutes, matters arising, notice and agenda.
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CHAPTER 11 :WORKSHOPS
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
By the end of the chapter you should be able to:
1. Define a workshop
2. Understand the purpose of a workshop
3. The different types of workshops
4. How a workshop is done
5. Know how to prepare the venue of the workshop
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11.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapter we focused on how communication facilitates in the holding of

meetings within an organisation. Meetings can be formal or informal but we concentrated
on formal meetings which are characterized by certain activities. These included major
facts that a meeting should have an agenda that spells out when the meeting should be
held at what time and at which venue. It also important to note that meetings are
governed by law so that they give correct records. You need to continue to read and
understand the structure and procedures to be followed when administering meetings.
However in thus chapter we look at how communication skills reflect as workshops are
run within organisations.
11.2 DEFINITION OF A WORKSHOP
Carla Spagnoletti et al define a workshop as a set of activities designed to promote

learning, discussion and feedback about a topic. It is also a brief intensive course for a
small group which emphasizes problem solving. The participants learn about a specific
subject or project through taking part in discussions and activities. An example of a
workshop can be “An Examiner’s workshop” with a small group of people e.g. from 6 to
15. It maintains a small number of participants so that everyone can fully participate. The
workshop is run by experienced people in the area at hand.
11.3 DIFFERENT TYPES OF WORKSHOPS
Workshops take different forms but this module will introduce you to the training
workshop, planning workshop and the stakeholders’ workshop.
11.4 TRAINING WORKSHOP
Training is an activity that is targeted at transferring or modifying knowledge, skills and

attitudes through learning experiences. It should take off after a needs analysis of the
participants. The training workshop may be run to maintain levels of competence and
respond to the demands of changing circumstances and new approaches and technologies.
It is designed to be highly interactive where the participants are involved in a number of
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training activities. Participants are not passive, rather they carry out a number
of training activities rather than passively listen to a lecture or presentation. A training
workshop relies greatly on communication taking place between the facilitator and the
participants. For a workshop to be successful it requires sound planning. The following
are some of the important notes to consider:-
1. Set the objectives of the training session and itemize them so that they are the
learning outcomes that can be measurable at the end of the training workshop.
2. There is need to define the audience so that all the activities done suit the recipients’
level of understanding. Are the participants young people or older people or what
language do they understand best and so forth. Understanding the audience helps to
decide on the teaching/learning styles that can be adopted for the training workshop.
3. There is need to itemize equipment or material that will help the participants to
understand their work
4. There is need to plan the use of relevant media to increase learners or participants
perception of the training at hand
5. There is need to select the ways to be used in delivery of instruction. This could
include making use of presentations, group discussion, group exercises (whole group
or small group) or work in pairs or individual exercises.
6. There is need to factor in the time that the training sessions take depending on the
activities at hand. This should be planned ahead of time.
7. Ensure that all the necessary content is well prepared so that enough learning takes
and the depth of the content depends on the audience.
Summarily the following points are key to the success of a training workshop. There is
need to identify the training needs through a formal needs assessment, design adult
teaching/learning approach (andragogy), develop learning objectives, design the training
materials and then implement the training and lastly review and look out for change in
behavior of the participants. If the evaluation shows that the change is not satisfactory,
that becomes the basis for the next training workshop targeted to address the previous
shortcomings on skills among the participants. Some training workshops offer certificate
of participation as a way of motivating the members.
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11.5 PURPOSE OF A PLANNING WORKSHOP
Planning is one of the major management takes, which ensures that work is done in line
with the organisational goals. The idea of effective planning therefore should be made
clear to organisational members so that that there is objectivity on each individual at their
level within the organisational structure. Planning helps organisational members to work
towards a common goal as spelled in the vision of the organisation. With that clear
vision, individuals can set personal goals to be met at a long range.
Planning workshops are a very important tool to use among staff. Planning ensures that
every organisational member is clear about what he/she should be doing to achieve the
set objectives. It helps to get all members and other stakeholders on board and to develop
concrete plans for the work to be done. A good planning workshop generates benefits to
the individuals and the organisation for the following reasons:
i) Organisational members will be able to focus both on short term and long term
goals and mission
ii) A planning workshop complements the setting of strategies that yield results.
iii) It guides resource pooling and implementation of all the activities required
iv) Organisational members will be set to under - go evaluation against the set
standards
11.6 HOW TO RUN A PLANNING WORKSHOP
When running a planning workshop it is best to employ the Logical Framework approach
which highlights the following steps that employees need to be taught:-
In this situation, participants can be given a real task to address through proper planning.
With such training, an organisation is likely to gain efficiency and effectiveness
11.7 A STAKEHOLDERS’ WORKSHOP
It is important for you to understand what a stakeholder is. In business, a stakeholder is a

