1.

THEORIES OF 1ST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Investigating the processes through which individuals acquire language is Language acquisition.
In general, acquisition of language points to native language acquisition, which examines
children’s acquisition of their first language, while second language acquisition concerns
acquisition of extra languages in children and adults as well.

 Behaviorist Theory- “SAY WHAT I SAY”

It was a dominant school of psychology from the 1920s to 1960s. It is basically a psychological
theory and related to the development of L1 acquisition.
Behaviorist Theory can be traced back to J.B. Watson’s (1924) habit formation hypothesis. The
association of a particular response with a particular stimulus constitutes a habit. Hence, a habit
is formed when a particular response becomes regularly linked with a particular stimulus.
Skinner tried to explain language learning in general following Watson’s habit formation
hypothesis and other behaviorists such as psychologist Ivan Pavlov who grounded his theory
classical conditioning. The latter behaviorists developed their theories on Pavlov’s studies of
animal behavior in laboratory experiments with dogs. Their claim is that all animals, including
human beings, are born with a set of instinctive responses to external stimuli.
Skinner set out to propound language learning in terms of operant conditioning. Skinner’s
operant conditioning focuses on using either reinforcement or punishment (negative
reinforcement) to increase or decrease the likelihood of behavior. Positive reinforcements are
rewards whereas negative ones are punishments. The learning of a habit thus can occur
through imitation (i.e. the learner copies the stimulus behavior sufficiently often for it to
become automatic) or reinforcement (i.e. the response of the learner is rewarded or punished
depending on whether it is appropriate or otherwise, until only appropriate responses are
given).
Language learning is the result of:

1. Imitation (word-for-word repetition)

2. Practice (repetitive manipulation of form)
3. Feedback on success (positive reinforcement)
4. Habit formation.

Behaviorist Theory of FLA is based on the assumption that language behavior consists of
producing appropriate responses to correct stimuli. The stimuli and responses are correlated,
and the link between them becomes habitual as a result of positive reinforcement.
Thus, behaviorism is an approach to FLA based on the assumption that behavior can be
empirically studied. It proposes that language learning is also a habit formation similar to other
habits – that is, a language is learned in the way in which other habits are formed. Here
environment plays a crucial role through exposure and feedback.
According to this theory, language learning is like any other kind of learning as it involves habit
formation. These habits are formed when learners respond to stimuli in the environment.
Consequently, they have their responses reinforced resulting in subsequent imitation of the
responses. Learning takes place when learners have the opportunity to make the appropriate
response to a given stimulus.
However, behaviorism has been criticized because learning cannot only happen through
imitation as any language is based on a set of structures and rules. A child imitates language
behaviour of their parents and other members of their social group. Therefore, some routine or
regular aspects of language might be learned through the process of stimulus–response
reinforcement, but this does not seem to account for more grammatical structures of the
language.

 Innatism/Nativism Theory- “IT IS ALL IN YOUR MIND”

Chomsky pointed out that all languages are essentially innate and they share the same
universal principles. He stated that human beings are biologically provided with language and
children acquire language exactly similar to the development of other biological functions.

Noam Chomsky and the late Eric Lenneberg for fifty years have argued for the hypothesis that
children have innate, language-specific knacks that make easy and restrain language learning.
As a result Chomsky hypothesized a universal grammar which is an innate linguistic knowledge.
Chomsky and others argued that extrapolating from studies of animal behavior in laboratory
condition, as Skinner did, could show nothing about how human beings learn language in
natural conditions.

Universal Grammar and Language Acquisition Device

Chomsky’s claim is that the child’s knowledge of their mother tongue is derived from a
Universal Grammar (UG) which specifies the essential form that any natural language can take.
Chomsky called this biological ability as the language acquisition device (LAD) which contains a
set of universal grammar principles common to all possible human languages. He called this set
of common rules as UG. Infants universally possess an innate grammar template or UG that
allows them to select and construct the grammar of their own native language. This hypothesis
is based on the assumption that there are ‘core’ and ‘language-specific’ rules in all languages.
The core rules are those which are present in all natural languages. But the language specific
rules may be found in only one or two languages. According to the universal hypothesis, a
second language learner learns core rules with ease.
Set of language learning tools, provided at birth, is referred to by Chomsky as the Language
Acquisition Device.

