Study of Yellow Phosphorus Slag (YPS) and

Cement Kiln Dust (CKD) as calcium oxide source

for Bicarbonate Lime Mortar (BLM)
Mohammad Usman Ir. Dr. Ngu Lock Hei Slyvester Chai Yew Wang
Faculty of Engineering, Computing Faculty of Engineering, Computing Faculty of Engineering, Computing
and Science and Science and Science
Swinburne University of Swinburne University of Swinburne University of
Technology Sarawak Technology Sarawak Technology Sarawak
Kuching, Malaysia Kuching, Malaysia Kuching, Malaysia
101225406@students.swinburne.edu.my lngu@ swinburne.edu.my sychai@swinburne.edu.my

Abstract— Global environmental concerns have been
significantly elevated due to the excessive generation of carbon
dioxide (CO2) and industrial solid waste. This research utilizes
calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in the Accelerated Weathering of
Limestone (AWL) process to capture carbon dioxide (CO2) from
post-combustion conditions. The effluent generated through the
AWL process, which contains calcium bicarbonate
(Ca(HCO3)2), is employed for the precipitation with calcium
oxide (CaO) to form CaCO3 within a mixture consisting of sand
and CaO sourced from industrial solid waste, yellow
Phosphorus slag (YPS) and cement kiln dust (CKD) for the
strength improvement of bicarbonate lime mortar (BLM). This
process contributes to the establishment of an innovative and
sustainable method for efficiently utilizing these industrial solid
wastes, ultimately leading into to the creation of an eco-friendly
construction material known as "YPS-BLM and CKD-BLM”.
The study on BLM is conducted through the evaluation of mix
ratios study for YPS and CKD and the volume study of CKD.
Experimental results found that YPS revealed a significant 35%
improvement in strength for the mix ratio samples of 1:3. 1:2
and 2:1. compared to CKD, and it also demonstrates lower sand
content leads to a decrease in strength. The optimal strength of
YPS is attained at a Ca(OH)2:Sand:bicarbonateratio of 1:3,
achieving 1.160 MPa. This indicates the productive use of YPS
as an industrial waste material due to its higher reactivity and
cementitious properties. In the case of volume study for CKD,
the greatest strength was attained with a Ca(HCO3)2/CKD ratio
of 0.253 (183.3 mL) at 1.616 MPa. Further analysis showed that
if the addition of CKD is above 50% and below 25% for
Ca(HCO3)2 in BLM, the compressive strength is enhanced. For
future research, it is recommended to explore the impact of
different particle sizes of YPS on the strength characteristics in
BLM samples.
Keywords — Accelerated Weathering of Limestone (AWL),
Yellow Phosporus Slag (YPS), Cement Kiln Dust (CKD,
Bicarbonate Lime Mortar (BLM), Strength improvement.
I. INTRODUCTION
Cement mortar, composed of sand, and water, exhibits a
flowable and workable behaviour. It is a widely used material
because of its high strength and durability, making it suitable
for modern construction [1]. However, challenges arise in the
production of mortar, primarily revolving around
environmental concerns. The environmental issues associated
with mortar production include pollution and the risk of
landslides. These challenges underscore the need for
sustainable practices in the extraction and utilization of raw
materials. Furthermore, the over-emission of carbon dioxide
(CO2) from power and cement plants poses significant
environmental threats, including ocean acidification and the
buildup of greenhouse gases [2]. According to Tiseo [3], the
total global CO2 emission in 2022 is found to be
approximately 37.5 billion metric tons (GtCO2) which is also
projected to have risen by 0.9% from the year 2021 (37.12
GtCO2). In both the United States [4] and Germany [5], a low-
technology method for capturing CO2 known as the
accelerated weathering of limestone (AWL) process has been
developed. This technique involves the use of limestone to
capture anthropogenic CO2, resulting in the production of
