Nondestructive Testing and Evaluation

ISSN: 1058-9759 (Print) 1477-2671 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/gnte20

A review of recent developments in parametric

based acoustic emission techniques applied to
concrete structures

R. Vidya Sagar & B. K. Raghu Prasad

To cite this article: R. Vidya Sagar & B. K. Raghu Prasad (2012) A review of recent developments
in parametric based acoustic emission techniques applied to concrete structures, Nondestructive
Testing and Evaluation, 27:1, 47-68, DOI: 10.1080/10589759.2011.589029

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/10589759.2011.589029

Published online: 13 Oct 2011.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 840

View related articles

Citing articles: 22 View citing articles

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=gnte20
Nondestructive Testing and Evaluation,
Vol. 27, No. 1, March 2012, 47–68

A review of recent developments in parametric based acoustic emission

techniques applied to concrete structures
R. Vidya Sagar* and B.K. Raghu Prasad

Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560 012, India
(Received 17 November 2010; final version received 14 May 2011)

This article presents a review of recent developments in parametric based acoustic

emission (AE) techniques applied to concrete structures. It recapitulates the significant
milestones achieved by previous researchers including various methods and models
developed in AE testing of concrete structures. The aim is to provide an overview of the
specific features of parametric based AE techniques of concrete structures carried out
over the years. Emphasis is given to traditional parameter-based AE techniques applied
to concrete structures. A significant amount of research on AE techniques applied to
concrete structures has already been published and considerable attention has been
given to those publications. Some recent studies such as AE energy analysis and
b-value analysis used to assess damage of concrete bridge beams have also been
discussed. The formation of fracture process zone and the AE energy released during
the fracture process in concrete beam specimens have been summarised. A large body
of experimental data on AE characteristics of concrete has accumulated over the last
three decades. This review of parametric based AE techniques applied to concrete
structures may be helpful to the concerned researchers and engineers to better
understand the failure mechanism of concrete and evolve more useful methods
and approaches for diagnostic inspection of structural elements and failure
prediction/prevention of concrete structures.
Keywords: acoustic emission techniques; concrete structures; AE energy; damage
assessment; b-value analysis

1. Introduction
Acoustic emission (AE) monitoring is a unique, non-invasive and passive nondestructive
testing (NDT) technique. AE is a class of phenomena whereby transient elastic waves
(ultrasonic frequency range) are generated due to rapid release of energy from a localised
source within a material [1 – 9]. The sources of AE are deformation processes such as crack
growth and plastic deformation. Localised energy release gives rise to elastic waves that
are detected by transducers (sensors) attached to the surface of the specimen provided, the
waves are of sufficient amplitude [5,10]. AE technique is one of the most sensitive
techniques to monitor fracture of materials. When cracks grow in a material, the localised
strain energy is released. The released strain energy originating from growing cracks is
detected by means of sensors. In fact, AE technique is a procedure for monitoring and
analysing of AE, whereas AE testing is a method to test the presence or absence of AE
activity.

*Corresponding author. Email: rvsagar@civil.iisc.ernet.in

ISSN 1058-9759 print/ISSN 1477-2671 online

q 2012 Taylor & Francis
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10589759.2011.589029
http://www.tandfonline.com
48 R.V. Sagar and B.K.R. Prasad

AE technique has been widely used in the field of civil engineering for structural health
monitoring [8,9,11 –16]. The feature of a typical AE signal is shown in Figure 1. The
advantages of AE technique are that the position of developing cracks can be determined
and also the whole structure can be tested at once without intruding into any process
associated with the structure. AE is determined from the time differential of AE signals
received by the several AE sensors. Using moment tensor components and b-value
analysis of AE, the classification and direction of cracks are calculated [9,17 – 22].
In general, researchers use two different approaches related to AE techniques, one is the
classical or parameter-based technique and the other approach is the quantitative or signal-
based AE technique [9,22]. Civil engineers working in the area of concrete structures use both
approaches for different applications. In the case of monitoring of large structures, it is still not
possible to use signal-based techniques [22]. However, peak amplitude, duration, frequency,
phase, rise time, decay time, frequency spectra and polarity signal parameters are useful for
better characterisation of the source of AE. AE signal parameters such as amplitude, duration,
frequency, rise time, decay time, AE energy and frequency content are used in this review
article. These signal parameters are useful to characterise the source of the AE event [9,23].

2. Early AE studies of concrete

AE testing dates back to the middle of the twentieth century [2,4]. The oldest report on AE
experiment was that delivered by Kishinouye [8,24 –28]. AE testing started in Germany
with the publication of a dissertation by Kaiser (1953) in which the well-known
phenomenon ‘Kaiser effect’ was introduced [143]. The Kaiser effect is the ‘absence of
detectable AE until the previous maximum applied load has been exceeded’. Schofield
[29] commenced the use of the term ‘AE’ in 1954 and is also credited with publishing a
pioneering report on AE entitled Acoustic Emission under Applied Stress [29]. A detailed
description about AE testing has been presented in the NDT hand book of ASNT [5].
Ohtsu [23,30,31] (Grosse and Ohtsu 2008) reviewed the application of AE testing methods
in the field of civil engineering, most prominently to concrete structures [9].

3. Recent developments in AE monitoring and recording systems

Dunegan Corporation founded in 1968 is the oldest AE equipment manufacturer in the world.
Massively Instrumented Sensor Technology with Received Acoustic Signals (MISTRAS) is
a leading company and provider of technology enabled asset protection solutions used to
evaluate the structural integrity of industrial, public and private infrastructure. Physical
Acoustics Corporation (PAC), which is a member of MISTRAS Group, Inc., is actively

Duration time Energy

Rise time

Maximum
Threshold level amplitude

Counts

Figure 1. Features of AE signal.

 Nondestructive Testing and Evaluation 49

engaged in development, design and manufacture of AE sensors and AE measurement

instruments. Since 1978, PAC has been producing a wide range of AE equipments which are
commercially available for a wide range of applications. Vallen Systeme GmbH is an AE
testing equipment manufacture company for more than 25 years. Vallen Systeme GmbH is
specialised on developing and manufacturing of AE testing equipment. By providing
advanced technology, Vallen AE systems introduced the first digital AE testing system
AMS2 in 1986, the first 32 Bit Windows-based AE Software in 1998. Vallen AE systems
have been demonstrated in field service as well as in laboratory research. There may be cases
in which some researchers might have used their own assembled AE systems and applied
them for their research work. The details of such systems are seldom published. It is
necessary to highlight here that some research institutes in Japan, Russia, China, Germany,
USA and Switzerland developed their own AE systems to suit their requirement [5,9].

4. Significance of AE parameters and their applications

4.1 Analysis of AE energy released during concrete fracture
In general, AE energy is considered as the area under the rectified AE signal. AE energy is
the total elastic energy released by an AE event. As an AE event occurs at a source, elastic
waves are generated and propagated in all directions and ultimately reach the surface of
the material. The root mean square values of AE signal have been used by some of the
researchers. The strain energy released can be related to the energy of the signal received
at the transducer and it is affected by several factors such as attenuation due to the material
medium, the coupling medium used and the distance from the source [32 – 36]. AE energy
is defined as follows [5]:
ð t1
Ei ¼ V 2i ðtÞ dt; ð1Þ
t0

where Vi is the voltage transient of an ith channel, t0 is the starting time of the voltage
transient record and t1 is the ending time of the voltage transient record. The values given
by the testing equipment for the energy in the form of energy counts is used in our work.
The energy count representing the measured area of the rectified signal envelop is the
energy and it is given in the form of energy count. In recent times, the commercially
available equipments provide the values of absolute energy in joules. Colombo et al.
[37,38] used the AE energy as a parameter to monitor concrete bridge beams and to
provide information about the structural condition. Using the AE energy, researchers
defined a parameter called relaxation ratio (ratio of average energy during unloading phase
to the average energy during loading phase) to assess the damage state of concrete
structures. Results of this study were compared with NDIS: 2421-method for
in-situ monitoring of concrete structures by AE. Thus, it was concluded that AE energy
can be used to assess the state of damage in concrete structures [9,37 – 39].