Critical Period Hypothesis

Following the Chomsky's view there is a Critical period hypothesis claiming that there is a
restricted period during which language acquisition can happen. This hypothesis implies that
human beings possess biological devices planned particularly for acquiring first language and
that such mechanisms are accessible at puberty or even prior to that.
 Interactionism/Developmental perspective Theory- “LEARNING FROM
INSIDE AND OUT”

Language acquisition is one of the most fascinating features of human development. It is

normally believed that it starts after birth and continues till school age; however, there is some
proof that acquisition gets under way long before this, even prior to birth. Karmiloff and
Karmiloff (2002) describe language acquisition as a “journey that begins in the fluid world of the
womb and continues through childhood, adolescence, and even beyond”. They claim that as
early as twenty weeks development, the hearing system of the fetus is adequately developed to
begin processing of the sounds that filter through the amniotic liquid.

Social interactionist theory is a compromise between the behaviorist and mentalist approaches,
and is based on views from both the theories. Acknowledging that the development of
language comes from the early interactions between infants and caregivers, the theory takes a
social factor into account, including the ideas from the two previous opposing theories. Social
interactionist theory is an approach to language acquisition that stresses the environment, and
the context in which the language is acquired. It focuses on pragmatics of language rather than
grammar which should come later.

Vygotsky: sociocultural theory of human mental processing. He argued that language develops
primarily from social interaction.
Zone of proximal development (ZPD): a level that a child is able to do when there is support
from interaction with a more advanced interlocutor, i.e. a supportive interactive environment
enables children to advance to a higher level of knowledge & performance than they would be
able to do independently.
The zone of proximal development refers to the difference between what a learner can do
without help and what he or she can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled
partner. Thus, the term “proximal” refers to those skills that the learner is “close” to mastering.

MOTHERESE/CARETAKER TALK
Many researchers from the interactionist perspective have studied the modified speech directed
to children.
In English caretaker talk involves:
-a slower rate of speech
-higher pitch
-more varied intonation
-shorter, simpler sentence patterns
- frequent repetition
-paraphrase.
  Conclusion
In summary, behaviorism was the prevailing psychological theory of the 1950s and 1960s. It
was developed according to experiments on animals when behaviorists noticed that animals
could perform different tasks by encouraging habit formation. Behaviorist Theory of FLA, on the
other hand, is based on the premise that language behavior consists of producing appropriate
responses to correct stimuli. The stimuli and responses are correlated, and the link between
them becomes habitual as a result of positive reinforcement. In contrast, Chomsky’s mentalist
proposition theorizes that the child from birth is exposed to language that functions as a trigger
for the activation of LAD. The LAD has the mental capability to formulate hypotheses about the
structure of the language a child is exposed to, and the child is unconscious about all this
process. While social interactionist theory bridges the gap between the above two viewing
social interaction (to some extent similar to behaviorism), as exposure, as a triggering input for
the activation of LAD.

Each of the three theoretical approaches may help to explain a different aspect of first language
acquisition.
1. Behaviourists (learning through imitation, practice, reinforcement, habit-formation) –
routine aspects, the acquisition of vocabulary and grammatical morphemes.
2. Innatists (LAD/UG/CPH) – the acquisition of complex grammar (structure of the
language).
3. Interactionists (social interaction) – the acquisition of how form and meaning are
related, how communicative functions are carried out, and how language is used
appropriately.

2. THEORIES OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

L2 acquisition deals with acquisition of additional languages in both children and adults.