calcium bicarbonate effluent Ca(HCO3)2. This effluent is an
amphoteric compound, and it is commonly disposed of in the
ocean to address ocean acidification without causing any
adverse effects [6]. However, the practice of disposing of the
effluent into the ocean has limited the applications of the
AWL process near coastlines. In a separate study conducted
by Kirchner et al. [6], it was reported that as much as 50% of
the captured CO2 from the disposed effluent re-enters the
atmosphere.
Apart from that, the solid waste product known as yellow
phosphorus slag (YPS), a byproduct of Yellow Phosphorus
(P4) production through electrical furnace methods at
temperatures ranging from 1400 to 1600 ℃, is disposed of in
landfills, causing environmental contamination [7].
Additionally, cement plants generate a substantial volume of
cement kiln dust (CKD) during cement clinker manufacturing,
posing concerns of air pollution. CKD is a complex mixture
containing raw feed, partially calcined cement clinker, and
condensed volatile salts [8].
In response to these challenges, Chai and Ngu [2] have
devised a novel pathway that combines the Ca(HCO3)2
effluent generated from the AWL process and solid waste
products to produce bicarbonate lime mortar (BLM) as a
promising solution. The reaction mechanism of this process
involves three stages: Hydration (1), absorption (2) and metal
Precipitation (3) as showed in the following equations.
CO2 (aq) + H2O (l) → H2CO3 (aq) (1)
H2CO3 (aq) + CaCO3 (l) → Ca(HCO3)2 (aq) (2)
CaO (aq) + Ca(HCO3)2 (aq) → 2CaCO3 (aq) + H2O (aq) (3)
This approach not only addresses the disposal challenges
associated with the Ca(HCO3)2 effluent and solid wastes but
also presents an opportunity for permanent sequestration of
captured CO2 in the form of carbonate products. The use of
lime mortar (LM) itself serves as an alternative that
contributes to CO2 reduction. This is due to the natural carbon-
capturing properties inherent in LM, which facilitates the
absorption of CO2 during its hardening process [2].
To improve the strength of mortar, the inclusion of CKD
with different wastes in mortar production has been
experimentally proven in various studies. According to
Bakhoum et al. [9], the increase of CKD in the mortar mixture
and accordingly a decrease in the water/cement ratio leads to
an increase in the compressive strength of the mortar. This
improvement is attributed to the high content of calcium
hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) produced from free lime in the mixture,
that is responsible for strength upon hydration and resulting in
improved mechanical properties like compressive strength
and elastic modulus [10]. However, it has been observed that
CKD does not universally lead to strength gain for all samples
studied, and the proper addition of CKD does not adversely
affect strength properties. This was proved from the case study
of Al-Harthy, Taha & Al-Maamary [11], which states that
there is no beneficial increase in the strength when the
addition of CKD is above 5%. Furthermore, based on the
previous study of CKD-BLM samples conducted from Chai
[12], the highest compressive strength was observed at 2.09
MPa with a Ca(OH)2:sand ratio of 1.33:1 and
Ca(HCO3)2:CKD ratio of 0.24.
The high content of calcium oxide (CaO) normally results
in a greater strength performance of mortars and YPS is
composed of high CaO, typically between 40 - 60 % [7].
While there are potential uses for this waste product, more
research is needed to determine the most effective and
sustainable methods for disposal and reuse. Additionally,
limited research has been published on the isolated utilization
of CKD in concrete and mortar mixtures. Given the escalating
necessity to recycle industrial by-products and safeguard the
environment, there is a growing demand for technical data
regarding the performance of concrete and mortars containing