person/s with an interest or concern with that service provider or producer. The person
becomes a stakeholder because they are curious about the quality of service that they get.
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Therefore if the stakeholder has to continue a business relationship, at hand his/her/their
interest has to be considered. The stakeholder’s workshop can be used as a
communication tool to increase the meeting of minds between the service provider and
the consumer/s.
11.8 HOW TO RUN A STAKEHOLDER’ WORKSHOP
Such a workshop should only run for those persons that have interest in the organisation
only. This means that anyone connected with one’s organisation, co-workers or business
partners, consumers or supporters can attend that workshop. However, while different
people can be invited it is important to take careful consideration of who should be
invited.
11.9 PREPARATIONS FOR WORKSHOPS
Workshops require a well - chosen venue depending on the type of activities anticipated
during the training session. A venue is typically selected by the workshop organizers. For
example, if a venue is suitable for a particular training session then it is able to prop the
activities. If workers have to be exposed to gymnastics, a hall as a venue for that training
is suitable.
Secondly training sessions need equipment that helps in delivery of the teaching learning
process. For example, the whiteboard, the projector, the lap top drawing boards could be
required hence these have to be in place before a training session kicks off. The workshop
needs the expertise from the area where training is required. Thus the human skills should
be put in place. If bookings for the venue need to be done, then there is need for financial
support depending on whether it’s a day’s workshop or a three day or one week’s
workshop.
The organizers of the workshop need to make invitations to the participants just as there
is need to identify the trainers and pay up their dues in terms of the service being
provided. Workshop facilitators are sometimes paid as consultants, per hour. The
organizers of the workshop have to manage all the activities timeously thus a program is
run and distributed well in time.
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After the designated activities, reports have to be made that assist in the much needed
evaluations. The reports will show whether there is behavior change amongst the
participants.
11.10 SUMMARY
Workshops are a necessary activity within organisations as they help the workforce to
improve their skills and knowledge on the job. They are usually designed to address the
identified shortcomings amongst workers. In fact they follow a proper needs analysis, so
that the training targets the areas of weaknesses. They usually are facilitated by those
with expertise and experience in the area and makes use of andragogy. Workshops’
running time depends on the amount of work to be covered, thus they can run within a
day, or two or three days. It is very important to compile evaluations at the end as a way
of checking participants’ attitude as well as the actual delivery of the teaching and
learning process.
1. Define a workshop.
2. Identify the different types of workshop.
3. Explain what you understand by a training workshop.
4. Identify and explain the factors that make workshops a success.
5. Why do we need a stakeholder’s workshop?
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CHAPTER 12 :PRESENTATIONS AND PRESS RELEASE
12.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapter you learnt much about different types of workshops, their
purposes and how they are conducted. As you equip yourself with business
communication skills there is need to add on presentation skills as well as going about
making a press release.
12.2 DEFINITION OF A PRESENTATION
A presentation is a means of communication that can be adapted to various speaking

