Continued from page 3
cost of manufacturing. Also, the
application of specialty rupture discs
will become more difficult as the
manufacturer must go through a
testing and certification process
before applying the UD stamp.
Specialized product designs can be
certified but it is not a quick or
inexpensive process.
For assistance with rupture disc
applications or additional informa-
tion concerning the ASME Code
pertaining to rupture discs, contact
Fike Metal Products at (816) 229-
3405, Fax (816) 228-9277, e-mail
fmpsales@fike.com, or visit our
web site at www.fike.com.
NEWS OF NOTE
FIKE ASME UD STAMP
AUTHORIZED
Fike Metal Products received ASME UD
Stamp Accreditation and Authorization
the week of September 28, 1998. Fike is
now authorized to apply the UD Stamp
in accordance with the ASME Code Sec-
tion VIII, Division I changes for 1998.
R
Metal Products
Division Fike Corporation
704 South 10th Street
Blue Springs, MO 64015 U.S.A.
(816) 229-3405 • Fax (816) 228-9277
e-mail: fmpsales @ fike.com
Web Site www.fike.com
DATED MATERIAL
8
Continued from page 5
Conclusions
Using water for fire protection appli-
cations is not a new concept, but with
the development of several different
approaches to creating water mist, a
new alternative to many traditional
fire protection approaches for flam-
mable liquid hazards in now available.
Water mist systems provide cost effec-
tive fire protection which is people
safe and environmentally friendly. In
the unfortunate event of a fire, a
water mist system will ensure rapid
extinguishment, easy cleanup and
rapid restoration to normal operations.
For information on watermist sys-
tems, checkmark “MicroMist” on the
reply card.
FIKE FEATURED ON
DISCOVERY CHANNEL
On February 20, 1998, Discovery
Channel’s “World of Wonder” aired a
special segment on industrial explo-
sions. The segment was entitled “Fire-
ball” and features explosion protection
activities of Fike Metal Products.
For a free video copy of the Discov-
ery Channel segment, checkmark “Fire-
ball” on the reply mailer.
Safety & Technology News
. . . is published by Fike
Corporation in the interest of
communication and service to
those involved with process
and industrial safety. We
welcome your comments and
suggestions. If you would like
to continue receiving this
newsletter, please complete
and return the enclosed
Subscriber Qualification
Form.
Copyright © 1998 by Fike Corporation.
All rights reserved.
Fike Metal Products
1999 trade show schedule:
Gulf Coast Solids Handling and
Processing Show, Pasadena, TX,
February 9 & 10, 1999, Booth # 207
Grain Elevator Processing Society
(GEAPS) Exchange, Tampa, FL,
March 6 – 9, 1999, Booth # 722
Petrochem Expo, Houston, TX,
March 16 – 18, 1999, Booth # 2100
Interphex Show, New York, NY,
April 20 – 22, 1999, Booth # 1765
Powder & Bulk Solids Conference,
Chicago, IL, May 11 – 13, 1999, #1508
BULK RATE
U.S. POSTAGE
PAID
MAIL-SORT
INCORPORATED
Fundamentals of Explosion Phenomena
I n order to get a firm understand-
ing of explosions, it is best to
start with the various meanings or
definitions associated with the
concept of explosions. After defin-
ing explosions, they can be catego-
rized according to scientifically
identifiable phenomena.
A common dictionary definition
of explosions is:
explosion (ik-splo’zhan) n.
1. The act of exploding; a sudden
blowing up or bursting.
2. The sudden, loud noise pro-
duced by exploding.
3. A sudden, violent outbreak of
feeling; outburst; an explosion of
laughter.
Unfortunately, the Webster’s
definition of explosion leaves one
with the desire for a better technical
definition. The McGraw-Hill dictio-
nary of scientific and technical terms
defines explosion as follows:
“explosion: [chem] A chemical
reaction or change of state which is
effected in an exceedingly short
space of time with the generation of
a high temperature and generally a
large quantity of gas.”
This definition gets closer to the
mark but it is really the chemist’s
definition of an explosion. A
definition of explosion proposed by
Joe Louvar and Dan Crowl is as
follows:
Fall, 1998
Volume 10, Issue 2
by Dr. Kris Chatrathi
“Explosion: An explosion is a rapid
expansion of gases resulting in a
rapidly moving pressure or shock
wave. The expansion can be me-
chanical (via the sudden rupture
of a pressure vessel) or it can be the
result of a rapid chemical reaction.
Explosion damage is caused by the
pressure or shock wave.”
The best definition that encom-
passes all of the aspects of an
explosion was proposed by Wilfred
Baker.
“In general, an explosion is said
to have occurred in the atmosphere
if energy is released over a suffi-
ciently small volume so as to
generate a pressure wave of finite
amplitude traveling away from the
source. This energy may have
originally been stored in the system
in a variety of forms; these include:
· Nuclear energy
· Chemical energy
· Electrical energy
· Pressure energy
Continues on page 2
In this issue
Fundamentals of
Explosion Phenomena ............. 1
ASME Code Section VIII
Changes for 1998 .................... 3
Watermist
Fire Suppression Systems ....... 4
Faster Explosion
Protection is Better .................. 6
Continued from page 1
However, the release is not
considered to be explosive unless it
is rapid enough and concentrated
enough to produce a pressure wave
that one can hear. Even though
many explosions damage their
surroundings, it is not necessary that
external damage be produced by the
explosion. All that is necessary is
that the explosion is capable of
being heard.”
It is beyond the scope of this
article to review all types of explo-
sions, so the types of explosions
common or possible in the chemical
process industries will be more
closely considered. Explosions can
be categorized into:
· Physical explosions
· Chemical explosions
Chemical explosions involve some
type of chemical reaction whereas
physical explosions do not. Examples
of physical explosions include:
· The bursting of a vessel contain-
ing high pressures (pressures above
atmosphere pressure). The vessels
could contain compressed liquids.
· Vapor or steam explosions.
· Introduction of molten material
into cooling liquids. The rapid
mixing of materials at drastically
different temperatures.