Theorists place different values on the role of interaction in second language acquisition (SLA).
Krashen’s (1985, 1994) theory became a predominant influence in both second language
teaching practice and later theories. Similar to Vygotsky’s “zone of proximal development”
(1962), Krashen’s scaffolding theory is referred to as i+1. Viewed as an innatist perspective, this
theory maintains that a second language is acquired unconsciously in a manner similar to the
acquisition of a first language. According to Krashen (1996), acquiring language is predicated
upon the concept of receiving messages learners can understand.

 Stephen Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition

Krashen's theory of second language acquisition consists of five main hypotheses:
  the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis;
 the Monitor hypothesis;
 the Input hypothesis;
 the Affective Filter hypothesis;
 the Natural Order hypothesis.

The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis.

We have 2 independent ways of developing language ability:

Language Acquisition – a subconscious process which occurs very naturally in a non-threatening

environment.

Language Learning – a conscious process which occurs at school in an academic setting.

The distinction between acquisition and learning is the most fundamental of all the hypotheses
in Krashen’s theory, since it suggests that language comes to children in two rather different
ways. Acquisition is one. Language can be acquired by using it for real communication while
learning, which he describes as “knowing about” language, is quite a different thing.

Acquisition is the product of a subconscious process very similar to the process children
undergo when they acquire their first language. It requires meaningful interaction in the target
language-natural communication, in which speakers concentrate not on the form of their
utterances, but in the communicative act. Learning, on the other hand, provides conscious
knowledge about the target language. It is therefore less important than acquisition for basic
communication, but it still plays an important role in language learning. In short, learning is
likely to occur in the “study” segment of an English lesson, while acquisition takes place during
language activation.

The Monitor Hypothesis

Conscious learning has the function of the Monitor (or Editor).

After we produce some language using the acquired system, we sometimes inspect it and use
our learned system to correct errors.

The monitor hypothesis is the idea that conscious learning – that is, the outcome of grammar
instruction and other activities that were the traditional stock in trade of the language teacher –
serve only as a monitor or an editor for the language student. Real acquisition takes place as
“meaningful interaction in the target language – natural communication – in which speakers is
concerned not with the form of their utterances but with the messages they are conveying and
understanding.”

Following that is the Input Hypothesis. The input hypothesis suggests that people acquire
language in only one way: by understanding messages, or by receiving ‘comprehensible input’.
According to the input hypothesis, learner’s progress by receiving second language input that is
one step beyond their current stage of linguistic competence.

The Affective Filter Hypothesis proposes that a mental block caused by affective or emotional
factors can prevent input from reaching the student’s language acquisition device. The affective
filter hypothesis says that affective variables like self-confidence and anxiety play a role in
language acquisition. When the filter is up, that is, when negative emotional factors are in play,
language acquisition suffers while when the filter is down, language acquisition benefits.

The Natural Order Hypothesis. Krashen’s natural order hypothesis suggests that the acquisition
of language, especially the rules of language, follows a predictable natural order. For any given
language, some grammatical structures tend to be acquired earlier than others. Because of the
nature of the LAD, children tend to learn different structures at different levels as young
children.

 COGNITIVIST THEORY

The foundations of the cognitive theory of language acquisition were set by Jean Piaget, a
French developmental psychologist. His theory was that language acquisition was based on the
maturation of the brain. Piaget believed that children must be allowed to explore the world by
themselves, allowing a first-hand experience. This exposure to the world allows the cognitive
mind to develop, therefore, allowing language to develop into a more sophisticated manner.

A cognitive theory of learning sees second language acquisition as a conscious and reasoned
thinking process, involving the deliberate use of learning strategies. Learning strategies are
special ways of processing information that enhance comprehension, learning or retention of
information.
They view human beings as having an innate capacity to develop logical thinking.
It was influenced by Jean Piaget who suggested that logical thinking was the underlying factor
for both linguistic and non-linguistic development.

The process of association – a child learns to relate what is said to particular objects and events
in the environment. The bridge by which certain associations are made is meaning. The extent
and accuracy of the asssociations made are said to change as the child matures.