situations, such as talking to a group, addressing a meeting or briefing a
team.https://www.skillsyouneed.com/present/what-is-a-presentation.html accessed on 5
May 2017. It is a formal talk to one or more persons presenting ideas or information in a
clear or structured way. Key to successful presentation is need to observe the audience,
the presenter and the content to be delivered.
From a different perspective a presentation is regarded as a formal discourse made by an

individual for a specific purpose of passing on an idea to a given audience.
12.3 WHY ARE PRESENTATIONS DONE?
Presentations are done for different purposes. At times they are meant to inform ideas to a
group of e.g. workmates. Information is always needed. For example there could be
changes going to be introduced on the organisational structure and the matter has to be
explained clearly to a group of employees or there could be new regulations coming up
and the effects thereafter. The matter is better understood with an address. The other
reason why presentations are done is because they are an effective for persuasion on the
audience. When a presentation is persuasive in nature, it helps in altering beliefs, attitude,
behavior or way of thinking of the audience.
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As the presentation unfolds the listeners may desire to give a feedback which
makes the communication more of a transaction. It is important for you to realize
that for a presentation to be effective it must be :-
a) well prepared for
b) well written
c) well conveyed
In most cases a combination of oral, visual, non - verbal and written

communication are used in presentations. During a presentation a speech is
evident when one speaks to the audience on the topic at hand. Visual
communication also comes in when e.g. the use of power point is employed to
illustrate views diagrammatically. Visual perception is effective for e.g. charts
and graphs. Non-verbal communication is conspicuous with regard to the room
where the presentation is taking place, way the presenter is dressed and how
he/she uses body language during delivery of his/her speech. Then the written
communication is given when documents are passed to the audience either as hard
or soft copies.
It is again important for you to observe that a presentation of a speech is being done,
it must follow its specific designation. Speeches take different forms like:
i) An introduction speech
ii) The main speech
iii) The vote of thanks
The introduction speech:-
i) This is an official presentation of the speaker or presenter
ii) It is usually very short
iii) The introduction is the time that the credentials of the presenter are announced
iv) During the introduction, the audience settle in preparation of the main speaker
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The main speech:-
i) It unveils the topic at hand
ii) It clearly unveils the purpose
iii) The length of the speech varies from at least ten minutes to 45 minutes. It must be
too long because the audience have a short concentration span
iv) The main speech is concluded with a summary
The vote of thanks
i) It is a short speech that follows the main speech
ii) It is meant to thank the presenter/s
iii) The speech should not be paraphrase what was said, but just thank the presenter
You need to note that for presentations to be effective, there is need for adequate
preparation. The preparation includes the identification of a suitable topic. The topic
should be relevant to the content to be presented. The presenter must be an expert in the
topic at hand. The following are guidelines that will assist you in the preparations of
presentations:-
1. The Topic or Subject
2. The Audience or addresses
3. The Event
4. The Research and Interpretation
12.4 THE TOPIC OR SUBJECT OF THE PRESENTATION
The topic is an equivalent of a subject under discussion. It can also be theme of a

discourse. When the presenter tackles his task the subject matter under presentation
should be closely linked to the topic so as to keep the matter relevant. It is also important
to note that when one is assigned to do a presentation, he/she is being regarded as an
expert in the area, hence there is need to be well prepared to the satisfaction of the
audience. An example of a presentation on safety issues at work would best be handled
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by an individual who is an expert in Health Safety and Wellness. The way the theme or
topic is designed should be tailor - made to suit the level of understanding of the
audience. As the presentation unfolds, it must touch on major and define points so that
the presenter in on course. The presentation time should not be too long because the
audience can lose concentration. The presentation could be a minimum of ten minutes
and a maximum of forty five minutes. The ability to summarize your information reflects
on one’s basic communication skills. Clarity, conciseness, correctness and courtesy
remain very significant during a presentation.
12.5 THE AUDIENCE OR ADDRESSEES OF THE PRESENTATION
An audience is a group of people that assemble to listen to a presenter on a given topic.