Chemical explosion examples
include:
· Gas and dust explosions
· Unconfined vapor cloud explosions
· Condensed material explosions
· Runaway chemical reactions
· Boiling liquid expanding vapor
explosions (BLEVEs)
All of the explosions (both physical
and chemical) meet the necessary
requirements as described in Baker’s
definition of an explosion. One way
to look at gas and dust explosions is
to consider the elements necessary for
these types of explosions.
ELEMENTS OF GAS AND
DUST EXPLOSIONS
Four things must exist in order to
have a gas or dust explosion. Fuel
and oxidizer components must exist
2 7
in the right proportions. Further,
these two components must be
partially or fully confined. Finally, an
ignition source of sufficient strength
must also be present. When these
four elements come together, a gas
or dust explosion will occur. Fuels
can be either organic or inorganic
materials (hydrocarbons, metals).
Oxidizers can include oxygen in air,
nitrous oxide, chloride and other
materials. Ignition sources can vary
from a spark to a flame from a
welding torch.
Unconfined vapor cloud explosions
consist of the same elements as
described above except for the
difference in confinement. Condensed
material explosions are typically
associated with propellants and high
explosives (dynamite, TNT, etc.).
Runaway chemical reactions
usually occur within a reactor
vessel. An exothermic reaction in a
chemical process may produce
suddenly increasing higher pressures
and temperatures. When such a
process generates pressures greater
than the design pressure of the
reactor vessel, there is likely to be an
explosion. Boiling liquid expanding
vapor explosions (BLEVEs) occur
when a vessel containing liquid is
heated (for example, by an external
fire). If the vessel is heated fast
enough, the liquid inside begins to
boil and the vessel will explode. If
the liquid inside the vessel is
Fike Explosion Protection
Engineering Workshops & Seminars
Fike Metal Products offers four
options in Explosion Protection
Engineering Workshops and Semi-
nars to meet your individual train-
ing needs. Choose from a two hour
presentation at your office, to a two
day workshop at the factory in Blue
Springs, Missouri. These are
educational programs, not sales
presentations. All attendees receive
flammable, the released material
may also explode.
In conclusion, after having defined New Generation
what an explosion is and categorizing
the different types of explosions, one
can start quantifying the explosion
Explosion Isolation Valve
potential and the parameters that
define the limits of occurrence for
explosions. More importantly, one
S eptember 1, 1998, Fike Metal Products, Blue
Springs, Missouri, introduces its “New Genera-
tion” Explosion Isolation Valve. Compared to previous,
can construct strategies to minimize and competitor, models this product improvement
the probability of explosions and delivers higher performance (faster), higher reliability,
methods of mitigating the damage lower cost, reduced maintenance, and less weight to
caused by them. consider during installation.
By incorporating Fike’s new Gas Cartridge Actuator
REFERENCES technology into our explosion isolation valve, we have
Crowl, D.A.; J.F. Louvar; Chemical eliminated the pressurized nitrogen cylinder, all the
Process Safety: Fundamentals with hardware, and all the weight associated with it,
Applications; Prentice Hall, New including the Class B explosive actuator that was
Jersey, U.S.A. 1990, pp. 158-159 previously used to initiate valve closure. This simplified
Baker, W.E.; Cox, P.A.; Wesine, design eliminates concern for leakage of the stored,
P.S.; Kulesz, J.J.; Skehlow, R.A.: pressurized nitrogen, and reduces material costs
Explosion Hazards and Evalua- associated with the storage cylinder. The gas cartridge
tion; Elsevier Scientific, actuator discharges directly into the top of the pneu-
Amsterdam, Holland, 1983; p 106 matically activated valve and reduces closure time by
25%. The new valve design is easily serviced and may
ABOUT THE AUTHOR be reset in place. A retrofit package is available for
Dr. Kris Chatrathi earned his BS, the existing installations of Fike Explosion Isolation
MS, and PhD degrees in chemical Valves.
Photo above shows
engineering from the University of
the previous
Arkansas. He is a member of the For more detailed information contact the design, incorporat-
American Institute of Chemical Explosion Protection Group at Fike, ing the pressurized
Engineers (AIChE) and serves on the (816) 229-3405, nitrogen container
American Society of Testing and e-mail fmpsales@fike.com, or visit our home page at
Materials (ASTM) committee on the www.fike.com.
hazard potential of chemicals. Dr.
Chatrathi is Director of Explosion
Protection for Fike Metal Products,
a division of Fike Corporation.
Clarification, “Explosion Hazard Warning”
I n the Spring 1998 issue of Safety
& Technology News, we pub-
1. fuel,
2. oxidizer (air),
necessary consideration, but are
historically not 100% effective.
lished the above article to advise
readers of possible explosion
3. ignition source,
4. a confined space.
System design engineers may not be
fully aware of the potential explo-
hazards when installing thermal Explosions are typically pre- sion hazard, or their designed
a course booklet for easy reference
oxidizers as a pollution control vented by closely controlling one or safety interlocks and prevention
and note taking. Course options,
strategy. The possible hazards more of these four elements to systems may be inadvertently
details and electronic registration
presented are the result of incom- maintain the environment outside of circumvented by installation,
are available on Fike’s web site at
plete, or improper, integration of the explosibility limits of the maintenance, or operations person-
www.fike.com, under “What’s
thermal oxidizers into the systems material being handled. It is nel. Human error and upset condi-
New”. You may also request our
under consideration, not the devices imperative that the process stream tions too often negate preventative
pamphlet/registration form by e-
(thermal oxidizers) themselves. moving to the thermal oxidizer not techniques. To be certain of a
mail to fmpsales@fike.com, or
All the elements necessary for an contain an explosive mixture. This maximum level of safety in this
check mark the appropriate box on
explosion are typically present in can be accounted for in the design environment, an active explosion
the attached reader service card.
thermal oxidation systems: stage. Prevention methods are a protection strategy is recommended.