industrial solid wastes [9]. Therefore, in this project, these
potentials will be exploited through two main objectives, (i) to
study the mix ratio of YPS and CKD in BLM, and (ii) to study
the effect of Ca(HCO3)2 volume in CKD-BLM samples which
will be further elaborated in the following sections.
II. METHODOLOGY
The experimental flow shown in Figure 1 is divided into
three parts; The operation of AWL process to generate
Ca(HCO3)2 effluent, the precipitation of mortar to produce
YPS-BLM and CKD-BLM samples and the result analysis
from the sample tests of the mortar . In the first part of the
experiment, AWL procedure is performed through absorption
tower for the production of Ca(HCO3)2 solution and two steps
are involved; The hydration of CO2 to produce H2CO3 and the
reaction of H2CO3 with limestone particles (CaCO3) to
produce Ca(HCO3)2. The chemical reactions of the AWL
method is shown in Equation (1) and Equation (2):
In the second experiment, the production of BLM is
employed through mortar precipitation based on two studies,
mix ratio study of YPS-BLM and CKD-BLM samples and
volume study of Ca(HCO3)2 for CKD-BLM samples. The
result analysis of these studies were carried out by the
outcome of sample tests which include workability and
compressive strength test.
Figure 1: Illustrated flow of the experiment project
2.1 Operation of absoprtion for AWL process
An absorption tower, with a height of 1 m and a diameter
of 0.025 m, was connected with a liquid pump (Longer,
China), a compressed gas inlet, an air outlet, and a liquid
outlet. This system was operated in a continuous and
countercurrent flow manner with gas and liquid flow rates of
6.25 LPM and 0.024 LPM, respectively. The process,
involving AWL, was conducted under atmospheric
conditions (pressure = 1 atm, temperature = 25℃). Prior to
initiating the absorption process, 9.9 kg of limestone pellet
(Progressive Scientific Sdn. Bhd. Malaysia) was packed into
the absorption tower. Subsequently, compressed air with a
combination of CO2 gas mixture (Eastco, Malaysia) and
industrial CO2 gas (Linde, Malaysia) was introduced into the
tower at a pressure of 4 bar using a gas flow meter (SHLLJ,
China). A liquid pump was employed to convey water into
the tower at a liquid pump of 0.53 LPM and it was adjusted
to the desired flowrate (0.024 LPM) during the operating
process. The resultant Ca(HCO3)2 was gathered at the liquid
outlet after the stabilization period of 45 minutes for the
alkalinity test. This test was performed three times after every
15 minutes to maintain the consistency of titration reading
within a range of 3.5 to 4 mL. Once the titration for the
alkalinity test was in the desired range, the final collection of
the effluent was conducted along with a pH test.
2.2 Mortar precipation
The precipitation of mortar samples was conducted using
a 50 mm (Length) x 50 mm (Width) x 50 mm (Height) mortar
mold for three cubic samples. The key components employed
in the mortar precipitation process included YPS (Cahya Mata
Sarawak, Malaysia), CKD (Cahya Mata Sarawak, Malaysia)
and sand (Wee Yang, Malaysia). The specified quantities of
dry ingredients (YPS or CKD, and sand) and volume of
Ca(HCO3)2 required for each sample were weighted and
measured using an electronic balance and measuring cylinder,
respectively. These measured quantities were mixed through
the utilization of tabletop mixer.
2.3 Mixing Propertion of the components
Tables 1 and 2 provide a comprehensive summary of the
component’s composition utilized in the experiment. The mix
ratio study involved the examination of YPS and CKD
samples, employing a fixed Ca(HCO3)2/CKD ratio of 0.55/1
for each sample. This particular ratio was chosen based on an
unpublished volume study conducted by Chai [12], indicating
enhanced strength across mix ratios ranging from 1:3 to 2:1.
in CKD-BLM samples. Therefore, the ratio of 0.55/1 was
further tested in the mix ratio experiment.