The audience can be of people at a public event. At times they may be colleagues,
subordinates or patrons. The way you present will either make the presenter gain or lose
respect of the audience. The audience may be present with the audience or the audience
can be radio or TV listeners or viewers, which implies that the way one dresses sends a
message to the audience.
It is very important for the presenter to know his/her audience’s experience, knowledge
and level of understanding, so that the depth of the topic matches the audience. For
example if one is addressing a political group, one should know their values, beliefs and
aspirations so that their burning interests are met. Another variation to audience handling
could be in a work place and you have to address the board. The way you address board
members is different from the way, middle managers are addressed. Addressing the youth
versus the old people is also very different even if the same topic is being delivered.
In addition it is critical to consider the level of articulation in terms of vocabulary use. If

you are addressing a homogenous group, then details can just suit the whole group. If the
group is heterogeneous, then effort must be made to simplify the information for some of
the group members to understand the messages. For example use of jargon is relevant to
people from a similar field, but when other are not in the same technical area, they need
further explanation. All such different characteristics among the audience makes the
presenter to study his/ her audience ahead of time.
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Depending on the type of audience at hand there is need to know where to pitch the
presentation, because the tone of your speech can arouse interesting making sure that the
presentation is more interesting and catching the listener’s attention. At the same time the
audience need to addressed, with courtesy, so that they do not feel like they have been
looked down upon. They must not feel like they have been de- humanized.
As the presentation approaches the end, question time may be availed to the audience but
ensuring that the presenter is not driven out of the topic by the inquisitive audience. There
is need to keep on track but this must be controlled politely. You also have to learn about
the event during a presentation.
12.6 THE EVENT i.e. THE PRESENTATION
It is very important to locate your presentation at a venue that suits the addresses. Certain
environment are not suitable for a defined audience. For example, if a speech is about the
importance of studying to an “A” Level group of students, it may be best to address them
while they are in a library where the environment is supportive of the topic or subject at
hand. If one is addressing workers about Health and Safety Issues in the work place, it is
probable best to do it in a factory environment where illustrations become more evident
to the listeners. Primarily, it is key to choose the venue where the presentation is taking
place after identifying the nature of the subject to be presented. Besides focusing on the
subject or topic, the type of audience at hand, the venue of the event, it is again important
to seriously consider the need to research around the topic being dealt with.
12.7 THE RESEARCH AROUND THE TOPIC UNDER PRESENTATION
The related concepts that are researched should be well interpreted so that the presenter is
not seen as inadequate by the audience. All the researched material should be well
interpreted to meet the relevant context. There is no need to make statements at will,
during the presentation because the audience can prove the presenter wrong and the
presenter eventually loses integrity.
When one has done the adequate preparation of a presentation it to be well versed with
how to write the matter at hand for the audience.
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12.8 THE WRITING OF A PRESENTATION
While a presenter has to prepare some notes on the presentation, these should just be
guidelines that lead your articulation. The audience are interested in enjoying originality
of expression for the presenter. When a presenter tends to read the content, it reflects on
inadequacy on the part of the presenter. Reading too much, even shows that the speech
might have been prepared by a different individual. In some churches for example,
preachers rely on prepares messages. Sometimes this also happens with politicians who
are not conversant with the titles that they hold. They tend to read out and the whole
presentation becomes very dull and the audience feel like their time has been wasted.
It is therefore best to inscribe main heading, sub- headings then numbered points so that
the presenter picks on each and expands from personal understanding much to the delight
of the audience. Coupled with these sub-headings there is need to mark where the use of
illustration come in or where the use of visual aids increases perception of the audience.
Highlighting the written material is also another way of honoring the key areas in one’s
presentation. At times the presenter may want to be highly authentic, so this means that
direct citations are called for in a scholarly manner. For example Stoner (1979:56)
advocates for, “…………………………”. The source used must be traceable.
The best way to write notes for a presentation is to ensure that the font size is big so as to
increase the visibility of the major points. It takes away the unnecessary breaks where the
presenter misses fluency during presentation. The use of power point enables the
presenter to illustrate facts clearly. Thus a technology aided presentation catches the
interest of the listeners. All this ground work shows how taxing it is to prepare for a
speech. Every effective speech should have a resounding and unquestionable opening.
12.9 HOW TO PREPARE FOR PRESENTATION OPENING
You are advised to make note of the following important points at the opening stage:
1. Your opening must be simple to the audience, give room to move from simple to
complex material
2. Give time for the audience to fine tune themselves with the presenter
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3. Your posture, your attire and what has been said about you as the presenter must not
be at tangent.
4. It is best to make a light comment or a simple story that the usually discover to be
related to the main topic and its more effective if presented as a joke.
5. Such hints to the opening of a speech helps the presenter to gain self-confidence and
that of the audience.
6. Note that at the time when opening statements are made, the audience has adequate
time to scrutinize your attire, you command, your posture and other related factors.
7. By the time the main presentation is on, everybody would have had adequate time to
scroll over you.
8. Note the use of humorous words can be a disaster if the audience fail to get the
humour!
While all such presentations are made, it is important to learn that written presentations