The environment provides the material that the child can work on.
Feedback is also important for affective reasons, but non-influental in terms of modifying or
altering the sequence of development.

Information processing – paying attention and practicing. Language becomes automatic.

The interaction hypothesis – modified input, opportunity to interact. Conversational

modification.

Connectionism – frequency of encountering certain language features in the input allow

learners to make connections.

Two central principles:

1. Automatization – happens after gradual experience and conscious practice.

2. Restructuring – new knowledge fits into the old, existing system.

 BEHAVIOURIST THEORY
The behaviorist theory says second language learners learn from repeated practice and being
rewarded for correct answers. For the student to acquire the second language, the teacher
must use reinforcement (a positive reward) after the student has produced the second
language.

The learning process is a stimulus-response-reward chain (S-R-R).

Environment provides the stimuli, learner provides the responses, and the environment
provides the reward.

Environment provides the learner with a repertoire of appropriate, productive responses. The
learner learns to imitate these responses provided by the environment.

*According to this theory, language learning is like any other kind of learning as it involves habit
formation. These habits are formed when learners respond to stimuli in the environment.
Consequently, they have their responses reinforced resulting in subsequent imitation of the
responses. Learning takes place when learners have the opportunity to make the appropriate
response to a given stimulus.*

Characteristics of learners:

1. Respond to stimuli in a certain way

2. Intuitively evaluate the reward potential of responses
3. Extract the important parameters that make up the S-R-R chains
4. Generalize these parameters to similar situations to form classes of S-R-R chains.
Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) – predicts that all the errors made in learning the L2
could be attributed to interference by L1.

 INNATIST / NATIVIST THEORY

Noam Chomsky (2002) stated the innatist theory. He mentioned that children were born with
the ability to acquire language (innate). He argued that language acquisition of children be
related to their innate ability of biological language acquisition device (LAD). ... He claimed that
infants had innate universal grammar.

*Chomsky pointed out that all languages are essentially innate and they share the same
universal principles. He stated that human beings are biologically provided with language and
children acquire language exactly similar to the development of other biological functions.
Noam Chomsky and the late Eric Lenneberg for fifty years have argued for the hypothesis that
children have innate, language-specific knacks that make easy and restrain language learning.
As a result Chomsky hypothesized a universal grammar which is an innate linguistic
knowledge.*

Human beings are born with a built-in device that predisposes them to acquire language.

Chomsky claimed the existence of innate properties of language that explain a child's mastery
of their native language in a short time despite its highly abstract nature.

This innate knowledge is embidoed in a little black box called LAD.

LAD consists of 4 innate linguistic properties:

1. The ability to distinguish speech sounds from other sounds

2. The ability to organize linguistic events into various classes
3. Knowledge that only a certain kind of linguistic system is possible
4. The ability to engage in constant evaluation of the developing linguistic system.

 SOCIAL INTERACTIONIST THEORY

The Interactionist Theory posits that children can only learn language from someone who
wants to communicate with them. Perhaps two of the biggest names in the Interactionist
Theory of language acquisition are Lev Vygotsky and Jerome Bruner. Children
naturally acquire a language in social contexts where they interact with their caregivers.
Vygotsky believed that there was a mechanism properly named the Zone of Proximal
Development that is the idea that the direct environment around a child is the area that
causes the most development of language. Language development comes from the early
interactions between infants and caregivers.
Lev Vygotsky – Social Development Theory

Social interactionists stress:

The importance of a child's interaction with parents and other caregivers

The importance of motherese; teacher, foreigner or caretaker talk
Contributions of context and world knowledge
The importance of goals.
Cognitive development, including language development, arises as a result of social
interaction.

 INFLUENTAL RECENT THEORIES

Jim Cummings made a distinction between social and academic language.

Social language – everyday conversational language which is supported by the use of

illustrations, realia, demonstrations.. It deals with the here-and-now language and that's
why second language learners tend to acquire it faster.