 For the volume analysis of CKD-BLM samples, two 0.264 723.38 325.71 191.30 15.38
distinct case were undertaken. In the first case, various mix 0.274 723.38 325.71 198.80 15.89
ratios were explored, while the second case utilized a fixed
mix ratio of 1.33:1. This fixed ratio was determined based on
an unpublished mix ratio study by Chai [12], revealing the
highest compressive strength of 2.09 MPa. The subsequent 2.4 Curing Process
analysis of 1.33:1 ratio aimed to evaluate the improvement in The precipitated mortar samples were solidified for five
compressive strength based on the volume study. days in the same atmosphere with a Relative Humidity (RH)
of 95% and a temperature of 20℃. Following the
The selection of the Ca(HCO3)2 volume for each sample
solidification phase, the mortar samples were subjected to
was guided by the optimal workability range of 105–155%. In
the case of the first mix ratio (1:3), a standard volume of 130 curing on the 7th day in environmental conditions consistent
mL was chosen, with an additional 20 mL or more added for with ASTM STP 1355 specifications (i.e., 20℃ and 65%
the next samples, based on the mixture paste's condition to relative humidity). Subsequently on 27th day, the samples
represent a sludge form. For the fixed mix ratio case study, were placed in an oven for a drying process at a temperature
slight variations of less than 10 mL were measured for each of 60℃ for a duration of 24 hours and was removed on the
sample. This precise approach was implemented to minimize next day to settle for 2 hours before the proceeding of
potential influences on the strength of BLM, thereby ensuring compressive strength test. Hence, concluding the curing
a consistent and reliable set of experimental results. process of 28 days.
Table 1: Composition of the components for mix ratio study at 2.5 Sample testing
Ca(HCO3)2/CKD ratio of 0.55/1
The tests conducted for sample analysis can be categorized
YPS -BLM samples into three primary parts: effluent tests, workability test, and
strength test. The effluent tests comprise two subtests:
Ca(OH)2:sand YPS YPS Sand Ca(HCO3)2
alkalinity test and pH test, aiming to assess the condition and
ratio (g) (%) (g) (mL) consistent concentration of the AWL process effluent.
1:3 231.02 28.38 456 127.44 Subsequently, the workability test was carried out to
determine whether the flow value falls within the optimum
1:1 462.03 45.29 304 254.88
range (105-115%) based on the standard of ASTM C270.
1.33:1 528.04 48.94 260.57 291.29 Following this, the strength test was executed to determine
2:1 616.04 53.22 202.67 339.84 the compressive strength of the mortar samples.
CKD -BLM samples 2.5.1 Effluent test
Ca(OH)2:sand CKD CKD Sand Ca(HCO3)2 The alkalinity test involved titrating 25 mL of the collected
ratio (g) (%) (g) (mL) effluent with 0.05 M HCl (Qrec, Malaysia) in a burette.
Before the titration, an indicator known as bromocresol green
1:3 316.48 29.84 570 174.59
(pH < 8.3) was added in the solution. The titrant volume
1:1 632.96 46.50 380 349.17 needed to change the color of the solution (blue to pale
1.33:1 723.38 49.99 325.71 399.06 yellow) was recorded to quantify the alkalinity of the
solution. After the titration reached its desired volume (3.5 –
2:1 843.94 54.05 253.33 465.56
4 mL) for three consecutive alkalinity tests, the pH of the
effluent was determined using a pH meter (Mettler Teledo,
Switzerland). The following equation was used to determine
Table 2: Composition of the components for volume study for optimal
workability
the alkalinity concentration.
𝑚𝑔 50 x VT x N
Alkalinity ( L ) as Ca(HCO3)2 = VE (4)
CKD -BLM samples with different Ca(OH)2:sand ratio
Ca(HCO3)2/CKD CKD Sand Ca(HCO3)2 Ca(HCO3)2 Where 50 is the conversion factor to convert (meq/L) to
ratio (g) (g) (mL) (%) (mg/L), VT is the volume of titrant and VE is the volume of
0.236 843.941 253.33 200 15.38
effluent and N is the normality of HCL (0.050).