 Faster
is Better
I n explosion suppression and
isolation system protection
strategies, there are currently four
areas where technology can help
intercede with the progress of an
explosion:
1. Detection
2. Control
3. Actuation
4. Delivery/Closure
Fike Metal Products has recently
introduced two new system compo-
nents that dramatically improve active
system response times: Fike Gas
Cartridge Actuator, and Fike Explo-
sion Detector. Faster explosion
protection systems provide greater
latitude in applying protection
strategies, greater latitude in allow-
able process operating parameters,
and ultimately lower total suppressed
pressures, in the event that the
explosion suppression system is
activated.
One major advantage of Fike’s
technological advances in explosion
protection hardware is faster response
times (see table below). But what are
the benefits of being faster?
● Since the explosions can be
Comparative Operating Speeds of Conventional vs. “New Technology”
Competitive
Conventional System
System Component
Detector
Controller
Actuator or Detonator
Suppressant Container
TOTAL Time
6 3
suppressed faster, system
activation set points can be
raised, which further minimizes
the possibility of false activations.
● Lower total suppressed pres
sures (PRED, TSP ) are obtained
because the explosion has been
stopped earlier in its development,
so process equipment strength can
be lower, resulting in lower
equipment costs.
● Faster systems enable more
hazardous materials (a higher
order of explosion hazard, such as
pharmaceuticals, metal dusts, Group
B gases, etc.) to be supressed to
safe levels.
It is true that the slower conven-
tional systems may be “good
enough” to get the job done, but in
addition to speed, the new technol-
ogy brings additional benefits to
consider:
● Lower maintenance – Fike’s
Gas Cartridge Actuators require no
special shipping, handling or storage,
as is the case with conventional
detonator type actuators. Service
life is over three times previous
conventional type actuators, which
Fike Conventional
System
5 ms 10 ms
5 ms 1 ms
4 ms 4 ms
31 ms 16 ms
45 ms 31 ms
reduces replacement and disposal
costs. The sanitary CIP interface
design of the new Fike Detector
allows quick and easy cleaning. Solid
state detector components require
less maintenance than typical
mechanical devices.
● Increased reliability –Fike’s Gas
Cartridge Actuators use redundant
circuitry and are environmentally
sealed to virtually eliminate mis-
fires. The solid state electronics of
the Fike Detector have no moving
internal parts, and are inherently
more reliable than conventional
detectors with moving mechanical
components.
“Faster is Better”, especially in
the area of explosion protection
strategies. Understanding why
“Faster is Better” will enable you to
make “more informed” decisions
when considering explosion protec-
tion in the future. For details on
Fike’s Gas cartridge Actuator and
Explosion Detector, checkmark the
appropriate box on the business
reply mailer, or ask for component
sheets C3521, and C3710.
Fike New Technology
System
1 ms
1 ms
1 ms
16 ms
19 ms
ASME Code Section VIII Changes for 1998
By Dean Miller,
Rupture Disc Product Manager,
Fike Metal Products
Significant changes have recently
been made to the ASME Code that
have a direct impact on the use of
rupture disc devices. The purpose of
this article is to identify the signifi-
cant changes and discuss the
implications they may have on the
manufacture and application of
rupture discs.
The changes were published
January 1, 1998 in Section VIII,
Division 1, 1995 Edition, 97
Addenda. These changes are
effective immediately and become
mandatory for new construction
beginning January 1, 1999. The
sections concerning pressure relief
devices are UG-125 through UG-137.
Section VIII Division 2 and Section
III have not yet incorporated the
rupture disc certification require-
ments.
Manufacturer Certification
[UG-137(c)]
A significant change to the code
affecting rupture disc manufacturers
is the application of the UD code
symbol to rupture discs that meet the
requirements of the ASME Code.
Authorization to use the UD stamp is
based on an audit by an ASME
representative of various manufac-
turing, testing, and quality assurance
systems. In addition, periodic
validation tests are performed to
ensure close agreement between
production discs and certified discs.
Rupture Disc Sizing [UG-127(a)]
In the past, the coefficient of
discharge method (Kd=0.62) was
specified to calculate the capacity of
the rupture disc device. However,
the validity of this method is limited
to a disc mounted close to the
pressure vessel and discharging to
atmosphere. In today’s processing
plants this is the exception rather
than the rule. The code now recog-
nizes this situation and provides
guidance for the limited use of this
method.
• Disc must discharge to the atmo-
sphere
• Disc must be installed within 8
pipe diameters of the vessel nozzle
• Length of discharge piping not
greater than 5 pipe diameters
The resistance to flow method
(KR) has been used by industry for
years and has now been adopted by
the ASME Code, for rupture discs.
Sizing is done on a relief system
basis, not by capacity of individual
components. The key elements of
this method are:
• Rupture disc is treated as another
component in the relief system that
provides some resistance to flow
• System relief capacity must be
multiplied by a factor of 0.90
• Based on Darcy formula (Crane
410)
hL = f L/D v2/2g \ KR = f L/D
• API recommendation for rupture
discs has been L/D = 75 \ K R = .02
(75) = 1.5
• ASME Code default resistance to
flow factor KR = 2.4
• Certified resistance factors KR,
can be provided by the rupture disc
manufacturer for each disc model
• Certified values based on tests of
specific disc models in accordance
with ASME Section VIII and
PTC25
Rupture Disc Device Certifica-
tion [UG-137(a)]
In order to apply the UD code
symbol, the rupture disc device
family must be certified through
testing. The testing involves bursting
3 discs from 3 different sizes within
a product family. Each of these
discs must burst within the ASME
burst tolerance. Each of these discs
is then mounted on an ASME
certified flow test rig and flow tested
to determine a K R value .
Rupture Disc Marking
[UG-129(e)]
The marking requirements for
rupture discs have changed to
reflect the new sizing methodology
and certification process. One
change in the marking is that the
marked burst pressure does not
have to be the average of the tests.
This means that zero manufacturing
range can now be accomplished
without taking exception to the
code marking requirements.