should be well supported with media. If written documents are given out they should be
spirally bound to give an impression of orderliness on the presenter. The documents are
usually given out at the end of the session with well computerized illustrations. The use
of Power Point is quite advanced and it takes away the traditional approach to delivery of
the subject matter. If you are not directly using the power point ten there must be an
assistant who takes that task which accommodates the use of technology as the in thing.
The technical person should ensure that he/she flights the relevant illustrations in order to
avoid confusion amongst the audience. Now you are going to study about the actual
presentation.
12.10 THE ACTUAL PRESENTATION
The actual presentation entails the conveyance of the messages at hand. It is necessary to
ensure that there are barriers no to your delivery of the presentation. These include
clarity, correctness, conciseness and courtesy in the messages. The tone, the pitch, the
voice in use should be well timed and supportive of the delivery. Impediments in
communication must be avoided.
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Time management is important on the part of the presenter, as one has to arrive early, so
that the presentation environment will be found suitable. Sometimes there would be need
to spruce up the room. The equipment to be used must be checked well before use to
avoid unnecessary disruptions.
As the presentation goes up, there is need for logical presentation so that ideas are not
haphazardly presented but follow a pattern e.g. from simple to complex or from general
specific. The audience must easily follow the ideas. As one speaks, there is need to move
eyes around the audience, because eye contact preserves attention on either parties. It is
always important to beat stage freight, where presenters lose confidence on their topic
because of the pressure from the group. When the pressure is too much and one feels
unstable, taking a deep breath is advisable, although it should be done without the
audience noticing the action.
Every presentation has to come to an end. Usually at the end you say what you have said
in short, while at the beginning of the presentation, you say what you have said. At this
point, there is need to know the various forms of visual aids that a presenter can utilize.
These include the following:-
i) Power point
ii) Video presentation
iii) Tape recorder
iv) Film
v) Overhead projector
vi) Chalk Boards, white boards, interactive boards
You need to find out and exercise on how to use each of these appliances so that you
move with technology. Interactive boards have become very powerful as they serve a
multi-purpose.
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12.11 WHAT IS AN INTERACTIVE BOARD?
It is regarded as an instructional tool, implying that it can be used for both teaching and
learning. The interactive board allows computer images to be displayed onto a board
using a digital projector. The instructor is the one who can then operate the various
elements on the board by the use of a finger. The finger does the work of a mouse
directly on the screen.
12.12 A PRESS RELEASE
Sati (2004) cites that a press release is a statement meant for the consumption of the
media outlining organisational objectives and to create awareness about ideas, situations,
services, and products. The media makes announcements about something worthwhile
e.g. the opening up of a new branch in Gleapark area. The announcement or release
should be newsworthy and attraction the attention of the targeted audience. Press releases
are usually published for free but they should be newsworthy. Press release can be done
through various forms which include mail, fax, e- mail to editors and or journalists. The
information can then be published in newspapers, magazines, radio stations, online media
or television networks.
12.13 PURPOSE OF A PRESS RELEASE
It seeks to attract or gain the attention for an event or a new product on the market. It
times it may be a major happening in the organisation. Press releases are extensively used
to promote businesses and organisations and this can be done through the internet. They
can publicized on blogs, websites and social networks.
It should be noted that a press release in far from being the same as an advertisement. An
advertisement is meant to help sell a product while a press release is to build an idea
around. A press release will inform the journalist about the facts about the happening or
event. They also are interested in the following questions like who is involved in an
event. They also ask about, what people are doing, where it taking place, when it the
event will happen and why the audience should care about the vent or happening.
Generally the standing or visibility of a company can be aided by the press release. It
143
should be noted that not all the press release get the attention of the editor’s desk. The
press release is also time sensitive.
12.14 HOW TO MAKE A PRESS RELEASE
A press release needs to be short but must have a catchy or attractive heading. It should
also get to the point, such the information must appear in a summarized form. It is best to
design a short and catchy headline and there is also a need to get to the point and ensure
that the information is relevant to the targeted audience. When writing a press release, it
is important to start with the more important information and then go down presenting the
less and less information. Business communication not only entails the use of the press
release for communicating special announcements but there is also need to study how to
handle official presentations. You are now going to learn about presentations.
12.15 WHAT TO AVOID WHEN WRITING A PRESS RELEASE
Sati (2004) states that puffery should be avoided hence lengthy sentences should be
avoided, thus flowery language, cliches and undesirable words should be avoided.
12.16 SUMMARY
Business communication skills are not complete without learning how to conduct
effective presentation. Presentations are done for different purposes, hence it is important
to focus on the following:- the topic to be presented, the perception level of the audience,
the ages/sex of the recipients, the method of delivery, supportive media and even the
language to use. Presentations need to be motivational so that the recipients do not lose
attention. Concurrently time factor is also very important so that concentration levels of
the recipients does not go down before the presentation is concluded.
Today’s presentations need the contemporary approach to delivery so that we move from
the traditional approaches where presenters made use of e.g. the chalkboard. For example
you should appreciate how the interactive board has taken over the use of media
144
1. Define a presentation
2. Explain the necessary presentations that are necessary before a presentation is