0.242 723.378 325.71 175 14.26 2.5.2 Workability test

0.245 632.956 380 155 13.24 This test was taken from the standard of ASTM C143. The
0.411 316.478 570 130 12.76
optimum flow value range in ASTM C270 is between 105
and 155 %. In the workability test preparation, the flow table
CKD -BLM samples at Ca(OH)2:sand ratio of 1.33:1 was cleaned and dried before placing the mold at its center.
Ca(HCO3)2/CKD CKD Sand Ca(HCO3)2 Ca(HCO3)2 A 25 mm thick mortar layer was applied and tamped 20 times
ratio (g) (g) (mL) (%)
for uniform filling. Tamping pressure was consistent, with a
slight tilt for the bottom layer near the perimeter. Additional
0.230 723.38 325.71 168.80 13.82 layers were filled and tamped, and excess mortar was
0.246 723.38 325.71 178.30 14.35 removed for a smooth surface. The table was then dropped 25
times in 15 seconds and the distance from the outer layer of
0.253 723.38 325.71 183.30 14.87
the mold's spreaded flow was measured using a measuring
tape, extending until the end of the table. The mixture was
transferred to the mortar mold, completing the efficient
workability testing process. The equation used to calculate
the workability of flow value is given below:
DF
Fv (%) = DB x 100 (5)
Where Fv is the flow value, DF is the average diameter of the
flow (mm) and DB is the bottom diameter of the conical
mould (mm).
2.5.3 Compressive strength test
This test was taken from the standard of ASTM C109. In
the unconfined compressive strength test, the strength of
cured mortar samples was determined using an automated
compression machine (NL Scientific Instruments, Malaysia).
The samples were positioned at the center of the machine
before activating it. As the machine initiated, weight was
incrementally added until the sample reached the point of
breaking. The maximum load necessary to break the sample
was recorded for strength calculation. Compressive strength
(MPa) was calculated from the following equaiton.
P
fm (MPa) = A (6)
Where fm is the compressive strength in MPa, P is the total
maximum load in N and A is the area of load surface in mm2.
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Mix ratio study of YPS-BLM and CKD-BLM samples
In the comparative analysis of the overall strength results
between YPS-BLM and CKD-BLM samples shown in Figure
2, YPS samples exhibit a roughly 35% improvement in
strength compared to CKD, with all mix ratio samples
displaying higher strength, except for the Ca(OH)2:Sand ratio
of 1.33:1, which shows a 4.6% reduction in strength for YPS.
This shows that YPS may exhibit enhanced pozzolanic
activity compared to CKD. Pozzolanic materials react with
Ca(OH)2 produced during hydration to form additional
calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) that acts as the main
hydration product in mortar based materials and is considered
as the main source of strength improvement [13]. The
observed reduction in strength for YPS at a ratio of 1.33:1
compared to CKD may be related to the specific conditions
under which this ratio promotes less favorable reactions.
Further analysis indicates that YPS with a ratio of 1:3
achieved the highest compressive strength of 1.160 MPa,
while CKD attained its highest strength of 0.752 MPa with a
ratio of 1:1. For YPS samples, decreasing the sand content
leads to a reduction in compressive strength, aligning with Lin
[14], which associates greater Sand/Aggregate ratios with
increased mortar strength. The increase in strength could be
due to the better binding characteristics between sand and
YPS. For CKD samples, this theory does not apply to the mix
ratio of 1:3, where strength is lower despite the higher
Sand/CKD ratio. The lack of a similar observation in the
CKD-BLM samples could potentially be attributed to the
procedural errors encountered during the curing process,
specifically regarding the demolding of samples after a 5-day
curing period. Despite the prescribed duration, certain
samples remained inadequately dried and were prematurely
removed, resulting in the deformation of the cube mortars,
consequently impacting the outcomes of the compressive
strength test as well. This implies that the excessive water in
CKD-BLM samples leads to inadequate bonding between the
particles as it creates more space between the particles leading
to increased porosity and ultimately resulting in poor
workability and low strength [15]. Thus, proper modification
needs to be made based on the amount of Ca(HCO3)2 being
added in the BLM samples.
In terms of similarity, both the samples were able to meet
the standards of ASTM STP 1355 which indicates a
compressive strength range of 0.2 – 0.6 MPa but failed to
meet the strength of 1.7 MPa that states the standard of ASTM
C141 for Hydraulic Lime Mortars. Furthermore, both the
solid waste samples obtained their lowest compressive
strength with a mix ratio of 2:1 which is found to be 0.681
MPa for YPS and 0.459 MPa for CKD respectively. This
shows that the strength of BLM samples with a higher mix
ratio such as 2:1 does not uniformly perform well with the
optimized Ca(HCO3)2 ratio of 0.55.
Workability tests were conducted for the 1:3 and 1:1 YPS-
BLM sample and 1:3 for CKD-BLM samples. The samples
without workability results were considered too wet, thus,
causing the flow value to be unmeasurable. Both solid waste
samples achieved optimal workability. Notably, for YPS,
higher flow values correlate with higher compressive strength
for the respective mix ratio.
Figure 2: Comparison between YPS-BLM and CKD-BLM samples based
on the mix ratio study with fixed ratio of Ca(HCO3)2:YPS and CKD. a)
Compressive strength (MPa) comparison. b) Flow value (%) comparison
3.1.1 Dry unit weight of BLM samples for mix ratio study
Figure 3 illustrates the relationship between the dry unit
weight of the samples and their aggregate content. The data
reveals a slight reduction in the weight of BLM with an
increased content of YPS and CKD. For example, the dry unit
weight of CKD is 0.7 g/cm³ with a composition of 54%,
compared to 1.7 g/cm³ with a CKD composition of 29.8%.
Moreover, most of the samples exhibit a similar dry unit
weight, ranging from 0.7 g/cm³ to 1.9 g/cm³, with no
significant differences observed. The data aligns with the
findings from Hakkomaz et al. [16], who reported that the
addition of 5%, 10%, and 20% CKD does not significantly
affect the dry unit values of the samples. This consistency is percentage difference content of CKD and sand, and CKD
attributed to YPS-BLM and CKD-BLM samples having and Ca(HCO3)2 as shown in Table 3.
equivalent specific gravity values.
Table 3: Percentage difference between the compositions
In terms of strength, no linear relationship is observed with
respect to weight. However, both YPS and CKD exhibit their Percentage Difference
lowest compressive strength at the lowest dry unit weight (0.7 Strength (%)
g/cm³). This could be due to the loose structure of the mortar (MPa) CKD & CKD
from water-to-cement ratio. According to Huang, Horn and sand &Ca(HCO3)2
Hen [17], the dry unit weight is increased with the increase in
compaction effort. Since the dry weight of samples is lower, 1.435 107.650 123.553
thus it indicates poor compaction in the mortar structure. 1.379 75.811 122.270