Academic language – language of school tasks which is more abstract and decontextualized.

Some second language learners who develop fluent spoken English have difficulties in
reading and writing because of the different levels of proficiency while moving from social
language (BICS) to academic language (CALP).

BICS – Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills

CALP – Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency

3.FACTORS INFLUENCING SLL

1. Intelligence
2. Aptitude
3. Personality
4. Motivation
5. Attitude
6. Learner preferences ( styles)
7. Learner beliefs
8. Age

INTELLIGENCE
Types of intelligence:

Linguistic intelligence: speaking, using words, writing, giving presentations, solving word
problems.

Logical-mathematical intelligence: using numbers, logic, calculations, learning and

understanding grammar rules.

Spatial intelligence: drawing, painting, using colour, art, graphics, pictures, maps, and charts.

Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: muscular coordination, athletic skill, body language, drama and
theatre.

Musical intelligence: using music, tones, hearing, producing the intonation and rhythm of a
language.

Interpersonal intelligence: talking with other people, understanding them, using language to
communicate.

Intrapersonal intelligence: self-knowledge, self-confidence, using language to analyze yourself.

APTITUDE

It refers to potential for achievement.

Aptitude for LL is composed of 4 types of abilities:

1. To identify and memorize new sounds

2. To understand the function of particular words in sentences
3. To figure out grammatical rules from language samples
4. To memorize new words.
PERSONALITY

There are a number of personality characteristics that affect L2 learning, such as:

- Extroversion vs introversion
- Inhibition vs risk-taking
- Self-esteem (self-confidence)
- Anxiety

MOTIVATION

Types of motivation:
source / Intristic (Internal)
purpose
Integrative The learner wishes to learn L2
for personal growth and
cultural enrichment.
Instrumental The learner wishes to achieve
practical goals using L2 (for a
career).
Extrinsic (External)
Someone else wishes the learner to know
L2 for an integrative reason.
External power wants the learner to learn
L2 for a practical purpose (a corporation
asks its staff to get language training).

ATTITUDES
- An individual's identity and attitude towards L2 community:
- Positive L2 learning experience produces enrichment.
- Negative L2 learning causes resentment.
- Social dynamics and power relationships between L1 and L2 matter.
- Minority group members learning the language of a majority group may have different
attitudes and motivation from those of majority group members learning a minority
language.

LEARNER'S PREFERENCES / STYLES

- An individual's natural, habitual, and preferred way of absorbing, processing, and

retaining new information and skills.

Types of learning styles:

Perceptual learning styles:

- Visual: through seeing

- Auditory (aural): through hearing
- Haptic: through touch and body movement
- Kinesthetic: through concrete body experience (body movement)
- Tactile: through touch (hands-on).
Cognitive learning styles:

1. Field independence vs field dependence

Field independent learners pick out hidden figures in a complicated drawing more quickly. They
tend to perceive elements independently of a context or field and focus on details. They are
more analytical.
Field dependent learners are more inclined to see the whole drawing and have difficulty
separating it into parts. They tend to perceive the whole field or situation and focus on general
meaning. They are more relational.

2. Reflectivity vs impulsivity
Reflective learners tend to make slower, more calculated decisions. They are usually more
systematic and more cautious in learning L2.

Impulsive learners tend to make a quick or gambling guess at an answer to a problem. They are
usually more intuitive and more willing to take risks in learning L2.

3. Right brain dominance vs left brain dominance

The right brain perceives and remembers visual, tactile, and auditory images. It is more efficient
in processing holistic, integrative, and emotional information.

The left brain is associated with logical, analytical thought, with mathematical and linear
processing of information.

4. Tolerance of ambiguity
The person who is tolerant of ambiguity is willing to accept innovative and creative possibilities
and not be cognitively or affectively disturbed by ambiguity and uncertainty.