Old Requirements
• Manufacturer’s Name
• Model or Part Number
• Lot Number
• Disc Material
• Nominal Size
• Stamped Burst Pressure
• Specified Disc Temperature
• Capacity
New Requirements
• Manufacturer’s Name
• Model or Part Number
• Lot Number
• Disc Material
• Nominal Size
• Marked Burst Pressure
• Specified Disc Temperature
• Minimum Net Flow Area
• Certified Flow Resistance KR
• ASME UD Code Symbol
Implications of Code Changes
The changes by definition are limited
to new construction, but local
jurisdictions may impose these
changes on existing installations at
their discretion. How long will it be
before the local inspectors begin
looking for the UD stamp on every
rupture disc? ASME certification
requires additional testing on each
rupture disc lot and will increase the
Continues on page 8
Watermist
due to the minimal clean up required
after a system discharge, the life
safety implications of other agents,
By Scott Ruland, lack of significant environmental
Director of Product Development impact and quick system recharges.
fires are Class B flammable or
combustible liquids used in various
processes or pumps. Examples of
machinery spaces include:
● Test cells for engines fueled by
Number of Fluids
In order to obtain the right droplet
size without requiring high pressure
piping, some systems mix pressur-
ized water with an atomizing media

Fire Suppression Systems and Marketing,

Introduction
Interest in the use of very fine water
sprays or water mist systems in fire
suppression has increased over the
last several years as an alternative
to traditional fire suppression
methods. In fact, the interest has
led to the development of a new
National Fire Protection Associa-
tion (NFPA) Standard, NFPA 750,
Standard on Water Mist Fire
Protection Systems, to provide
standards to guide design, installa-
tion and maintenance of Water Mist
systems.
A Water Mist is defined by
NFPA 750 as a system that pro-
duces a “water spray” with 99% of
the water droplets discharged have a
diameter less than 1.0mm. Water
mist systems vary drastically from
sprinkler systems in both operation
and the amounts of water required
to extinguish a fire.
Extinguishing Method
Water mist systems use several
primary methods to extinguish the
fire including cooling, oxygen
displacement and blocking the
spread of radiant heat to nearby fuel
sources (wetting). The diagram
below shows a typical water mist
system operating in a fire condition.
Nozzle
Water Spray
Flame Plume
Steam
Fuel
The water spray generated by
the nozzle blankets the hazard with
a large number of small droplets.
When these droplets are applied to
the fire, the heat is absorbed from
the gases generated by the fire, the
fuel and heated surfaces near the
fire. Use of smaller droplets
enhance the rate of cooling (heat
absorption) from the hot gases and
the flame due to the larger surface
area of the water applied to the fire
source. If sufficient heat is with-
drawn from the flame plume, the
flame will be unable to sustain
combustion and extinguish.
In addition to cooling the flame
front, a water mist system displaces
oxygen in the burning zone with
steam. Water droplets can expand
as much as 1900-fold upon evapora-
tion. If the evaporation occurs
rapidly enough, the expansion of
the water droplet will displace
oxygen in the vicinity of the fire
thereby reduces the fire.
The wetting effect blocks the
radiant heat and essentially prevents
the fire from spreading to unignited
fuel sources and reduces the rate of
combustion at the fuel surface.
The combination of these main
effects as well as secondary
impacts from the water
mist have proven
very effective
in a
Fike Protection Systems
series of tests developed by Factory
Mutual Research Corporation in
support of the approval process for
several applications for water mist
systems.
Typical Applications
Compartmentalized gas turbines are
used for power generation for many
industrial applications. The main
source of fire in a turbine enclosure
is limited to the turbine and the
accompanying fuel lines. Fuel line
breaks may lead to spray fires or
spill fires with large pools of fuel
covering the floor under the turbine.
The large rotating turbine blades are
susceptible to serious damage if
cooled too rapidly due to the tight
tolerances between the rotating
turbine and the turbine enclosure.
Water mist systems are capable of
extinguishing turbine fires while
preventing expensive damage to the
turbine itself. Most systems have
undergone full-scale fire scenario
testing for enclosures up to 9,175
cubic feet.
Water is a desirable alternative to
traditional fire protection methods
Compartmentalized
Gas Turbines
A typical gas turbine enclosure
requires nozzles at the ceiling of the
enclosure, as well as, side-wall
nozzles mounted approximately 50”
from the floor as shown in the
graphic on the previous page.
During normal operation,
temperatures on the outer surface of
the generator approach 900° F.
When the water mist system is
discharged, the spray cools these
outer surfaces by heat transferal.
Use of the side-wall nozzles prevent
the metal surfaces from warping by
cooling too rapidly.
These types of enclosures are
typically well ventilated during
operation to maintain normal
ambient temperature conditions.
Water mists systems are very
successful in extinguishing fires
under ventilated conditions. Al-
though good fire protection practice
recommends shutting down ventila-
tion and closing all openings prior
to operation of the suppression
system, water mist systems do not
require changing the ventilation
system.
Machinery and Special Hazard
Machinery Spaces
● Machinery spaces typically
include any process or hazard
where the main source of potential
gasoline or diesel fuel
● Electrostatic coating processes
at the nozzle to create the appropri-
ate droplets as shown below. These
● Dipping or cleaning type of systems require
processes using flammable double the piping as a
liquids single fluid system.
Water
● Pumps
● Piping or pressurized
containers used for hydrau-
lic pumping equipment
● Drive generators
● Many chemical pro- Nozzle
cesses
Machine spaces are
ideal applications for
Water Mist
water mist systems
because most systems
have been specifically
designed to extinguish
fires in areas where the fire location Single fluid systems use inter-
is subject to open or forced ventila- mediate pressure systems to impend
tion. Most systems can successfully the water on a deflection plate or
extinguish the fire in a hazard with use high pressure with very small
fairly large openings, including nozzle orifices to create the small
double doors. Many water mist droplets and momentum required to
systems can also handle applications create the mist.
with some small obstructions. Most
systems are very
effective when
handling shielded fires Air
and additional nozzles
to protect shielded
areas are typically not
required.
A typical machin-
ery space would be
protected by water mist Water
Nozzle
with a nozzle layout
similar to sprinkler
spacing, as shown at
left, with nozzles placed Water Mist
in 6-8’ centers, depending on the
system.
Available Technology
Discharge Sequence
Many different technologies and
methods are used to create the type Cycling the water mist during a full
of water mist required to suppress scale fire testing has typically more
the fires in the applications previ- effective in suppressing the fire
ously discussed. than continuous duty mist systems.