CKD Content (%) 1.357 49.944 121.505

20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 0.936 57.198 83.781
2.0
Dry unit weight (g/cm3)

1.6

1.2 In case of workability, all the CKD samples of volume

study were able to meet the optimal range. The flow value
0.8
was observed as the highest with the ratio of 0.410 at
0.4 123.33%. Remaining samples indicate a slightly close
0.0 comparison among the flow values. The substantial reduction
20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 in the workability of the mortar, observed with the remaining
YPS Content (%)
ratios (0.244, 0.241, and 0.236) as compared to 0.410 ratio
YPS-BLM CKD-BLM may be attributed to the elevated content of CKD in the BLM
Figure 3: Dry unit weight of YPS and CKD samples for mix ratio
study
sample. This is evident as the mass of Ca(HCO3)2/CKD ratio
for 0.411 is 316.478 g, which only includes half of the CKD
3.2 Volume study of CKD-BLM samples content as compared to the rest of the samples. Therefore, it
3.2.1 Ca(HCO3)2 volume study with different mix ratios can be said that due to the comprehensive CaO composition
Based on Figure 4, the experiment results from the in CKD, CaO undergoes a rapid reaction with Ca(HCO3)2,
volume analysis of Ca(HCO3)2 solution with different mix depleting the effluent in the mixture. Consequently, this
ratios of CKD and sand indicates higher compressive strength expedites the setting process and diminishes the overall
when Ca(HCO3)2/CKD ratio is in the range of 0.2 to 0.3. This workability [10].
shows that the strength of CKD-BLM increases with higher
content of Ca(HCO3)2 and CKD as can be seen from the
graph. Thus, the content of Ca(HCO3)2 is optimum between
the ratio of 0.2 to 0.3, which results in modifying the structure
of detrimental pores, leading to enhanced strength [18]. The
highest strength was obtained at 1.435 MPa which includes a
CKD composition of 65.1% and Ca(HCO3)2 of 15.4% with a
Ca(HCO3)2/CKD ratio of 0.237. The lowest strength was
determined with a ratio of 0.410 at 0.936 MPa including the
CKD and Ca(HCO3)2 composition of only 31.1% and 12.8%
respectively. This observation also agrees with the findings of
Al-Bakri, Ahmed & Hefni [11], stating that the higher
Ca(OH)2 causes an improvement in the strength of mortar.
Another significant findings from this study shows that the
compressive strength is the highest when there is a greater

