Coral reefs are some of the world’s most produc3ve ecosystems.

They are present in over

100 countries and territories, and whilst they cover only 0.2% of the ocean’s seafloor, they
support a whopping 25% of marine species (GCRMN, 2020). They provide many ecosystem
services to millions of people around the world and are home to a great diversity of fish and
other reef-associated species. However, due to numerous anthropogenic drivers, coral reefs
are degrading at a fast speed (Hughes et al., 2017). Sea temperatures in many tropical
regions have increased by almost 1°C over the past 100 years and are s3ll increasing to this
day (Hoegh-Guldberg, 1999). This, combined with other anthropogenic drivers has major
impacts on coral reefs worldwide, and in par3cular, corals living in tropical oceans (Baker et
al., 2008). Here, I provide a small overview of coral bleaching in tropical regions and its
socio-economic impacts.

Coral bleaching is the process where corals lose their colours, arising from the par3al or total
elimina3on of their symbio3c algae Symbiodinium (a.k.a. zooxanthellae or single-celled
dinoflagellates) during stressful events (Gómez et al., 2000) (Figure 1). This symbiosis is
largely restricted to animals of the phylum Cnidaria in the pho3c zone of the water column
(Douglas, 2003). Corals obtain photosynthe3c products from the algae and use them as their
energy source (Hoegh-Guldberg, 1999). Symbiodinium is mainly found in cells of the
endoderm (intracellular), and their elimina3on rises either from expulsion from the cell or
cell death (Gates et al., 1992). The bleached corals’ 3ssue becomes translucent, and this
leaves a white color behind derived from their underlying calcium carbonate skeleton. This
ejec3on of the algae may increase the polyp’s chances of surviving short-term stress. When
the stress subsides, they can regain their symbio3c algae later. However, if adverse
condi3ons con3nue over a longer period, the coral may die (Douglas, 2003).

Although there is no simple explana3on for the causes of coral bleaching, several factors
have been proposed. Bleaching can be triggered by extreme temperatures (heat and cold),
high solar radiance (UV-radia3on), prolonged darkness, the presence of heavy metals
(copper and cadmium) and pathogenic microorganisms (Hoegh-Guldberg, 1999; Brown,
2000; Ben-Haim & Rosenberg, 2002). Bleaching events are increasing in frequency and
severity (Wilkinson, 1999), mainly abributed to elevated seawater temperature due to the
long-term changes in our global climate (Walther et al., 2002). First reported in 1980, these
occurrences are now a modern-day phenomenon and are referred to as mass coral
bleaching (Glynn, 1983; Lough et al., 2018).
Figure 1: Process of coral bleaching arising from expulsion of their symbio9c algae (Symbiodinium) during periods of
prolonged stress (adapted from NOAA, 2023).

As the global temperature keeps increasing, so does the temperature of the tropical oceans.
This is far from good news as tropical corals live closer to their thermal limit, making them
even more vulnerable to increasing sea temperatures. Even a small devia3on of the sea
surface temperature (SST) above the average summer maximum can disturb coral-algal
symbiosis (Baker et al., 2008). Projec3ons of future stress as the global temperature
con3nues to rise, place coral reefs at great risk of persis3ng degrada3on (Frieler et al., 2013;
Gatusso et al., 2015). Furthermore, models have predicted severe bleaching events in
tropical oceans to start occurring annually before the year 2055 (Van Hooidonk et al., 2014).

There have been debates on the poten3al of corals to acclima3ze and adapt to warmer
tropical oceans and the associated bleaching events (Hoegh-Guldberg, 2014; Hughes et al.,
2017). However, corals would need to increase their thermal tolerance by approximately
1.5°C to make this happen (Donner, 2009). Thus, more radical approaches to help corals
survive a rapidly changing environment might be needed (e.g. assisted evolu3on, habitat
engineering and concentra3ng management on naturally resilient reefs) (Anthony et al.,
2017). It has even been men3oned that extratropical reefs may become more suitable for
hos3ng tropical coral species (Descombes et al., 2015). Yet, this will depend on their ability
to disperse to other areas where temperatures become more suitable (Mies et al., 2020).