4.2 Use of AE amplitude to compute AE-based b-value

Amplitude is the one of the important AE parameters which researchers used to assess the
damage taken place in concrete structures. b-Value is one of important parameters used to
assess damage in concrete structures. It is computed by amplitude distribution data by
following the method used in seismology [21,23,40] and it is concluded that b-value changes
schematically at different stages of fracture in concrete structures as shown in Figure 2.
50 R.V. Sagar and B.K.R. Prasad

Microcracks Macrocracks opening

2.5 dominant

1.5
b-Value

Constant range Max b-value

Macrocracks constant Min b-value
1

0.5 Macrocracks
forming

0
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Cycle no.

Figure 2. Variation of maximum and minimum b-values for channel 3 (top) and channel 7 (bottom)
during all cycles of experiment. Vertical lines show different cracking stages indicated by arrows [21].

4.3 Use of AE hit rate in assessing nucleation of crack growth

Researchers considered AE hit as one of the parameters to study the nucleation phases of
microcracking in concrete structures. Yoon et al. [41] carried out AE monitoring in
reinforced concrete (RC) beams subjected to corrosion of steel reinforcement. A plot of
cumulative hits with time under cyclic load is shown in Figure 3 and it was observed that AE
counts decrease with the increase in the degree of corrosion. AE testing has also been used
to know the level of deterioration in RC beams due to corrosion [41]. Rao et al. [42] has
used AE hit rate and applied stress to describe nucleation of microcracks and macrocracks in
quasi-brittle materials. It was concluded that AE activity increases steadily and slowly due
to the formation of microcracks. Thus, AE hit has been used as one of the parameter in the

40000

No-corrosion
35000
Low-corrosion
30000 Mid-corrosion
High-corrosion
Cumulative AE hits

25000
Load
20000

15000

10000

5000

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500
Time (s)

Figure 3. Cumulative AE hits versus time for RC beams [41].

 Nondestructive Testing and Evaluation 51

AE technique. Variation in recorded AE hits has been observed under cyclic loading applied
on RC beams with different percentages of reinforcement as shown in Figure 4 [43].

4.4 Application of count rate to assess damage in concrete

It is well known that the count rate is defined as the number of times within the duration,
when one signal exceeds a present threshold [5]. AE count rate is also useful to provide the
intensity of the AE event. One of the authors has mentioned that because AE hit or count
rate itself may not be a satisfactory measure to assess damage, the conditions of increase in
AE activity should be taken into account [43]. It was observed that AE count rate increases
exponentially in an under-reinforced beam sliding between reinforcement and concrete.
In contrast, in an over-reinforced beam, AE count rate remained at a constant rate until
final failure [43]. Thus, it has been confirmed by many researchers that AE count is also
one of the important parameters.

4.5 Field investigations

Carpinteri and Lacidogna (2003; 2006) used AE testing to assess damage in a historical
masonry building ‘Casa Capello’ located in Italy. It was observed that by correlating the
evolution of cracks with the cumulative AE events, crack growth underwent a progressive
deceleration [77,78]. Yuyama et al. (1998) conducted AE monitoring on an aged dock
under mobile loading. Three levels of loading viz. empty truck, half load bearing capacity
of truck and full load bearing capacity of truck, were applied and they noticed that at the
first cycle fewer AE hits were observed during loading and unloading. In the second case,
Kaiser effect was observed during loading phase and during unloading phase, it was fairly
active. During the third cycle, no Kaiser effect was observed during loading and unloading
phases [43,138].

5. AE research work on concrete

AE of plain concrete was studied by Nielsen and Griffith [44] and Niwa et al. [45]. Earlier,
researchers studied the noise emitted during the application of compressive load on
concrete and this has been known as one of the first studies on the ‘Kaiser effect’ in
engineering materials [9]. Kaiser effect was observed up to a load of around 75% of the

10000

4th cycle
Total number of AE hits

8000

6000

3rd cycle
4000

2nd cycle
2000

0 1st cycle B194

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

Load (kN)

Figure 4. AE hits observed under incremental cyclic loading applied to RC beam [43].
52 R.V. Sagar and B.K.R. Prasad

failure load, and it was reported that the behaviour of AE signals was closely related to the
volumetric change [9,46,47]. For concrete under a compressive load, the relation between
the AE generation above 75% of failure load and the increase in Poisson’s ratio was
summarised [48]. Drouillard proposed the use of AE testing for nondestructive evaluation
of concrete structures in the late 1970s [49,50]. Drouillard [51] also presented a
comprehensive summary of AE history. A study on the relationship between the fracture
process and volumetric change of concrete under uniaxial compressive loading was
carried out. Robinson [52] found that AE events were observed even during the unloading
process and reported that the generation of AE was closely related to the volume change in
a specimen. Vogel and Köppel [53] discussed the limitations of AE analysis for RC
structures. On the basis of the AE activities observed, it could be concluded that when both
Poisson’s ratio and axial strain are increased, the wave velocity in concrete decreases [48].
On the basis of Schofield’s study, Green and Dunegan [51] developed standard procedures
and devices. After an extensive research on concrete, the classification of crack types was
proposed, using the combination of ‘average frequency (counts/duration)’ and ‘RA values
(rise time/amplitude)’ and the same has been standardised [54]. Lim and Koo [55] and
Kobayashi et al. [56] have also studied AE from RC beams.
AE monitoring was conducted in RC beams subjected to corrosion of reinforcing steel
[41,57,58]. It was observed that the degree of corrosion of reinforcing steel greatly
influenced the rate of AE events and the behaviour of AE generation [41]. The total count
of AE events decreases with an increase in the degree of corrosion, and this observation is
useful in estimating the level of deterioration of RC structures due to corrosion [41]. AE
activity was continuously monitored for RC beams which were exposed to saline
environment for 3 years [59 – 61]. Continuous AE monitoring was carried out for detecting
corrosion cracking in existing structures [62]. An experimental study on the relationship
between AE activity and half-cell potentials was carried out. From the accelerated
corrosion test, two highly active stages of AE hits were observed [61]. The presence of
these two stages is in agreement with the deterioration process due to salt attack [9,63]. In
a study related to simulation of crack propagation due to corrosion of reinforcing steel bar,
the moment tensor analysis was performed to precisely identify the cracking mechanisms
in concrete [17,64] (Ohtsu 1984). Moment tensor inversion method is useful in
determining the crack orientation and slip vector of AE sources, fracture type and
orientation of AE source. Moment tensor is based on p-wave amplitude which is used to
find the tensor components. A code SiGMA has been developed from full-space green
function of homogeneous and isotropic materials to select p-wave [19,47,65]. The
decomposition of the eigenvalues of moment tensor is used to classify the AE sources into
tensile cracks and shear cracks and the eigenvectors to find crack orientation. SiGMA
procedure with post analysis can be used for quantitative information on crack nucleation
[9,22]. Soulioti et al. [66] carried out studies on the behaviour of steel fibre RC under
bending. Steel fibres of varying content were used and the influence of steel fibre content
on fracture behaviour and AE were investigated. The study concluded that the AE activity
was found to be directly proportional to the fibre content in concrete as shown in Figures 5
and 6. Yoon et al. [41] carried out an experimental study on corroded RC beam specimens
under bending to characterise and identify different sources of damage including
microcrack development, localised crack propagation and debonding of the reinforcing
steel [41]. The study concluded that AE event rate and AE generation behaviour showed
different characteristics depending on the degree of corrosion of reinforcing steel as shown
in Figure 3. By testing plain, notched-plain, RC beam specimens, different damage
mechanisms were isolated and characterised as shown in Figure 7 [41].
 Nondestructive Testing and Evaluation 53

(a) (b)
10000 25 1000 18
16
20 14
1000
100 12

Load (kN)

Load (kN)
15
10
Hits

Hits
100
8
10
10 6
10 4
5
2
1 0 1 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 0 200 400 600
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 5. Load and AE history for specimens with (a) 1.5% steel fibres and (b) 0% fibres (the AE
hit axis is in logarithmic scale) [66].