Continues page 8

4 5
Watermist
due to the minimal clean up required
after a system discharge, the life
safety implications of other agents,
By Scott Ruland, lack of significant environmental
Director of Product Development impact and quick system recharges.
fires are Class B flammable or
combustible liquids used in various
processes or pumps. Examples of
machinery spaces include:
● Test cells for engines fueled by
Number of Fluids
In order to obtain the right droplet
size without requiring high pressure
piping, some systems mix pressur-
ized water with an atomizing media

Fire Suppression Systems and Marketing,

Introduction
Interest in the use of very fine water
sprays or water mist systems in fire
suppression has increased over the
last several years as an alternative
to traditional fire suppression
methods. In fact, the interest has
led to the development of a new
National Fire Protection Associa-
tion (NFPA) Standard, NFPA 750,
Standard on Water Mist Fire
Protection Systems, to provide
standards to guide design, installa-
tion and maintenance of Water Mist
systems.
A Water Mist is defined by
NFPA 750 as a system that pro-
duces a “water spray” with 99% of
the water droplets discharged have a
diameter less than 1.0mm. Water
mist systems vary drastically from
sprinkler systems in both operation
and the amounts of water required
to extinguish a fire.
Extinguishing Method
Water mist systems use several
primary methods to extinguish the
fire including cooling, oxygen
displacement and blocking the
spread of radiant heat to nearby fuel
sources (wetting). The diagram
below shows a typical water mist
system operating in a fire condition.
Nozzle
Water Spray
Flame Plume
Steam
Fuel
The water spray generated by
the nozzle blankets the hazard with
a large number of small droplets.
When these droplets are applied to
the fire, the heat is absorbed from
the gases generated by the fire, the
fuel and heated surfaces near the
fire. Use of smaller droplets
enhance the rate of cooling (heat
absorption) from the hot gases and
the flame due to the larger surface
area of the water applied to the fire
source. If sufficient heat is with-
drawn from the flame plume, the
flame will be unable to sustain
combustion and extinguish.
In addition to cooling the flame
front, a water mist system displaces
oxygen in the burning zone with
steam. Water droplets can expand
as much as 1900-fold upon evapora-
tion. If the evaporation occurs
rapidly enough, the expansion of
the water droplet will displace
oxygen in the vicinity of the fire
thereby reduces the fire.
The wetting effect blocks the
radiant heat and essentially prevents
the fire from spreading to unignited
fuel sources and reduces the rate of
combustion at the fuel surface.
The combination of these main
effects as well as secondary
impacts from the water
mist have proven
very effective
in a
Fike Protection Systems
series of tests developed by Factory
Mutual Research Corporation in
support of the approval process for
several applications for water mist
systems.
Typical Applications
Compartmentalized gas turbines are
used for power generation for many
industrial applications. The main
source of fire in a turbine enclosure
is limited to the turbine and the
accompanying fuel lines. Fuel line
breaks may lead to spray fires or
spill fires with large pools of fuel
covering the floor under the turbine.
The large rotating turbine blades are
susceptible to serious damage if
cooled too rapidly due to the tight
tolerances between the rotating
turbine and the turbine enclosure.
Water mist systems are capable of
extinguishing turbine fires while
preventing expensive damage to the
turbine itself. Most systems have
undergone full-scale fire scenario
testing for enclosures up to 9,175
cubic feet.
Water is a desirable alternative to
traditional fire protection methods
Compartmentalized
Gas Turbines
A typical gas turbine enclosure
requires nozzles at the ceiling of the
enclosure, as well as, side-wall
nozzles mounted approximately 50”
from the floor as shown in the
graphic on the previous page.
During normal operation,
temperatures on the outer surface of
the generator approach 900° F.
When the water mist system is
discharged, the spray cools these
outer surfaces by heat transferal.
Use of the side-wall nozzles prevent
the metal surfaces from warping by
cooling too rapidly.
These types of enclosures are
typically well ventilated during
operation to maintain normal
ambient temperature conditions.
Water mists systems are very
successful in extinguishing fires
under ventilated conditions. Al-
though good fire protection practice
recommends shutting down ventila-
tion and closing all openings prior
to operation of the suppression
system, water mist systems do not
require changing the ventilation
system.
Machinery and Special Hazard
Machinery Spaces
● Machinery spaces typically
include any process or hazard
where the main source of potential
gasoline or diesel fuel
● Electrostatic coating processes
at the nozzle to create the appropri-
ate droplets as shown below. These
● Dipping or cleaning type of systems require
processes using flammable double the piping as a
liquids single fluid system.
Water
● Pumps
● Piping or pressurized
containers used for hydrau-
lic pumping equipment
● Drive generators
● Many chemical pro- Nozzle
cesses
Machine spaces are
ideal applications for
Water Mist
water mist systems
because most systems
have been specifically
designed to extinguish
fires in areas where the fire location Single fluid systems use inter-
is subject to open or forced ventila- mediate pressure systems to impend
tion. Most systems can successfully the water on a deflection plate or
extinguish the fire in a hazard with use high pressure with very small
fairly large openings, including nozzle orifices to create the small
double doors. Many water mist droplets and momentum required to
systems can also handle applications create the mist.
with some small obstructions. Most
systems are very
effective when
handling shielded fires Air
and additional nozzles
to protect shielded
areas are typically not
required.
A typical machin-
ery space would be
protected by water mist Water
Nozzle
with a nozzle layout
similar to sprinkler
spacing, as shown at
left, with nozzles placed Water Mist
in 6-8’ centers, depending on the
system.
Available Technology
Discharge Sequence
Many different technologies and
methods are used to create the type Cycling the water mist during a full
of water mist required to suppress scale fire testing has typically more
the fires in the applications previ- effective in suppressing the fire
ously discussed. than continuous duty mist systems.