LEARNER'S BELIEFS

All learners have strong beliefs and opinions about how instruction should be delivered.

Learner beliefs are usually based on previous learning experiences and the assumption that a
particular type of instruction is better than others.

AGE OF ACQUISITION

L2 development in informal language learning environments:

Children can eventually speak the L2 with native-like fluency, but their parents and older
learners are hard to achieve such high levels of mastery of the spoken language, especially in
pronunciation/accent.

Adults and adolescents can make more rapid progress toward mastery of an L2 in contexts
where they can make use of the language on a daily basis in social, personal, professional, or
academic interaction.

L2 development in formal language learning environments:

In the early stages of L2 development, older learners are more efficient than younger learners.

Learners who began learning an L2 at the elementary school level did not necessarily do better
in the long run than those who began in early adolescent.

It is more difficult for post-puberty learners to attain native-like mastery of the spoken
language, including pronunciation, word choice, and some grammatical features.

4. TEACHING METHODS

 GTM-Grammar-Translation Method

Focuses on developing sts' appreciation of the target language's literature as well as teaching
the language.

Sts are presented with target-language reading passages and answer questions that follow.

Other activities include translating literary passages from one language into the other,
memorizing grammar rules, and memorizing native-language equivalents of target language
vocabulary.

Class work is highly structured, with the teacher controlling all activities.

Goals: To be able to read literature in target language; learn grammar rules and vocabulary;
develop mental acuity.

Roles: T has authority; sts follow instructions to learn what T knows.

Role of Students' Native Language: Native lang provides key to meanings in the target lang;
native lang is used freely in class

Response to Students' Errors: Heavy emphasis placed on correct answers; T supplies correct
answers when sts cannot.

 DM-Direct Method

DM allows sts to perceive meaning directly through the language because no translation is
allowed.

Visual aids, realia and pantomime are used to clarify the meaning of vocabulary items and
concepts.
Sts speak a great deal in the target language and communicate as if in real situations.

Reading and writing are taught from the beginning, though speaking and listening skills are
emphasized.

Grammar is learned inductively.

Goals: To communicate in target language; to think in target language.

Roles: T directs class activities, but sts & T are partners in the teaching/learning process.

Teaching/Learning Process : Sts are taught to associate meaning and the target language
directly. New target lang words or phrases are introduced through the use of realia, pictures or
pantomime, never the native language. Sts speak in the target language a great deal and
communicate as if in real situations. Gram rules are learned inductively – by generalizing from
examples.

Role of Students' Native Language: Not used in the classroom.

 ALM- Audio-Lingual Method

Based on the behaviorist belief that language learning is the acquisition of a set of correct
language habits.

The learner repeats patterns until able to produce them spontaneously.

The teacher directs and controls students' behavior, provides a model, and reinforces correct
responses.

Goals: Use the target lang communicatively, overlearn it, so as to be able to use it automatically
by forming new habits in the L2 & overcoming native lang habits.

Roles: T directs, controls sts' language behavior, provides good model for imitation; students
repeat, respond as quickly and accurately as possible.

Teaching/Learning Process: New vocab, structures presented through dialogs, which are
learned through imitation, repetition. Drills based on patterns in dialog.

Role of Students' Native Language: Students' native language habits are considered as
interfering, thus native lang is not used in classroom.

THREE HUMANISTIC METHODS (The Silent Way, Community Language Learning, Suggestopedia)

 The Silent Way

Originator : Caleb Gattegno

When? : Early 70s onwards

Typical techniques : Use of pronunciation charts

T/S roles : The T guides but does not evaluate; the Ss co-operate and discover

Goals: To use language for self-expression: to develop independence from the teacher, to
develop inner criteria for correctness.
Roles: Teaching should be subordinated to learning. T should give sts only what they absolutely
need to promote their learning. Learners are responsible for their own learning.