5.1 Characterisation and evaluation of concrete

AE testing has a potential for characterisation of stress, bearing properties, fatigue and
fracture in concrete structures. Nesvijski [67] studied the necessity of a standard for AE
characterisation of concrete and RC structures. AE in hard concrete can be recorded due to
initiation and growth of cracks under different kinds of physical factors. Classification of
the signatures for different stages of concrete life and service is studied. New models of the
quantitative AE analysis were presented [67]. AE activities and failure modes in RC
beams were studied during bending failure and shear failure mode [43].
Yoon et al. [41] carried out damage assessment studies on RC beams using AE.
Figure 7 shows a plot of amplitude versus duration of AE signals for unreinforced concrete
beams (plain and notched), black diamond symbol represents the AE events for notched
specimen and hollow circle symbols for un-notched specimen and it was observed that the
AE signals of short duration and low amplitude for different stages of loading which is an
indication of microcracking and formation of localised cracks. The study concluded that at
low-level loading, microcracks and localised crack propagation dominate in unreinforced
concrete beams [41,68].

(a) 3500 (b) 20

3000
1.5% fibres
2500 15
1% fibres
Toughness (J)
Total hits

2000
10
1500
0.5% fibres
1000 5
500 0%
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 1000 2000 3000
Fibre content (%) AE hits

Figure 6. (a) Total AE hits versus fibre steel fibre content in concrete and (b) toughness versus AE
hits for fibre contents [66].
54 R.V. Sagar and B.K.R. Prasad

80

Notched
70 Un-reinforced

Amplitude (dB)
60

50

40

30
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Duration (µs)

Figure 7. Cross-plot of amplitude and duration of AE signals for unreinforced beams (plain and
notched) [41].

5.2 Detection and assessment of damage in concrete using AE testing

Ohtsu and Watanabe [69,70] introduced the rate process analysis to evaluate quantitatively
the change in AE activity in structure due to damage. For a concrete specimen containing a
large number of microcracks, AE occurrence is expected under loading. On the contrary,
AE activity in a well compacted and adequately cured concrete is stable and low up to final
failure [9]. In the rate process theory, a probability function of AE occurrence from stress
level V (%) to V þ dV (%) was represented as a hyperbolic function to devise these
occurrences of AE activity under loading [70]. A relationship between the number of total
AE events ‘N’ and stress level ‘V(%)’ has been accordingly proposed as

N ¼ CV a ebn ; ð2Þ
where a and b are empirical coefficients and C is the integration constant [69 –71].
Researchers studied damage mechanisms by interpreting AE signals [72,73,139].

5.2.1 b-Value analysis of AE to assess damage in concrete structures

A clear identification and demarcation of macro- and microcracks developed in a structure
has been made possible using the b-value analysis of AE [21,142]. The b-value is the
negative gradient of the log-linear plot of earthquake frequency magnitude [9,21,23,40,74].
Researchers carried out studies to identify the b-value with the strains in concrete and steel at
different stages of loading or in other words at different stages of damage [36]. In case of AE
method, the Gutenberg –Richter relationship between frequency and magnitude is given by


AdB
log10 NðMÞ ¼ a 2 b ; ð3Þ
20
where AdB is the peak amplitude of the AE events in decibels, bAE is AE-based b-value and
N(M) is the number of AE hits (or events) of magnitude $ M. Research studies related to the
diagnosis of damaged concrete structures and masonry buildings by AE-based b-value were
carried out [73,75 –83]. Vidya Sagar [36] attempted to relate b-values with strains in steel
 Nondestructive Testing and Evaluation 55

and concrete. Colombo et al. [21] concluded that the larger b-value indicates the states of
damage in concrete structure in which microscopic cracks occur more predominantly and
the smaller b-value indicates the occurrence of macrocracking as shown in Figure 2.

5.2.2 Improved b-value analysis

In the place of normal b-value, researchers proposed an improved b-value (Ib-value) that
could be considered suitable for AE applications to concrete and rock [141]. Ib-value is a
slope of the peak amplitude distribution of AE signals [9,40,84 – 86]. In the computation of
Ib-value, the statistical values of amplitude distribution of AE were considered because,
during experiments, it was observed that the AE amplitude values vary with time [40,84].
The Ib-value is given by
log10 Nðm 2 a1 sÞ 2 log10 Nðm þ a2 sÞ
Ib ¼ ; ð4Þ
ð a1 þ a2 Þ s
where m is the mean amplitude, s is the standard deviation and a1 and a2 are user-defined
constants which would represent coefficients of lower and upper limits of the amplitude
range to yield a proper straight line. Shiotani et al. [85,86] studied the damage
quantification for concrete structures by Ib-value analysis of AE. The difference of
monitoring conditions in each application sometimes leads to non-quantitative results
[21,86] (Ohtsu and Gross 2008). The Ib-value is known to be unaffected by the monitoring
conditions, and it uniquely varies depending on the damage level. Shiotani et al. [85]
studied the Ib-value to quantify the damage in concrete piers due to an earthquake [86].
The calculated Ib-value based on the AE events located within the pier was obtained and
as a result, the damage degree was quantified by the Ib-value.

5.3 Micromechanics of fracture in concrete

Earlier, researchers developed a numerical model related to fracture process in concrete at
mesoscale by assuming the aggregates to be spherical in shape [87–95]. But recently,
researchers have been trying to model the aggregates as they are using the computer
tomography (CT-scan) technique. Although the shape of the aggregates is not perfectly
spherical, it is closer to a sphere than any other shape. In the past years, researchers used
lattice model to simulate a wide range of experiments related to fracture process in concrete
[96]. But the comparison between numerical and experimental results has usually been
limited to the load–displacement diagram and to the macroscopic crack pattern [96].
A comparison with AE measurements would be of major interest because it would allow to
better understand the capability of the lattice model in predicting the formation of
microcracks, both in the pre-peak and in the post-peak regimes. Vidya Sagar et al. [97]
studied the applicability of lattice model to concrete fracture using AE testing. Notched
three-point bend (TPB) specimens were used and these were tested under crack-mouth-
opening displacement (CMOD). The entire fracture process was simulated using a regular
triangular two-dimensional (2D) lattice network of beam elements over the expected fracture
process zone (FPZ) width. The rest of the beam specimen was discretised by a coarse
triangular finite element mesh. The discrete grain structure of the concrete was generated
assuming the grains to be spherical. The load versus CMOD plots thus simulated agreed
reasonably well with the experimental results. During the experiment, the AE release was
monitored simultaneously [97]. The authors used an 8-channel AE system manufactured by
PAC. The software used is SAMOSAE win. The transducers used were R6D AE transducers
and were resonant type with highest sensitivity at 50 kHz frequency. The AE sensor diameter
56 R.V. Sagar and B.K.R. Prasad

was 19 mm and its height was 22.0 mm and useful in the temperature range of 265 to 1778C.
The AE transducers have peak sensitivity at 75 dB. The operating frequency was 35–
100 kHz. AE hits were recorded during the test and compared with the number of fractured
lattice elements. It was found that the cumulative AE hits correlated well with the cumulative
fractured lattice elements as shown in Table 1, at all load levels, thus providing a useful
means for predicting when the microcracks form during the fracturing process, both in the
pre-peak and in the post-peak regimes. Using the AE testing, Vidya Sagar et al. (2010)
concluded from the study that the lattice modelling technique is eminently suited to the study
of fracture process in concrete which has hitherto only been presumed [97]. The number of
fractured beam elements in the lattice network, at a given load level, was compared with the
records of any AE measurements. It was observed that the trend in the cumulative fractured
beam elements in the lattice fracture simulation reflected the trend in the recorded AE hits.