Continues page 8

4 5
 Faster
is Better
I n explosion suppression and
isolation system protection
strategies, there are currently four
areas where technology can help
intercede with the progress of an
explosion:
1. Detection
2. Control
3. Actuation
4. Delivery/Closure
Fike Metal Products has recently
introduced two new system compo-
nents that dramatically improve active
system response times: Fike Gas
Cartridge Actuator, and Fike Explo-
sion Detector. Faster explosion
protection systems provide greater
latitude in applying protection
strategies, greater latitude in allow-
able process operating parameters,
and ultimately lower total suppressed
pressures, in the event that the
explosion suppression system is
activated.
One major advantage of Fike’s
technological advances in explosion
protection hardware is faster response
times (see table below). But what are
the benefits of being faster?
● Since the explosions can be
Comparative Operating Speeds of Conventional vs. “New Technology”
Competitive
Conventional System
System Component
Detector
Controller
Actuator or Detonator
Suppressant Container
TOTAL Time
6 3
suppressed faster, system
activation set points can be
raised, which further minimizes
the possibility of false activations.
● Lower total suppressed pres
sures (PRED, TSP ) are obtained
because the explosion has been
stopped earlier in its development,
so process equipment strength can
be lower, resulting in lower
equipment costs.
● Faster systems enable more
hazardous materials (a higher
order of explosion hazard, such as
pharmaceuticals, metal dusts, Group
B gases, etc.) to be supressed to
safe levels.
It is true that the slower conven-
tional systems may be “good
enough” to get the job done, but in
addition to speed, the new technol-
ogy brings additional benefits to
consider:
● Lower maintenance – Fike’s
Gas Cartridge Actuators require no
special shipping, handling or storage,
as is the case with conventional
detonator type actuators. Service
life is over three times previous
conventional type actuators, which
Fike Conventional
System
5 ms 10 ms
5 ms 1 ms
4 ms 4 ms
31 ms 16 ms
45 ms 31 ms
reduces replacement and disposal
costs. The sanitary CIP interface
design of the new Fike Detector
allows quick and easy cleaning. Solid
state detector components require
less maintenance than typical
mechanical devices.
● Increased reliability –Fike’s Gas
Cartridge Actuators use redundant
circuitry and are environmentally
sealed to virtually eliminate mis-
fires. The solid state electronics of
the Fike Detector have no moving
internal parts, and are inherently
more reliable than conventional
detectors with moving mechanical
components.
“Faster is Better”, especially in
the area of explosion protection
strategies. Understanding why
“Faster is Better” will enable you to
make “more informed” decisions
when considering explosion protec-
tion in the future. For details on
Fike’s Gas cartridge Actuator and
Explosion Detector, checkmark the
appropriate box on the business
reply mailer, or ask for component
sheets C3521, and C3710.
Fike New Technology
System
1 ms
1 ms
1 ms
16 ms
19 ms
ASME Code Section VIII Changes for 1998
By Dean Miller,
Rupture Disc Product Manager,
Fike Metal Products
Significant changes have recently
been made to the ASME Code that
have a direct impact on the use of
rupture disc devices. The purpose of
this article is to identify the signifi-
cant changes and discuss the
implications they may have on the
manufacture and application of
rupture discs.
The changes were published
January 1, 1998 in Section VIII,
Division 1, 1995 Edition, 97
Addenda. These changes are
effective immediately and become
mandatory for new construction
beginning January 1, 1999. The
sections concerning pressure relief
devices are UG-125 through UG-137.
Section VIII Division 2 and Section
III have not yet incorporated the
rupture disc certification require-
ments.
Manufacturer Certification
[UG-137(c)]
A significant change to the code
affecting rupture disc manufacturers
is the application of the UD code
symbol to rupture discs that meet the
requirements of the ASME Code.
Authorization to use the UD stamp is
based on an audit by an ASME
representative of various manufac-
turing, testing, and quality assurance
systems. In addition, periodic
validation tests are performed to
ensure close agreement between
production discs and certified discs.
Rupture Disc Sizing [UG-127(a)]
In the past, the coefficient of
discharge method (Kd=0.62) was
specified to calculate the capacity of
the rupture disc device. However,
the validity of this method is limited
to a disc mounted close to the
pressure vessel and discharging to
atmosphere. In today’s processing
plants this is the exception rather
than the rule. The code now recog-
nizes this situation and provides
guidance for the limited use of this
method.
• Disc must discharge to the atmo-
sphere
• Disc must be installed within 8
pipe diameters of the vessel nozzle
• Length of discharge piping not
greater than 5 pipe diameters
The resistance to flow method
(KR) has been used by industry for
years and has now been adopted by
the ASME Code, for rupture discs.
Sizing is done on a relief system
basis, not by capacity of individual
components. The key elements of
this method are:
• Rupture disc is treated as another
component in the relief system that
provides some resistance to flow
• System relief capacity must be
multiplied by a factor of 0.90
• Based on Darcy formula (Crane
410)
hL = f L/D v2/2g \ KR = f L/D
• API recommendation for rupture
discs has been L/D = 75 \ K R = .02
(75) = 1.5
• ASME Code default resistance to
flow factor KR = 2.4
• Certified resistance factors KR,
can be provided by the rupture disc
manufacturer for each disc model
• Certified values based on tests of
specific disc models in accordance
with ASME Section VIII and
PTC25
Rupture Disc Device Certifica-
tion [UG-137(a)]
In order to apply the UD code
symbol, the rupture disc device
family must be certified through
testing. The testing involves bursting
3 discs from 3 different sizes within
a product family. Each of these
discs must burst within the ASME
burst tolerance. Each of these discs
is then mounted on an ASME
certified flow test rig and flow tested
to determine a K R value .
Rupture Disc Marking
[UG-129(e)]
The marking requirements for
rupture discs have changed to
reflect the new sizing methodology
and certification process. One
change in the marking is that the
marked burst pressure does not
have to be the average of the tests.
This means that zero manufacturing
range can now be accomplished
without taking exception to the
code marking requirements.