Figure 4: Effect of Ca(HCO3)2 volume with different mix ratios of

CKD:Sand for CKD-BLM samples. a) Effect on Compressive strength
(MPa). b) Effect on Flow value (%).
3.2.2 Ca(HCO3)2 volume study at a mix ratio of 1.33:1 3.2.3 Volume study comparison between different and
When studying the overall outcome of the volume analysis fixed Ca(HCO3)2 ratio at 0.55
of Ca(HCO3)2 with the fixed mix ratio of Ca(OH)2:sand Upon examining the analysis presented in Table 4 and
(1.33:1) as depicted in Figure 5, it was observed that the Figure 6, it was observed that the strength of CKD increases
Ca(HCO3)2/CKD ratio of 0.243 and 0.253 samples shows with a lower Ca(HCO3)2/CKD ratio and a higher
slight improvement in compressive strength as compared to Ca(OH)2:sand ratio. Moreover, the data from both sets
the previous volume study with different mix ratios. Despite presents a contradiction; while the strength of fixed ratio of
that, the samples for this respective set were unable to gain 0.55 starts to decline from the mix ratio of 1.33:1, the opposite
higher strength than 2.09 MPa. The greatest strength was trend is observed for different ratios, which indicates a further
observed at 1.616 MPa with a Ca(HCO3)/CKD ratio of 0.253, improvement in the strength of BLM. Notably, the optimized
whereas Chai [10] obtained its highest strength of 2.09 MPa Ca(HCO3)2/CKD ratio of 0.55 proposed from Chai [10], failed
with a ratio of 0.24. Furthermore, the similar ratio of 0.24 from to enhance strength, contrary to expectations as it can be seen
the experiment was only able to obtain its strength at 1.571 that the strength of all mix ratio for fixed Ca(HCO3)2/CKD
MPa despite having similar compositions. This could be ratio includes lower compressive strength compared to
attributed to procedural errors during the mortar precipitation. different ratios falling below 0.55. Therefore, possible
Due to the insufficient oiling of the molds during mortar investigations can be carried out with Ca(OH)2:sand ratios
precipitation, it led to the cracking of cube mortars. The ranging between 0.30 and 0.40 and determine under which
observed cracked mortar specimens demonstrate a significant ratio the strength starts to decline.
35% decrease in compressive strength [19]. Another possible
Table 4: Data of Compressive strength (MPa) comparison between fixed
difference in the strength could be due to the longer period for (0.55/1) and different Ca(HCO3)2/CKD ratio
the initial setting time of the paste. The initial setting time of
cement refers to the point at which the paste, consisting of Ca(OH)2 : Sand Ca(HCO3)2 / Compressive
cement and water, begins to lose its plasticity. This implies ratio CKD ratio Strength (MPa)
that if the initial setting time of cement is 30 minutes, it is
0.55 0.547
necessary to promptly place the cement mortar or concrete in 1:3
its designated location within 30 minutes of water addition. If 0.41 0.936
there is a delay, the strength of mortar will diminish [20]. 0.55 0.752
1:1
In terms of workability of the mortar, an inverse 0.245 1.357
relationship was observed between the compressive strength 0.55 0.742
and flow value. As the highest flow value was obtained at 1.33:1
0.242 1.379
124% with the lowest compressive strength of 1.292 MPa.
Moreover, the lowest flow value of 109% achieved the highest 0.55 0.681
2:1
strength of 1.616 MPa. Similar pattern was observed in the 0.237 1.435
previous volume study with different mixed ratios. This
implies that mortars with higher flow values often have a 2.0
looser structure due to increased water content, leading to less
effective particle packing. This loose structure can result in a
Compressive Strength (MPa)

1.6
weaker, more porous matrix with lower strength. Thus, it
proves the reduction in compressive strength for CKD-BLM 1.2
samples when the content of Ca(HCO3) is above 25%.
0.8

0.4

0.0
1:3 1:1 1.33:1 2:1
Ca(OH)2:sand ratio
Fixed Ca(HCO3)2/CKD ratio Different Ca(HCO3)2/CKD ratio

Figure 6: Compressive strength (MPa) comparison between fixed and

different Ca(HCO3)2/CKD ratio

3.2.4 Dry unit weight of BLM samples for volume study

When comparing the overall analysis of dry unit weight
for volume study samples in relation to the Ca(HCO3) content
present in the mortar, the graph indicates an inverse
relationship between the dry unit weight of CKD-BLM
samples and the CKD content. Specifically, a CKD
composition with 12.8% exhibited a weight of 1.9 g/cm³,
while a CKD addition of 15.4% resulted in a weight of 1.2
g/cm³. Additionally, most samples displayed a similar dry
weight of the mortar.