5.4 Structural health monitoring using AE testing

On the basis of the Kaiser effect, researchers introduced ‘felicity ratio’ which was used to
explain the damage in concrete structures quantitatively [43,98,99]. The need for the
introduction of this quantity aroused because the Kaiser effect is valid only till the materials
lie in the stable domain [9,98]. In other words, AE activity was observed only at stresses
lower than the maximum stress experienced by the structure. Felicity ratio is defined as the
ratio between sAE and s1st, where sAE is the stress at which AE activity starts to generate
and s1st is the maximum stress. Researchers considered that the felicity ratio $ 1 when the
structure is in a stable state, whereas in a damaged or unstable condition, the felicity ratio
, 1 [43]. The concept like the felicity ratio has been applied for the damage assessment of
concrete structures and is practised for in-situ monitoring of concrete structures by AE
[39]. It is referred to as the ‘load ratio’, which is the ratio of load at the onset of AE activity
in the subsequent loading to maximum load experienced by the structure in the previous
load cycle [43]. Load ratio is different from the felicity ratio in a way that it can be obtained
from AE parameters at the start of AE activity [37,38,43]. A typical classification of AE
data by the load ratio and calm ratio is shown in Figure 8 [43].

load at the onset of AE activity in the subsequent loading

Load ratio ¼ ;
the previous load

the number of cumulative AE activities during the unloading process

Calm ratio ¼ :
total AE activity during the last loading cycle upto the maximum

Table 1. Record of AE parameter and fractured lattice elements at different times (and load levels)
[97].
Time (s)
Pre-peak
zone Post-peak zone
75 93.7 154 299 475 601 912 1192 1219 1433
Load (kN) 3.88 5.56 6.74 4.63 2.51 1.88 1.0 0.478 0.45 0.281
AE hits 18 48 183 908 1823 2197 2783 3000 3024 3160
Fractured lattice 167 879 984 1054 1136 1137 1145 1148 – –
elements
 Nondestructive Testing and Evaluation 57

× 10–2
14 Transition
1st cycle to 2nd
12
2nd cycle to 3rd
3rd cycle to 4th
10
Calm ratio

Heavy Intermediate
8
damage damage

4
Minor
2 Intermediate damage
damage
0

0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2

Load ratio

Figure 8. Classification of AE data by the load ratio and calm ratio [39,43].

The load ratio is sometimes difficult to be applied for in-situ monitoring of concrete
structures, because the maximum stress experienced by a structure cannot be readily
estimated [100]. Therefore, the ‘RTRI’ ratio (ratio of Repeated Train load at the onset of
AE activity to Relative maximum load for Inspection period) has been proposed which is
the ratio of the AE parameter’s value corresponding to the onset of the AE activity to the
maximum value during the inspection period [100]. The onset of AE activity is estimated
from any measured parameters of stress/load, strain/deformation and the RTRI ratio.
Concrete structures contain flaws such as pores, air voids and shrinkage cracks even before
they are loaded. The flaws, especially the small cracks, grow stably under external loading.
The small cracks join together with existing or newly formed microcracks until large
fractures are formed which cause the collapse of the structure [96,101].
Crack opening is formed as a result of nucleation of tension cracks, whereas sliding on
an existing crack contributes to the generation of shear cracks [102,103]. In general, AE
activity accompanied by crack growth or crack formation is referred to as ‘primary
AE activity’ and if it occurs without the crack growth it is referred to as ‘secondary AE
activity’ [9]. It is known that concrete structures contain flaws such as pores, air voids and
shrinkage cracks even before they are loaded. The small cracks grow stably under external
loading. The small cracks join together with existing or newly formed microcracks until
large fractures are formed which cause the collapse of the structure. Stable stage of fracture
growth is accompanied with mode I. To correlate the cracking behaviour in concrete with
the AE parameters, two typical crack modes of modes I and II were considered. It is well
known in concrete structures that the fracture mode of cracking is changing from tensile
type of fracture (mode I) to the shear type of fracture (mode II) with the progress of fracture
[101]. Crack opening is the principal motion when mode I cracks are nucleated. Sliding on
an existing crack is a major motion to generate mode II cracks. In general, AE activity
accompanied with crack growth or crack formation is referred to as primary AE activity
[9]. In the case of AE activity without crack growth, it is referred to as secondary AE
activity. In the stable stage of fracture growth, AE activity accompanied with mode I cracks
is normally observed. As a result, few AE events are expected during the unloading
58 R.V. Sagar and B.K.R. Prasad

process. As approaching the final failure, AE activity during the unloading process could be
generated as mode II cracks. Thus, AE activity during unloading has a potential to show the
state of damage [9]. In the stable state of fracture growth, AE activity is accompanied by
tensile cracks. Hence, only few AE events are expected during the unloading process.
When the concrete structure approaches failure, AE activity during the unloading process
could be produced as shear cracks and, thus, AE activity during unloading too gains a
potential to show the damage degree [9,104].
Accordingly, paying due attention to AE activity during unloading processes, the
‘calm ratio’ is defined as the ratio of the number of cumulative AE activity during the
unloading process to that during the complete loading cycle. Evidently, the calm ratio is an
indication of structural instability. To assess the damage levels in RC beams subjected to
repeated or active traffic loads, a method is proposed on the basis of the two ratios (load
ratio and calm ratio) associated with the Kaiser effect. Applying this method, the
deterioration process and the structure health are monitored under repeated or active traffic
loads [37,43,105]. Inspection procedures are established based on the codes and standards
to monitor existing structures or local members. A few of them have been established on
concrete structures viz. NDIS-2421 [39] and JCMS-IIIB5706 [54]. The recommended
practice of in-situ monitoring of concrete structures by AE has been established [39].
Feasibility of this practice is examined by testing RC beams, which have been damaged
under incremental cyclic loading. It is known that two types of failure modes occur in an
RC and their corresponding AE activities are shown in Figure 9. One is due to bending, as
bending cracks are nucleated in the bending span which results in final failure of the beam
[96,101,106]. The other is due to shear, as diagonal shear cracks are generated in the shear

(a) Bending-mode failure (b) Shear-mode failure

AE counts AE counts
Load Load

1000 1000
AE count rate (per 10 sec)

AE count rate (per 10 sec)

100 100

8
ε = 2000µ
Load (× 9.8 kN)

6 at reinforcement 10 6 10
Load (× 9.8 kN)

4 4

2 2

0 1 0 1
0 5 10 0 5 10
Time (minutes) Time (minutes)

Figure 9. AE activities and failure modes in RC beams in (a) bending failure and (b) shear failure
mode [43].
 Nondestructive Testing and Evaluation 59

span at failure. In the case of an under-reinforced beam, sliding between reinforcement and
concrete is observed due to yielding of the reinforcement. As a result, the rate of AE
increases exponentially [9,36,43]. In contrast to this, the reinforcement present in an over-
reinforced specimen does not exhibit this phenomenon and thus AE events are observed at
constant rate until the final failure and these results demonstrate a potential for the
prediction of failure of RC beams on the basis of AE testing [55,58,64,107 –114]. Using
AE tests, Rossi et al. [115,116] identified the physical mechanisms during concrete
fracture. Researchers confirmed that AE events are sensitive to local instability of the
structure. In principle, the undamaged concrete structures are statically stable with high
redundancy. AE activity is very low in a stable structure, because the Kaiser effect is
closely associated with structural stability [9,117 – 119]. Researchers carried out studies on
characterisation of concrete damages by AE testing [120].