Old Requirements
• Manufacturer’s Name
• Model or Part Number
• Lot Number
• Disc Material
• Nominal Size
• Stamped Burst Pressure
• Specified Disc Temperature
• Capacity
New Requirements
• Manufacturer’s Name
• Model or Part Number
• Lot Number
• Disc Material
• Nominal Size
• Marked Burst Pressure
• Specified Disc Temperature
• Minimum Net Flow Area
• Certified Flow Resistance KR
• ASME UD Code Symbol
Implications of Code Changes
The changes by definition are limited
to new construction, but local
jurisdictions may impose these
changes on existing installations at
their discretion. How long will it be
before the local inspectors begin
looking for the UD stamp on every
rupture disc? ASME certification
requires additional testing on each
rupture disc lot and will increase the
Continues on page 8
Continued from page 1
However, the release is not
considered to be explosive unless it
is rapid enough and concentrated
enough to produce a pressure wave
that one can hear. Even though
many explosions damage their
surroundings, it is not necessary that
external damage be produced by the
explosion. All that is necessary is
that the explosion is capable of
being heard.”
It is beyond the scope of this
article to review all types of explo-
sions, so the types of explosions
common or possible in the chemical
process industries will be more
closely considered. Explosions can
be categorized into:
· Physical explosions
· Chemical explosions
Chemical explosions involve some
type of chemical reaction whereas
physical explosions do not. Examples
of physical explosions include:
· The bursting of a vessel contain-
ing high pressures (pressures above
atmosphere pressure). The vessels
could contain compressed liquids.
· Vapor or steam explosions.
· Introduction of molten material
into cooling liquids. The rapid
mixing of materials at drastically
different temperatures.
Chemical explosion examples
include:
· Gas and dust explosions
· Unconfined vapor cloud explosions
· Condensed material explosions
· Runaway chemical reactions
· Boiling liquid expanding vapor
explosions (BLEVEs)
All of the explosions (both physical
and chemical) meet the necessary
requirements as described in Baker’s
definition of an explosion. One way
to look at gas and dust explosions is
to consider the elements necessary for
these types of explosions.
ELEMENTS OF GAS AND
DUST EXPLOSIONS
Four things must exist in order to
have a gas or dust explosion. Fuel
and oxidizer components must exist
2 7
in the right proportions. Further,
these two components must be
partially or fully confined. Finally, an
ignition source of sufficient strength
must also be present. When these
four elements come together, a gas
or dust explosion will occur. Fuels
can be either organic or inorganic
materials (hydrocarbons, metals).
Oxidizers can include oxygen in air,
nitrous oxide, chloride and other
materials. Ignition sources can vary
from a spark to a flame from a
welding torch.
Unconfined vapor cloud explosions
consist of the same elements as
described above except for the
difference in confinement. Condensed
material explosions are typically
associated with propellants and high
explosives (dynamite, TNT, etc.).
Runaway chemical reactions
usually occur within a reactor
vessel. An exothermic reaction in a
chemical process may produce
suddenly increasing higher pressures
and temperatures. When such a
process generates pressures greater
than the design pressure of the
reactor vessel, there is likely to be an
explosion. Boiling liquid expanding
vapor explosions (BLEVEs) occur
when a vessel containing liquid is
heated (for example, by an external
fire). If the vessel is heated fast
enough, the liquid inside begins to
boil and the vessel will explode. If
the liquid inside the vessel is
Fike Explosion Protection
Engineering Workshops & Seminars
Fike Metal Products offers four
options in Explosion Protection
Engineering Workshops and Semi-
nars to meet your individual train-
ing needs. Choose from a two hour
presentation at your office, to a two
day workshop at the factory in Blue
Springs, Missouri. These are
educational programs, not sales
presentations. All attendees receive
flammable, the released material
may also explode.
In conclusion, after having defined New Generation
what an explosion is and categorizing
the different types of explosions, one
can start quantifying the explosion
Explosion Isolation Valve
potential and the parameters that
define the limits of occurrence for
explosions. More importantly, one
S eptember 1, 1998, Fike Metal Products, Blue
Springs, Missouri, introduces its “New Genera-
tion” Explosion Isolation Valve. Compared to previous,
can construct strategies to minimize and competitor, models this product improvement
the probability of explosions and delivers higher performance (faster), higher reliability,
methods of mitigating the damage lower cost, reduced maintenance, and less weight to
caused by them. consider during installation.
By incorporating Fike’s new Gas Cartridge Actuator
REFERENCES technology into our explosion isolation valve, we have
Crowl, D.A.; J.F. Louvar; Chemical eliminated the pressurized nitrogen cylinder, all the
Process Safety: Fundamentals with hardware, and all the weight associated with it,
Applications; Prentice Hall, New including the Class B explosive actuator that was
Jersey, U.S.A. 1990, pp. 158-159 previously used to initiate valve closure. This simplified
Baker, W.E.; Cox, P.A.; Wesine, design eliminates concern for leakage of the stored,
P.S.; Kulesz, J.J.; Skehlow, R.A.: pressurized nitrogen, and reduces material costs
Explosion Hazards and Evalua- associated with the storage cylinder. The gas cartridge
tion; Elsevier Scientific, actuator discharges directly into the top of the pneu-
Amsterdam, Holland, 1983; p 106 matically activated valve and reduces closure time by
25%. The new valve design is easily serviced and may
ABOUT THE AUTHOR be reset in place. A retrofit package is available for
Dr. Kris Chatrathi earned his BS, the existing installations of Fike Explosion Isolation
MS, and PhD degrees in chemical Valves.
Photo above shows
engineering from the University of
the previous
Arkansas. He is a member of the For more detailed information contact the design, incorporat-
American Institute of Chemical Explosion Protection Group at Fike, ing the pressurized
Engineers (AIChE) and serves on the (816) 229-3405, nitrogen container
American Society of Testing and e-mail fmpsales@fike.com, or visit our home page at
Materials (ASTM) committee on the www.fike.com.
hazard potential of chemicals. Dr.
Chatrathi is Director of Explosion
Protection for Fike Metal Products,
a division of Fike Corporation.
Clarification, “Explosion Hazard Warning”
I n the Spring 1998 issue of Safety
& Technology News, we pub-
1. fuel,
2. oxidizer (air),
necessary consideration, but are
historically not 100% effective.
lished the above article to advise
readers of possible explosion
3. ignition source,
4. a confined space.