Figure 5: Effect of Ca(HCO3)2 volume with Ca(OH)2:Sand ratio of 1.33:1 The sample with the highest dry weight at 1.9 g/cm³
for CKD-BLM samples. a) Effect on Compressive strength (MPa). b) exhibited the lowest compressive strength of 0.936 MPa. This
Effect on Flow value (%).
finding contrasts with the preliminary analysis of the dry unit
weight of mix ratio samples, where the lowest strength
corresponded to the lowest weight. Consequently, it can be
asserted that the dry unit weight does not significantly impact
the strength of the mortar. Instead, it provides valuable
information about the post-analysis of mortar properties
concerning the optimum moisture content and compaction
characteristics [11].
2.0
Dry unit weight (g/cm3)
1.6
1.2
0.8
0.4
0.0
12.8 13.2 13.8 14.3 14.4 14.9 15.4 15.9 15.4
Ca(HCO3)2 content (%)
Figure 7: Dry unit weight of CKD samples for volume study
IV. CONCLUSION
To conclude the mix ratio study of YPS and CKD, it is
evident that the optimized ratio of Ca(HCO3)2 solution
(0.55:1) does not uniformly yield higher compressive strength
across all mix ratio samples. Each mix ratio seems to possess
its unique optimized Ca(HCO3)2 solution, which is discernible
through the experimental process itself. Moreover, the
significance of YPS-BLM samples included an overall better
strength performance in the mortar compared to CKD-BLM
samples and it can be said that the compressing strength of
YPS increases with increasing Sand/Aggreate ratio due to its
higher reactivity properties.
For the volume case study, investigating various mix
ratios, the compressive strength tends to drop if the addition
of Ca(HCO3)2 in BLM is above 25% with the CKD falling
below 45% present in the mortar. The significance of the
volume study, with a fixed mix ratio of 1.33:1, indicates that
the compressive strength of BLM increases when the
Ca(HCO3)2 content is below 16%, while the CKD content is
above 50%. This observation was aligned with literature data,
affirming that an increased CKD content results in better
strength performance. However, the strength gradually began
to decline when the CKD content is close to 60%.
Furthermore, the highest compressive strength attained in the
experiment was 1.616 MPa, achieved with a
Ca(HCO3)2/CKD ratio of 0.253 and a mix ratio of 1.33:1. It
was also observed that the average highest compressive
strength (>1.2 MPa) for the experiment of volume study was
recorded when the Ca(HCO3)2/CKD ratio is in the range of 0.2
to 0.3. Thus, it proved that optimum content of Ca(HCO3)2
lies in this range.
The potential that YPS-BLM CKD-BLM possessed is its
capability of storing CO2 indefinitely while producing value
added-product known as BLM. Therefore, future work could
involve a more in-depth exploration of the utilization of YPS
to determine the strength characteristics of BLM with
different kind of studies. Given the higher CaO content in YPS
(49.8%) compared to CKD (45.4%), a comprehensive study
on YPS can be conducted considering particle size
distribution. This is particularly relevant as smaller particles
result in a greater total surface area, enhancing contact with
water. This increased surface area facilitates quicker
hydration, thereby expediting setting and hardening processes.
Thus, ultimately enhancing the early strength of the mortar
[15]. Additionally, the study of CKD-BLM samples could be
expanded by conducting supplementary tests such as drying
shrinkage and leaching tests. These tests would evaluate
mortar characteristics such as the tendency to crack as drying
shrinkage takes place when water evaporates from the surface
of the exposed material, resulting in a moisture disparity
throughout the slab's depth. This difference in moisture
content leads to strain and, consequently, the generation of
tensile stresses. Thus, it could result in assessing the quality of
the mortars in terms of construction material [21]. For the
leaching test, it assesses the stability and compatibility of the
material (crumbled mortar sample) by subjecting it to
extraction fluid over an extended period. This helps evaluate
interaction of material with the surrounding environment and
whether the samples mortar align with the industrial standard
of ASTM D 6234-13 [22].
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This project was supported by CMS Cement Sdn Bhd and
Swinburne University of Technology Sarawak Campus.
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