6. Fracture mechanics research

6.1 Use of AE testing to measure the FPZ size in concrete
The concept of FPZ was introduced to enunciate the softening behaviour of concrete
[121]. The FPZ exists in front of a notch (crack) in concrete. Otsuka and Date [122]
studied the relation between area of the FPZ and aggregate size, taking into account the
size of the specimen [122 – 125]. It has been observed that considering specimens of the
same size, the width of the FPZ increases with an increase in the size of the aggregate. And
it has also been observed that the length of the FPZ decreases with the maximum aggregate
size [121 – 123,126 – 128]. AE testing has also been used to study the effect of aggregate on
the fracture behaviour of high-strength concrete [129 – 131]. Also for specimens with
identical maximum aggregate size, the length of the FPZ increased with the increase in
specimen size. It was also observed that many of the AE events had very small energy and
higher energy events localised around the notch tip as shown in Figure 10. The zone of AE
events which included more than 95% of the total energy is considered as the FPZ [122].
Ohtsuka et al. had carried a good study on the effect of specimen size and aggregate size
on FPZ. A universal testing machine was used for loading. The specimen was loaded in
tension under displacement control at a rate of 0.005 mm of crack-opening displacement
per minute. The AE sensors were placed in 3D method and locations of AE events were
determined. The AE system consisted of resonant sensors, preamplifiers, a local processor,
a digital data recorder and an AE analyser. All sensors had a resonant frequency of
140 kHz. A 70-dB gain was used for amplification. P-wave velocity was decided as
3600 m/s for the used concrete [122]. Vidya Sagar and Raghu Prasad [125] carried out
studies to estimate the size of the FPZ in high-strength concrete TPB specimen. TPB
specimen better simulates the fracture process ahead of the crack tip. It was observed that
the AE events with high energy occur smaller in number and were concentrated near the
crack tip as shown in Figure 11. The distribution of AE energy in different sizes of the
specimens is shown in Figure 10, and the study concluded that the area of AE events
around 93% of the total energy can be considered FPZ in the TPB concrete specimen
[122,125].

6.2 Experiments to relate AE energy and fracture energy of concrete

It is known that AE activity is attributed to a rapid release of strain energy in the material.
The energy content of the AE signal can be related to this strain energy release. The
relation between AE energy and fracture of concrete may be useful in developing a
60 R.V. Sagar and B.K.R. Prasad

90
Large size specimen
80
70 AE energy
AE event number
Percentage (%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
E<CL-I CL-I<E<CL-II CL-II<E<CL-III E>CL-III
Stage of energy level (E)

100
Medium size specimen
90
80 AE energy
70 AE event number
Percentage (%)

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
E<CL-I CL-I<E<CL-II CL-II<E<CL-III E>CL-III
Stage of energy level (E)

100
Small size specimen
90
80 AE energy
70 AE event number
Percentage (%)

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
E<CL-I CL-I<E<CL-II CL-II<E<CL-III E>CL-III
Stage of energy level (E)

Figure 10. Distribution of AE energy in large size (depth ¼ 320 mm), medium size
(depth ¼ 160 mm) and small size (depth ¼ 80 mm) TPB concrete specimens [125].

laboratory tool which could be useful to study the damage in concrete structures under
controlled conditions, as opposed to a field technique. Until now, crack density used to be
a difficult property to quantify, but AE has the potential to provide information on crack
density. Researchers have carried out studies on the relationship between AE energy
released and fracture energy of concrete [34,132,133]. Figure 12 shows the variation of
 Nondestructive Testing and Evaluation 61

For all AE events: 100% For events higher than CL-I: 98.87%

For all AE events higher than CL-II: 95.15% For all events higher than CL-III: 83.38%

Figure 11. Diagrams of AE source locations represented by four energy stages (depth ¼ 320 mm;
a0/d ¼ 0.15) [125].

‘AE energy’ released with respect to ‘load’. It is interesting to see from Figure 12 that
release of ‘AE energy’ starts only after reaching the peak load [36]. Figure 13(a) – (c)
shows the plot of cumulative AE energy versus the fracture energy of concrete and
cement mortar. The scatter is generally more apparent in plots of ‘AE energy’ and
‘fracture energy’ as shown in Figure 13(b),(c), because AE energy is a localised
phenomenon whereas fracture energy is global. If the wavelength is less than the size of
aggregate, then there is higher probability of internal deflection of the waves, which is
called scattering. This scattering may absorb some energy leading to further attenuation of
the AE wave. Scattering of AE waves strongly depends on the heterogeneity of
cementitious composites such as cement paste, mortar and concrete and also depends on
the size distribution of the inclusions.

Time (AE energy), sec

200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
6.925
Fsn1a 300

6.2325

5.54 250

4.8475

Cumulative AE energy 200

Cumulative AE energy

4.155
Load
Load (kN)

3.4625
150

2.77

100
2.0775

1.385
50
0.6925

0 0
0 189 378 567 756 945 1134 1323 1512 1701 1890
Time (load), sec

Figure 12. Variation of AE energy with time and load during concrete fracture [34].
62 R.V. Sagar and B.K.R. Prasad

(a) 0.04 (b) 600 (c) 250

Gf - FMC-50 method Gf - FMT-89 method
0.035 B-Mix
Mortar
Total AE energy released

Total AE energy released

Total AE energy released

500 D-Mix
0.03 Concrete-8 200 B-Mix
F-Mix
Concrete-15
(relative units)

(relative units)

(relative units)
400 Mortar D-Mix
0.025
150 F- Mix
0.02 300
0.015 100
200
0.01
100 50
0.005
0 0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200
Fracture energy, Gf (N/m) Fracture energy, Gf (N/m) Fracture energy, Gf (N/m)

Figure 13. (a) Plot of cumulative AE amplitude versus fracture energy of a mortar, and concrete
(with different aggregate sizes) [34]. (b) Variation of total AE energy released versus fracture energy
by FMC-50 method [136]. (c) Variation of total AE energy released versus fracture energy
[133,137].

6.3 Attenuation of AE waves in concrete

Attenuation of AE from source to sensor can occur due to material absorption or scattering,
which can cause considerable reduction in the total energy of AE waves reaching the
transducers [34,74]. The energy loss of AE waves per unit distance travelled can be related
to the damping capacity (internal friction) of the material. Jacobs and Owino [134] studied
effects of aggregate size on attenuation of Rayleigh surface waves in cement-based
materials and concluded that it is absorption and not the aggregate size which dominates
the attenuation of AE waves in cement-based materials [103,134,135,140]. Figure 14
shows variation of amplitude with respect to distance due to attenuation of AE waves.