Interaction: S-T & S-S. T silent much of the time, but very active setting up situations, listening
to sts, speaking only to give clues, not to model speech. S-s interact. encouraged.
Dealing with feelings: T monitors sts' feelings and actively tries to prevent their feelings from
interfering with their learning. Sts express their feelings during feedback sessions after class.

Response to Students' Errors: Errors are inevitable, a natural, indispensable part of learning.

 CLL-Community Language Learning

Originator : Curran, Charles (psychologist)

When? : Early 70s onward

Underlying philosophy : “Whole-person”, L-centred learning.

Typical techniques : Creation of dialogue; analysis of dialogue; analysis of learning process

T/S roles : Facilitator (“Knower”) /Client

Goals: To learn language communicatively, to take responsibility for learning, to approach the
task nondefensively, never separating intellect from feelings.

Roles: T acts as counselor, supporting sts with understanding of their struggle to master
language in often threatening new learning situation. St is at first a dependent client of the
counselor and becomes increasingly independent through five specified stages.

Interaction: Student-Teacher & Student-Student

Both sts and T make decisions in the class. Sometimes T directs action, other times the sts
interact independently. A spirit of cooperation is encouraged.
Role of Students' Native Language: Use of native language enhances students' security. Sts
have conversations in their native language; target language translations of these become the
text around which subsequent activities revolve. Also, instructions and sessions for expressing
feelings are in native language. Target language is used progressively more. Where students do
not share the same native language, the target language is used from the outset, though
alternatives such as pantomime are also used.

 Suggestopedia

Originator : Lozanov (Bulgarian psychiatrist and educator)

When : 1950s on – but reached the west much later

Underlying philosophy : attempts to harness non-conscious influences which can promote

learning. Learning is a matter of attitude, not aptitude.

Typical techniques : Reading of text to music; games, roleplay & songs; importance of T
behaviour &environment.

T/S roles : T creates the situations in which the Ss will be most “suggestible”; Ss commit to the
method.

Goals: To learn, at accelerated pace, a FL for everyday communication by tapping mental

powers, overcoming psychological barriers.

Roles: T has authority, commands trust and respect of sts; T “desuggests” negative feelings and
limits to learning; if T succeeds in assuming this role, sts assume childlike role, spontaneous and
uninhibited.

Teaching/Learning Process: Sts learn in a relaxing environment.

Role of Students' Native Language: Translation clarifies dialogs' meaning; T uses native lang,
more at first than later, when necessary.

 TPR-Total Physical Response

Goals: To provide an enjoyable learning experience, having a minimum of the stress that
typically accompanies learning a foreign language.

Roles: At first T gives commands and sts follow them. Once sts are “ready to speak,” they take
on directing roles.
Teaching/Learning Process: Lessons begin with commands by T; sts demonstrate their
understanding by acting these out; teacher recombines their instructions in novel and often
humorous ways; eventually sts follow suit. Activities later include games and skits.

Role of Students' Native Language: Method introduced in sts' native language, but rarely used
later in course. Meaning is made clear through actions.

 Communicative Approach

Goals: To become communicatively competent, able to use language appropriate for a given
social context; to manage the process of negotiating meaning with interlocutors.

Roles: T facilitates sts' learning by managing classroom activities, setting up communicative

situations. Sts are communicators, actively engaged in negotiating meaning.

Teaching/Learning Process: Activities are communicative—they represent an inform gap that

needs to be filled; speakers have a choice of what to say & how to say it;

Role of Sts' Native Language: Sts' native language usually plays no role.

Response to Students' Errors: Errors of form are considered natural; sts with incomplete
knowledge can still succeed as communicators.

 TBL/TBI-Task-based learning/instruction

Tasks that get students interact with one another in a way that replicates real life situation.

Different from exercise.

 CLIL-Content and language integrated learning

Approach for learning content through an additional language (foreign or second), thus
teaching both the subject and the language.

 Dogme

Less is more

Dogme is a communicative approach to language teaching that encourages teaching without

published textbooks and focuses instead on conversational communication among learners and
teacher.