done.
3. Why is it important to inspect the venue where a presentation is going to be done?
4. Find out all the contemporary ways which can make a modern presentation.
5. Imagine and compare the traditional presentation and the modern one. What
would you need to revamp the set of presentations in your own company?
145
CHAPTER 13 : BUSINESS PROPOSAL
By the end of this chapter you should be able to:
1. Define a business proposal

2. Identify the different types of proposals
3. Understand how to develop a business proposal
4. To conversant with the writing of a business proposal
146
13.1 INTRODUCTION
In the last chapter we dealt with the handling of presentations as well as working on a
press release. Business communication skills are not complete without one being able to
make sound presentations. However this chapter introduces you further the writing of a
business proposal. In business a service provider has to look for prospective clients,
hence writing of business proposals may expand business activities. This document needs
to be written professionally.
13.2 THE BUSINESS PROPOSAL
A business proposal is a focused sales document intended to describe how a company

will approach a project, state the value of the project to the client and solicit the client’s
business.In another perspective, a business proposal is a written offer from a seller to a
prospective buyer.The concept of business proposals is very broad but we will look at
least three types of business proposals which are :-
a) informally solicited proposal

b) unsolicited proposal
c) formally solicited proposal
13.3 INFORMALLY SOLICITED PROPOSAL
It is that proposal where there is a conversation between a vendor and a prospective