7. Concluding remarks
This brief review includes characterisation and evaluation of concrete, detection and
assessment of damage in concrete, fracture process in concrete, micromechanics of fracture
in concrete and structural health monitoring using parametric based AE techniques.
Research in the field of AE testing of concrete structures is undergoing a drastic
improvement due to increasing need for analysis and renovation of concrete structures.
The parametric and signal-based AE techniques, used by researchers and engineers,
adopted for the measurement of AE released appear to be easy; the interpretation of data
obtained requires sophisticated methods. Rigorous research work has led to the realisation

60000

50000
Amplitude (micro volts)

40000

30000

20000

10000 y = 59461e–0.0038x

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Distance (mm)

Figure 14. Variation of amplitude with respect to distance due to attenuation in concrete [132].
 Nondestructive Testing and Evaluation 63

of several practical applications of AE testing. To further such research activities, RILEM

Technical Committee: TC 212-ACD (Acoustic Emission and Related NDE Techniques for
crack detection and damage evaluation in concrete) and NDIS-2421 were established.
NDIS-2421 is very useful in assessing the damage of concrete bridges. The results in
relation to the applicability of the parametric based AE techniques applicable to concrete
structures have been summarised.
There is a need to develop a more generalised method to interpret the recorded AE
data. The authors’ opinion is that the information in this review article may help towards
making AE technology a field of widespread application as far as damage monitoring of
concrete structures is concerned.

References
[1] W. Swindlehurst, Acoustic emission-1: Introduction, Non-Destr. Test 6 (1973), pp. 152–158.
[2] R.W. Nichols, Acoustic Emission, 1st ed., Applied Science Publishers, New York, 1976.
[3] A.G. Beattie, Acoustic emission, principles and instrumentation, J. Acoust. Emission 2(1/2)
(1983), pp. 95 – 128.
[4] J.R. Matthews, Acoustic Emission, 1st ed., Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, New York,
1983.
[5] R.K. Miller and P. McIntire, Acoustic emission testing, in Non-Destructive Testing Handbook,
Vol. 5, American Society for Non-Destructive Testing, Columbus, OH, 1987, pp. 12 – 154.
[6] A.A. Pollock, Acoustic Emission Inspection Technical Report: TR-103-96-12/89, Physical
Acoustics Corporation, Princeton, NJ, 1989.
[7] S. Mindess, Acoustic emission, in CRC Handbook on Nondestructive Testing of Concrete,
V.M. Malhotra and N. Carino, eds., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1990, pp. 360– 384.
[8] P.C. Chang and S.C. Liu, Recent research in nondestructive evaluation of civil
infrastructures, J. Mater. Civil Eng. 15 (2003), pp. 298–304.
[9] C.U. Grosse and M. Ohtsu, Acoustic Emission Testing, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg,
2008.
[10] D. Wells, An acoustic apparatus to record emissions from concrete under strain, Nucl. Eng.
Des. 12 (1970), pp. 80 – 88.
[11] T. Uomoto, Application of acoustic emission to the field of concrete engineering, J. Acoust.
Emission 6 (1987), pp. 137– 144.
[12] T. Sakuta, Y. Tachibana, and K. Maeda, Test for the use of acoustic emission on RC slab
inspection methods, JSNDI, Committee 006 AEWG 87 (1988), pp. 68 – 73.
[13] T. Uomoto, K. Kato, and S. Hirono, Nondestructive Inspection of Concrete Structures,
Morikita Publishing, 1990.
[14] V.M. Malhotra and N.J. Carino, CRC Handbook on Nondestructive Testing of Concrete,
CRC Press, 1991.
[15] A. Ishibashi, T. Fufiwara, T. Matsuyama, and M. Ohtsu, AE field application for diagnosing
deterioration of retaining wall, in Proceedings of the 9th National Conference on AE JSNDI,
1993, pp. 131– 139.
[16] B. Weiler, S. Xu, and U. Mayer, Acoustic emission analysis applied to concrete under
different loading conditions, Otto-Graf J. 8 (1997), pp. 255– 272.
[17] M. Ohtsu and K. Ono, A generalized theory of acoustic emission and Green’s functions in a
half space, J. Acoust. Emission 3(1) (1984), pp. 124–133.
[18] M. Ohtsu, Mathematical theory of acoustic emission and moment tensor solution, J. Soc. Mat.
Sci. Jpn 36(408) (1987), pp. 1025– 1031.
[19] M. Ohtsu, M. Shigeishi, S. Yuyama, and T. Okamoto, SiGMA procedure for AE moment
tensor analysis, JNDI 42(10) (1991), pp. 570– 575.
[20] S. Yuyama, T. Okamoto, M. Shigeishi, and M. Ohtsu, Some application of moment tensor
analysis for concrete specimen, in Proceedings of the 9th National Conference on AE JSNDI,
1993, pp. 121– 129.
[21] S. Colombo, I.G. Main, and M.C. Forde, Assessing damage of reinforced concrete beam
using b-value analysis of acoustic emission signals, J. Mater. Civil Eng. 5/6 (2003),
pp. 280– 286.
64 R.V. Sagar and B.K.R. Prasad

[22] C.U. Grosse, W.H. Reinhardt, and F. Finck, Signal based acoustic emission techniques in civil
engineering, ASCE J. Mater. Civil Eng. May/June (2003), pp. 274– 279.
[23] M. Ohtsu, The history and development of acoustic emission in concrete engineering,
Mag. Conc. Res. 48(147) (1996), pp. 321– 330.
[24] F. Forster and E. Scheil, Akustische Untersuchung der bildung von Martensitnadeln (Acoustic
study of formation of Martensile Needels), Zeitschrift fur Metallkunde 28(9) (1936),
pp. 245– 247.
[25] L. Obert and W. Duvall, The microseismic method of predicting of rock failure in
underground mining. Part II laboratory experiments, Report of investigations 3803, U.S.
Bureau of Mines, Washington, DC, 1945.
[26] L. Obert, The microseismic method: Discovery and early history, in Proceedings of the Ist
Conference on AE/MS in Geologic Structures and Materials, H.R. Hardy, Jr. and
F.W. Leighton, eds., Trans Tech Publication, Clusthal, 1977.
[27] T.F. Drouillard, Anecdotal history of acoustic emission from wood, J. AE 9(3) (1990),
pp. 155– 176.
[28] F. Kishinouye, An experiment on the progress of fractures (a preliminary report), Jishin 6
(1934), pp. 25 – 31.
[29] B.H. Schofield, Acoustic emission under applied stress, Report ARL-150, Lessels and
Associates, Boston, MA, 1961.
[30] M. Ohtsu, A review of acoustic emission in civil engineering with emphasis on concrete,
J. Acoust. Emission 8 (1989), pp. 93 – 98.
[31] T. Kishi, K. Takahashi, and M. Ohtsu, Progress in Acoustic Emission, Vol. VI, Japanese
Society for Nondestructive Inspection, 1992.
[32] A.G. Beattie and R.A. Jaramillo, The measurement of energy in acoustic emission, Rev. Sci.
Instrum. 45 (1974), pp. 352– 357.
[33] PAC-2005, User’s Manual SAMOS AE System Rev 2 May, Physical Acoustics Corporation,
Princeton, NJ, 2005.
[34] E.N. Landis and L. Baillon, Experiments to relate acoustic emission energy to fracture energy
of concrete, J. Eng. Mech. 128 (2002), pp. 698– 702.
[35] D.O. Harris and R. Bell, The measurement and significance of energy in acoustic emission
testing, Exp. Mech. 17 (1977), pp. 347– 353.
[36] R. Vidya Sagar, Fracture mechanics of concrete – Experimental and numerical studies,
VDM-Verlag Dr. Muller Aktiengesellschaft & Co.KG, Dudweiler Landstr. 99, 66123
Saarbruecken, Germany. ISBN 978-3-639-23724-5, 2010.
[37] S. Colombo, M.C. Forde, I.G. Main, and M. Shigeishi, Predicting the ultimate bending
capacity of concrete beams from the “relaxation ratio” analysis of AR signals, Constr. Build.
Mater. 19 (2005), pp. 746– 754.
[38] S. Colombo, M.C. Forde, I.G. Main, J. Halliday, and M. Shigeishi, AE energy analysis on
concrete bridge beams, Mater. Struct. 38 (2005), pp. 851– 856.
[39] NDIS-2421, Recommended Practice for In-Situ Monitoring of Concrete Structures by
Acoustic Emission, JSNDI, Tokyo, 2000.
[40] M.V.M.S. Rao and K.J. Prasanna Lakshmi, Analysis of b-value and improved b-value of
acoustic emissions accompanying rock fracture, Curr. Sci. 89 (2005), pp. 1577– 1582.
[41] D.J. Yoon, W. Weiss, and S.P. Shah, Assessing damage in corroded reinforced concrete using
acoustic emission, J. Eng. Mech. 26(3) (2000), pp. 273– 283.
[42] M.V.M.S. Rao, K.J. Prasanna Lakshmi, G.M. Nagaraja Rao, K. Vijaya Kumar, and
S. Udaykumar, Pre-failure damage caused by micro cracks in rock: A laboratory study using
acoustic emission, in Proceedings of the National Seminar and Exhibition on Non-Destructive
Evaluation, NDE-2009, Indian Society for Non-Destructive Testing (ISNT), 2009,
pp. 323– 327.
[43] M. Ohtsu, M. Uchida, T. Okamoto, and S. Yuyama, Damage assessment of reinforced
concrete beams qualified by AE, ACI Struct. J. 99(4) (2002), pp. 411– 417.
[44] J. Nielsen and D.F. Griffith, Acoustic emission of plain concrete, J. Test. Eval. 5(6) (1977),
pp. 476– 483.
[45] Y. Niwa, S. Kobayashi, and M. Ohtsu, Studies of AE in concrete structures, Proc. JSCE 261
(1977), pp. 101– 112.
 Nondestructive Testing and Evaluation 65