System design engineers may not be
fully aware of the potential explo-
hazards when installing thermal Explosions are typically pre- sion hazard, or their designed
a course booklet for easy reference
oxidizers as a pollution control vented by closely controlling one or safety interlocks and prevention
and note taking. Course options,
strategy. The possible hazards more of these four elements to systems may be inadvertently
details and electronic registration
presented are the result of incom- maintain the environment outside of circumvented by installation,
are available on Fike’s web site at
plete, or improper, integration of the explosibility limits of the maintenance, or operations person-
www.fike.com, under “What’s
thermal oxidizers into the systems material being handled. It is nel. Human error and upset condi-
New”. You may also request our
under consideration, not the devices imperative that the process stream tions too often negate preventative
pamphlet/registration form by e-
(thermal oxidizers) themselves. moving to the thermal oxidizer not techniques. To be certain of a
mail to fmpsales@fike.com, or
All the elements necessary for an contain an explosive mixture. This maximum level of safety in this
check mark the appropriate box on
explosion are typically present in can be accounted for in the design environment, an active explosion
the attached reader service card.
thermal oxidation systems: stage. Prevention methods are a protection strategy is recommended.
Continued from page 3
cost of manufacturing. Also, the
application of specialty rupture discs
will become more difficult as the
manufacturer must go through a
testing and certification process
before applying the UD stamp.
Specialized product designs can be
certified but it is not a quick or
inexpensive process.
For assistance with rupture disc
applications or additional informa-
tion concerning the ASME Code
pertaining to rupture discs, contact
Fike Metal Products at (816) 229-
3405, Fax (816) 228-9277, e-mail
fmpsales@fike.com, or visit our
web site at www.fike.com.
NEWS OF NOTE
FIKE ASME UD STAMP
AUTHORIZED
Fike Metal Products received ASME UD
Stamp Accreditation and Authorization.
Fike is now authorized to apply the UD
Stamp in accordance with the ASME Code
Section VIII, Division I changes for
1998.
R
Metal Products
Division Fike Corporation
704 South 10th Street
Blue Springs, MO 64015 U.S.A.
(816) 229-3405 • Fax (816) 228-9277
e-mail: fmpsales @ fike.com
Web Site www.fike.com
DATED MATERIAL
Continued from page 5
Conclusions
Using water for fire protection appli-
cations is not a new concept, but with
the development of several different
approaches to creating water mist, a
new alternative to many traditional
fire protection approaches for flam-
mable liquid hazards in now available.
Water mist systems provide cost effec-
tive fire protection which is people
safe and environmentally friendly. In
the unfortunate event of a fire, a
water mist system will ensure rapid
extinguishment, easy cleanup and
rapid restoration to normal operations.
For information on watermist sys-
tems, checkmark “MicroMist” on the
reply card.
FIKE FEATURED ON
DISCOVERY CHANNEL
On February 20, 1998, Discovery Channel’s
“World of Wonder” aired a special segment
on industrial explosions. The segment was
entitled “Fireball” and features explosion pro-
tection activities of Fike Metal Products.
For a free video copy of the Discovery
Channel segment, checkmark “Fireball” on
the reply mailer.
Safety & Technology News
. . . is published by Fike
Corporation in the interest of
communication and service to
those involved with process
and industrial safety. We
welcome your comments and
suggestions. If you would like
to continue receiving this
newsletter, please complete
and return the enclosed
Subscriber Qualification
Form.
Copyright © 1998 by Fike Corporation.
All rights reserved.
Fike Metal Products
1999 trade show schedule:
Gulf Coast Solids Handling and
Processing Show, Pasadena, TX,
February 9 & 10, 1999, Booth # 207
Grain Elevator Processing Society
(GEAPS) Exchange, Tampa, FL,
March 6 – 9, 1999, Booth # 722
Petrochem Expo, Houston, TX,
March 16 – 18, 1999, Booth # 2100
Interphex Show, New York, NY,
April 20 – 22, 1999, Booth # 1765
Powder & Bulk Solids Conference,
Chicago, IL, May 11 – 13, 1999, #1508
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INCORPORATED
Fundamentals of Explosion Phenomena
I n order to get a firm understand-
ing of explosions, it is best to
start with the various meanings or
definitions associated with the
concept of explosions. After defin-
ing explosions, they can be catego-
rized according to scientifically
identifiable phenomena.
A common dictionary definition
of explosions is:
explosion (ik-splo’zhan) n.
1. The act of exploding; a sudden
blowing up or bursting.
2. The sudden, loud noise pro-
duced by exploding.
3. A sudden, violent outbreak of
feeling; outburst; an explosion of
laughter.
Unfortunately, the Webster’s
definition of explosion leaves one
with the desire for a better technical
definition. The McGraw-Hill dictio-
nary of scientific and technical terms
defines explosion as follows:
“explosion: [chem] A chemical
reaction or change of state which is
effected in an exceedingly short
space of time with the generation of
a high temperature and generally a
large quantity of gas.”
This definition gets closer to the
mark but it is really the chemist’s
definition of an explosion. A
definition of explosion proposed by
Joe Louvar and Dan Crowl is as
follows:
Fall, 1998
Volume 10, Issue 2
by Dr. Kris Chatrathi
“Explosion: An explosion is a rapid
expansion of gases resulting in a
rapidly moving pressure or shock
wave. The expansion can be me-
chanical (via the sudden rupture
of a pressure vessel) or it can be the
result of a rapid chemical reaction.
Explosion damage is caused by the
pressure or shock wave.”
The best definition that encom-
passes all of the aspects of an
explosion was proposed by Wilfred
Baker.
“In general, an explosion is said
to have occurred in the atmosphere
if energy is released over a suffi-
ciently small volume so as to
generate a pressure wave of finite
amplitude traveling away from the
source. This energy may have
originally been stored in the system
in a variety of forms; these include:
· Nuclear energy
· Chemical energy
· Electrical energy
· Pressure energy
Continues on page 2
In this issue
Fundamentals of
Explosion Phenomena ............. 1
ASME Code Section VIII
Changes for 1998 .................... 3
Watermist
Fire Suppression Systems ....... 4
Faster Explosion
Protection is Better .................. 6