customer. The proposal is called a sole source proposal where the customer does not ask
for competing proposals from other sellers. This type of proposal does not require a
formal response. What is more relevant to our study is the formally solicited proposal.
147
13.4 FORMALLY SOLICITED PROPOSAL
The formally solicited proposal is expected to meet customer requirements with a proper
contents section addressing a formal proposal. It should also have an executive summary
outlining the benefits of the seller’s solutions to the customer requirements. The formal
proposal attempts to reveal hoe each requirement will be met as well as indicating how
the proposal will be managed. In addition it considers the technical volume and the
management volume which demonstrate how each requirement is met. The aspect of the
costing will also to be done and the implementation plans and schedules will be provided.
13.5 DEVELOPING A BUSINESS PROPOSAL
When a business proposal is being written it must outshine its competitors hence this
module gives you a guideline of how business proposal is written.
i) There is need to understand the client’s requirements
ii) Understand the client
iii) Develop a methodology
iv) Evaluate the solution
v) Outshine your competitors
vi) Write the proposal
vii) Apply the finishing touches
13.6 WRITING A BUSINESS PROPOSAL
A business proposal follows particular steps that this module is going to suggest to you.
While one may have a template for business proposal, each proposal shout meet the
needs of a potential customer.
1. Start with a firm introduction. This should start out with a hook. ...
2. State the problem. After the introduction, you'll get into the body, the meat of our
work. ...
3. Propose solutions. ...
4. Include a schedule and budget. ...
5. Wrap up with a conclusion. ...
148
6. Edit your work. ...
7. Proofread your work.
13.7 POLICY DOCUMENTS
NHS Foundation Trust defines a policy document regarded as a legally binding document
and therefore its purpose must be upheld. It provides a consistent logical framework.
13.7.1 What is a Policy Document?
A policy is usually a statement of guideline on how work has to be done. It is meant to

help an organisation to achieve its goals, thus when a policy document is prepared it is
meant to guide operations. Thus a policy documents holds lay down rules and procedures
about how work is done in a defined work environment. For example, the OK chain
shops are governed by policies that are universal to all branches in the country and are
also enforceable. Thus policies help to bring up accountability. For someone who is
studying business communication, it is important to know how a policy is made.
Policies are generally a product of a policy making process. Policies can be made at
organisational level or at national level. The policies that govern the companies or the
nations are universal and coercive hence they call for compliance, failure to which
charges can be applied on the offender.
The making of policy is an on - going activity, which starts problem identification which
is then followed by formulation of proposals that attempt to address the problem. When
the best proposal is selected the policy is adopted after conducting its cost benefit
analysis. After adoption a policy then goes into an implementation stage where it is put
into practice. When the policy is put into practice, it is monitored and evaluated. When
the policy is seen to faces challenges, it stands to be modified. Thus policy making
becomes a continuous process. Literally as the environment changes, the policies also
changes to meet the current demand of the situations.
149
Policy making is ultimately not everyone’s business because it involves commitment of
resources which can only be done at top management level.
The writing of a policy requires specific direction as recommended at which summarily

stipulates the following facts:-
i) Every organisational policy must carry a statement of what the organisation seeks
to achieve.
ii) The policy must have underpinning principles, values and philosophies must hold
iii) The policy must reflect on broad service objectives which the organisation is
dealing with
iv) There must be strategies to achieve its objective.
v) The policy must put in place specific actions that should be taken
vi) The desired outcomes must be spelt out
vii) There is need to observe performance indicators.
viii) There is need for management plans and day to day operational rules covering all
aspects of service delivery
ix) A review program comes at the end of the program
Policy documents are very important in every formal organisation but they have to be
designed well by means of sound communication skills. If policies are not well designed
and or communicated to the implementers, barriers are created through misconceptions
and misinterpretations at the detriment of goal achievement.
Examples of policy documents in organisation can be:-
i) Recruitment and selection policy