[46] L. Binda, L. Cantini, P. Condoleo, A. Saisi, and L. Zanzi, Investigation on the pillars of the
Syracuse Cathedral in Sicily, in International Conference on Structural Faults and Repair,
Engineering Techniques Press, Edinburgh, 2006, pp. 1 – 12.
[47] M. Ohtsu, Diagnostics of cracks in concrete based on acoustic emission, Nondestruct. Test.
ACI SP-112 (1988), pp. 63 – 82.
[48] R.G. L’Hermite, Volume change of concrete, in Proceedings of the 4th International
Symposium on Chemistry of Cement, V-3. NBS Monograph 43, NBS, Washington, DC, 1960,
pp. 659– 694.
[49] T.F. Drouillard, Acoustic Emission: Bibliography with Abstracts, IFI/Plenum Data Company,
New York, 1979, pp. xi– xix.
[50] T.F. Drouillard, Introduction to acoustic emission technology, in Nondestructive Testing
Handbook, R.K. Miller and P. McIntire, eds., Vol. 5, ASNT, 1987.
[51] T.F. Drouillard, A history of acoustic emission, J. Acoust. Emission 14(1) (1996), pp. 1 – 34.
[52] G.S. Robinson, Methods of detecting the formation and propagation of microcracks in
concrete, in Proceedings of the International Symposium on the Structure of Concrete,
Cement and Concrete Association, London, 1968, pp. 131– 145.
[53] T. Vogel and S. Köppel, Possibilities and limitations of acoustic emission analysis for
reinforced concrete, International Symposium (NDT-CE 2003) October 8(10) (2003).
[54] JCMS-IIIB5706, Monitoring method for active cracks in concrete by acoustic emission,
Tokyo, Construction Materials Standard, Federation of Construction Materials Industries,
2003.
[55] M.K. Lim and T.K. Koo, Acoustic emission from reinforced concrete beams, Mag. Conc. Res.
41 (1989), pp. 229– 234.
[56] A.S. Kobayashi, N.M. Hawkins, Y.A. Chan, and I.J. Lin, A feasibility study of detecting
reinforcing-bar debonding by acoustic emission technique, Exp. Mech. 20(9) (1980),
pp. 301– 308.
[57] F.A.K.M. Uddin, K. Numata, J. Shimazaki, M. Shigeishi, and M. Ohtsu, Mechanisms of
crack propagation due to corrosion of reinforcement in concrete by AE-SiGMA and BEM,
Constr. Build. Mater. 18 (2004), pp. 181– 185.
[58] G.L. Balazs, C.U. Grosse, R. Koch, and H.W. Reinhardt, Damage accumulation on deformed
steel bar to concrete interaction detected by acoustic emission technique, Mag. Conc. Res. 48
(1996), pp. 311– 320.
[59] Y. Murakami, H. Yamashita, T. Kita, and M. Ohtsu, Relation between the mechanical
behavior and acoustic emission of the member subjected to steel corrosion, in Proceedings of
the 8th National Conference on AE, JSNDI, 1991, pp. 183– 188.
[60] M. Ohtsu, Y. Tomoda, Y. Sakata, M. Murata, and H. Matsushita, In situ monitoring and
diagnosis of RC members in an exposure test against salt attack, in Proceedings of the 10th
International Conference on Structural Faults & Repair, 2003.
[61] Y. Tomoda and M. Ohtsu, Monitoring salt damage in reinforced concrete by AE, in
Proceedings of the 3rd US-Japan Symposium on Advancing Applications and Capabilities in
NDE, Maui, 2005, pp. 236– 241.
[62] Z. Li, F. Li, A. Zdunek, E. Landis, and S.P. Shah, Application of acoustic emission technique
to detection of reinforcing steel corrosion in concrete, ACI Mater. J. 95(1) (1998), pp. 68 – 76.
[63] JSCE, Standard Specifications for Concrete and Concrete Structures on Maintenance,
JSCE, Tokyo, 2001.
[64] C. Ouyang, E. Landis, and S.P. Shah, Damage assessment in concrete using acoustic
emission, in Nondestructive Testing of Concrete Elements and Structures, F. Ansari, ed.,
ASCE, Special Publication, 1992, pp. 13 – 24.
[65] M. Ohtsu, Mathematical theory and acoustic emission and moment tensor solution, J. Soc.
Mat. Sci. Jpn 36(408) (1987), pp. 1025– 1031.
[66] D. Soulioti, D.N.M. Barkoula, A. Paipetis, T.E. Matikas, T. Shiotani, and D.G. Aggelis,
Acoustic emission behavior of steel fibre reinforced concrete under bending, Constr. Build.
Mater. 23 (2009), pp. 3532– 3536.
[67] E.G. Nesvijski, On the necessity of a new standard for the acoustic emission characterization
of concrete and reinforced concrete structures, ASTM Standard, SEDL/STP/STP1353-
EB/STP15779S, DOI: 10.1520/STP15779S, 1999.
[68] J.M. Berthelot, M.B. Souda, and J.L. Robert, Frequency analysis of acoustic emission signals
in concrete, J. Acoust. Emission 11(1) (1993), pp. 11 – 18.
66 R.V. Sagar and B.K.R. Prasad