Mass bleaching has already resulted in losses of corals in many parts of the world (Hoegh-
Guldberg, 1999). In 1998, the first global-scale coral bleaching event occurred in thousands
of years due to a prolonged period of SST temperature increase (on average between 0.7 to
0.9°C above normal temperature), following an El Niño event (Aronson et al., 2002). Around
70% of the world’s coral reefs were damaged and 8% was killed (Albright, 2018), mostly
pronounced in shallow waters (less than 15m deep) (Wilkinson, 1998). Steep declines were
especially notable in tropical regions, such as South Asia, Western Australia, East Africa and
the Seychelles, the Western Indian Ocean (WIO) and certain areas of the Caribbean (See
appendix Figure A.1). Henceforth, large-scale efforts have been implemented to monitor
global coral cover, and more data has been made available (GCRMN, 2020). However,
according to the GCRMN’s Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2020 report, there has been a
steady decrease in hard coral cover since 2010 (Figure 2), with the worst impacts being
visible in the waters of South-East Asia, Australia, the Pacific, East Asia, the Western Indian
Ocean, The Gulf and Gulf of Oman (GCRMN, 2020) (See appendix Figure A.1).

Figure 2: Global average hard coral cover (%) (adapted from GCRMN, 2020).

Coral reefs are biodiversity hotspots that provide ecosystem services to millions of people
around the globe, including coastal protec3on, carbon sequestra3on, food provision and
buffering against extreme climate events (Eddy et al., 2021). The value of goods and services
provided by coral reefs was es3mated at US$2.7 trillion per year, including US$ 36 billion in
coral reef tourism (GCRMN, 2020), and an es3mated 3 billion people depend on coastal
biodiversity for their livelihood (FAO, 2022). Especially in West Africa and Southeast Asia, fish
origina3ng from coral reef ecosystems are an important source of protein and nutrients for
coastal communi3es (Bell et al., 2009). However, it was found by Eddy et al. (2021) that the
loss in coral habitat directly translates into a loss in capacity for the reefs to support
biodiversity due to the high sensi3vity of species richness as a func3on of coral habitat.
Consequently, shins in trophic levels of the food web are to be expected. This will eventually
put pressure on reef-dependent fisheries throughout tropical developing na3ons
(Schubenberg & Obura, 2001; Eddy et al., 2021).
Addi3onally, other drama3c socio-economic impacts include the es3mated losses from reef-
dependent tourism. For example, the mass bleaching event in 1998 in the Philippines
resulted in an es3mated loss of US$15 million. This was manifested by impacts on tourist
des3na3on choice (less visita3on), impacts on the choice of pursued ac3vi3es (fewer
ac3vi3es related to coral reefs) and a reduc3on in tourist sa3sfac3on as a result of the
degraded reefs (Schubenberg & Obura, 2001).

Coral reefs support a considerable part of the ocean’s biodiversity and support the safety,
coastal protec3on, food and economic security for millions of people around the world.
However, they are also among the most vulnerable ecosystems, impacted by mul3ple
anthropogenic pressures. Coral bleaching events reduce the coral’s ability to support high
biodiversity and provide valuable ecosystem services. Protec3ng coral reefs will demand
coopera3on on a global scale to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and reduce the impact of
climate change.

Easier said than done.

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Figure A.1: Long-term trends in the average cover of live hard coral in each of the ten monitored regions by the GCRMN.
The solid line represents the es9mated mean with 80% (darker shade) and 95% (lighter shade) credible intervals, which
represent levels of uncertainty. Grey areas represent periods for which no observed data were available. Trends are
coloured to match the GCRMN regions represented on the central map. The propor9on of the world's coral reef area
supported by each region is indicated by % of coral reefs. ETP is the Eastern Tropical Pacific. PERSGA is the Red Sea and
Gulf of Aden. ROPME is the ROPME Sea Area. WIO is the Western Indian Ocean (GCRMN, 2020).