ii) Policy on personal benefits
iii) Policy on purchasing procedures
iv) Retirement policy
v) Promotion policy
vi) Insurance policy
150
You can examine your organisation and identify many more policies. Note that policies
are not made anyhow by anyone but that it’s the responsibility of top management to
craft policies who also get ideas from the shop floor which direct them in shaping the
policy. It should be noted that once a policy is made it is not meant to be static, it
changes as per situation.
13.8 SUMMARY
In this chapter you have learnt about a business proposal. Note that it is very important to
know how a business proposal is designed and why it is required in commerce. Many
opportunities to grow business are linked to the way the proposal is written. It should be
designed in a manner that beats the competitors.
In the same chapter you have also learnt about policy documents which in simple are
statements of guidelines for operations. Once they are set, they need to be enforced until
such a time that they require modification or termination. You can take some time to
observe policy documents in your organisation and take time to study how they are
designed and are being implemented.
1. Define a business proposal

2. What is the purpose of a business proposal?
3. Justify the importance of a business proposal
4. Identify any two different types of business proposal
5. How is a business proposal written
151
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Course Design Length : 200 hours

© THE INSTITUTE OF PEOPLE MANAGEMENT OF ZIMBABWE 2017

By the end of the Course you will be able to:

Please attempt all the questions to test your understanding.

CHAPTER LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Define business communication

It is from this background that Business Communication has gained momentum as it is

Organisational structures cannot be functional without lubrication of sound

1.2 BUSINESS COMMUNICATION DEFINED

Business communication also embraces the following aspects:-attending to customer

It is important to note the distinction between social communication and business

Business communication is summed up as by Aqil (2011) as giving of instructions by

1.3 WHY IS IT IMPORTANT FOR YOU TO STUDY THE BUSINESS

As a human resources practitioner, you should be an effective communicator who is able

1.6 CHAPTER REVISION QUESTIONS

Upon the completion of this chapter, you will be able to:

1. Explain the communication process

2. Identify a few of the communication theories and or models

Basic communication Model

Ed Sedwitz(2003) says that a model is a representation of reality or rather a purposeful

2.2 THE LINEAR MODEL (HAROLD D. LASWELL 1948)

With What Effect? (McQuil and Windal, 1993)

2.3 THE INTERACTIVE MODEL

2.4 THE TRANSACTIONAL MODEL

Berko et al (1998) unveil the transactional model as a process of communication where

Figure 2:The Transactional Model

Source: Berko, et al (1998)

The other model to be studied is called the Shannon Weaver Model.

2.5 THE SHANNON WEAVER MODEL

From these few selected communication models, communication is a phenomenon that is

A theory is viewed as a tentative explanation of a given phenomenon. Schuttdefines a

The other characteristics of a theory include the following:

 It is usually considered as a statement based on the knowledge that exists at a given

Your study of communication models directs your understanding on different patterns in

1. Define a theory and a model.

CHAPTER LEARNING OBJECTIVES

3. Express how to overcome so as to realize the organisational goals.

3.1 FORMS OF COMMUNICATION

3.1.1 The Oral Form of communication

In organisations, these are observable where employees engage in formal

i) Oral communication is a less formal way of communicating

Oral communication is usable during formal meetings, interviews, chance

3.1.3 Strengths of oral communication include the following:-

i) It allows further probing for more information between the

iii) Immediate clarification can always be sought as the conversation

iv) Non-verbal communication can be used as an add - on to emphasize

v) If it is a face to face conversation, facial expressions can be interpreted for

vi) It is usually accompanied by courtesy and concurrently helps to develop

3.1.4 Weaknesses of oral communication

ii) It can be affected by poor expression by either of the parties in

iii) It may be difficult to use oral communication on detailed information e.g.

3.2 WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

3.2.1 Advantages of written communication

Written communication is also very useful for inter- organisational

From a critical point of view, it is necessary to notice that while written

3.2.2 Disadvantages of Written Communication

3.3 VISUAL COMMUNICATION

3.3.1 Advantages of Visual Communication

Figure 3: An example of Visual Communication

3.3.2 Disadvantages of Visual Communication

Visual communication tends to be relevantly used as an add-on because it may

At times organisations also require detailed presentations, which visual