[69] M. Ohtsu and H. Watanabe, Quantitative damage estimation of concrete by AE, Constr. Build.
Mater. 15(5 – 6) (2001), pp. 217– 224.
[70] M. Ohtsu, Rate process analysis of acoustic emission activity in core test of concrete,
Concrete Library JSCE 20 (1992), pp. 143– 153.
[71] K.E. Loland, Continuous damage model for load-response estimation of concrete, Cem. Conc.
Res. 10 (1989), pp. 395– 402.
[72] M.C. Reymond, A. Raharinaivo, and M. Brache, Characterization of concrete damages by
Acoustic emission analysis, J. Acoust. Emission 3 (1982), pp. 159– 168.
[73] A. Carpinteri, G. Lacidogna, and N. Pugno, Structural damage diagnosis and life-time
assessment by acoustic emission monitoring, Eng. Fract. Mech. 74 (2007), pp. 273– 289.
[74] J. Weiss, The role of attenuation on acoustic emission amplitude distributions and b-values,
Bull. Seismol. Soci. Am. 87(5) (1997), pp. 1362– 1367.
[75] M. Ohtsu, Acoustic emission characteristics in concrete and diagnostic applications,
J. Acoust. Emission 6(2) (1987), pp. 99 – 108.
[76] A. Carpinteri and G. Lacidogna, Damage diagnostic in concrete and masonry structures by
acoustic emission technique, in Series: Mechanics, Automatic Control and Robotics, Vol. 3,
Facta Universities, 2003, pp. 755–764.
[77] A. Carpinteri and G. Lacidogna, Damage monitoring of a historical masonry building by the
acoustic emission technique, Mater. Struct. 39 (2006), pp. 161– 167.
[78] A. Carpinteri and G. Lacidogna, Structural monitoring and integrity assessment of medieval
towers, J. Struct. Eng. 132 (2006), pp. 1681– 1690.
[79] A. Carpinteri and G. Lacidogna, Damage evaluation of three masonry towers by acoustic
emission, Eng. Struct. 29 (2007), pp. 1569 –1579.
[80] A. Carpinteri, S. Invernizzi, and G. Lacidogna, In-situ damage assessment and nonlinear
modeling of an historical Masonry Tower, Eng. Struct. 27 (2005), pp. 387–395.
[81] A. Carpinteri, G. Lacidogna, and G. Niccolini, Critical behavior in concrete structures and
damage localization by acoustic emission, Key Eng. Mater. 312 (2006c), pp. 305– 310.
[82] A. Carpinteri, G. Lacidogna, and M. Paggi, Acoustic emission monitoring and numerical
modeling of FRP delamination in RC beams with non-rectangular cross section, Mater.
Struct. 40 (2006d), pp. 553– 566.
[83] A. Carpinteri, G. Lacidogna, and S. Puzzi, Prediction of cracking evolution in full scale
structures by the b-value analysis and Yule statistics, Phys. Mesomech. 11(5 –6) (2008),
pp. 260– 271.
[84] T. Shiotani, K. Fujii, T. Aoki, and K. Amou, Evaluation of progressive failure using AE
sources and improved b-value on slope model tests, Prog. Acoust. Emission VII 7 (1994),
pp. 529– 534.
[85] T. Shiotani, S. Yuyama, Z.W. Li, and M. Ohtsu, Quantitative evaluation of fracture process in
concrete by the use of improved b-value, in 5th International Symposium on Non-Destructive
Testing in Civil Engineering, T. Uohoto, ed., Elsevier Science, Amsterdam, 2000,
pp. 293– 302.
[86] T. Shiotani, M. Ohtsu, and K. Ikeda, Detection and evaluation of AE waves due to rock
deformation, Constr. Build. Mat. 15(5 – 6) (2001), pp. 235– 246.
[87] E. Schlangen, Experimental and numerical analysis of fracture process in concrete,
Ph.D. thesis, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands, 1993.
[88] E. Schlangen and J. Garboczi, New method for simulating fracture using an elastically
uniform random geometry lattice, Int. J. Eng. Sci. 34(10) (1996), pp. 1131– 1144.
[89] E. Schlangen and E.J. Garboczi, Fracture simulations of concrete using lattice models:
Computational aspects, Eng. Fract. Mech. 57(2/3) (1997), pp. 319– 332.
[90] E. Schlangen and J.G.M. van Mier, Experimental and numerical analysis of micro-
mechanicsm of fracture of cement based composites, Cem. Conc. Comp. 14 (1992),
pp. 105– 118.
[91] E. Schlangen and J.G.M. van Mier, Simple lattice model for numerical simulation of fracture
of concrete materials, Mater. Struct. 25 (1992), pp. 534– 542.
[92] J.C. Walraven, Aggregate interlock: A theoretical and experimental analysis, Ph.D. thesis,
Delft University of Technology, 1980.
[93] A.H.J.M. Vervuurt, Interface fracture in concrete, Ph.D. thesis, Delft University of
Technology, 1997.
 Nondestructive Testing and Evaluation 67

[94] J.G.M. van Mier and M.R.A. Van Vliet, Experimentation, numerical simulation and the role
of engineering judgement in fracture mechanics of concrete and concrete structures,
Const. Build. Mater. 13 (1999), pp. 3 – 14.
[95] G. Lilliu, 3D analysis of fracture process inc concrete, Ph.D. thesis, Micor Lab, TU Delft,
2007.
[96] J.G.M. van Mier, Fracture process of concrete, assessment of material parameters for
fracture models, CRC Press, 1997.
[97] R. Vidya Sagar, B.K. Raghu Prasad, and B.L. Karihaloo, Verification of the applicability of
lattice model to concrete fracture by AE study, Int. J. Fract. 161(2) (2010), pp. 121– 129.
[98] T.J. Fowler, Experience with acoustic emission monitoring of chemical process industry
vessels, in Proceedings of the Eight International Acoustic Emission Symposium, Tokyo,
Progress AE III (1986), pp. 150– 162.
[99] J.M. Berthelot and J.L. Robert, Modeling concrete damage by acoustic emission, J. Acoust.
Emission 6(1) (1987), pp. 43 – 60.
[100] X. Luo, H. Haya, T. Inaba, T. Shiotani, and Y. Nakanishi, Experimental study on evaluation of
breakage in foundations using train-induced acoustic emission, in Proceedings of the
Structural Engineering World Congress, 2002, T9-1-e-3.
[101] B.L. Karihaloo, Fracture Mechanics and Structural Concrete, Longman Scientific &
Technical, Harlow, UK, 1995.
[102] W.M. McCabe, R.M. Koerner, and A.E. Lord, Jr, Acoustic emission behavior of concrete
laboratory specimens, ACI J. 13(3) (1976), pp. 367–371.
[103] S. Mindess, Acoustic emission and ultrasonic pulse velocity of concrete, Int. J. Cem.
Comp. Lightweight Conc. 4(3) (1982), pp. 173– 179.
[104] P.F. Mlakar, R.E. Walker, B.R. Sullivan, and V.P. Chiarito, AE behavior of concrete in situ,
NDT Testing of Concrete CANMET/ACI SP-82 (1984), pp. 619– 637.
[105] X. Luo, H. Haya, T. Inaba, T. Shiotani, and Y. Nakanishi, Damage evaluation of railway
structures by using train-induced AE, Constr. Build. Mater. 18 (2004), pp. 215– 223.
[106] Z.P. Bazant and J. Planas, Fracture and Size Effect in Concrete and Other Quasi Brittle
Materials, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1998.
[107] L. Li and H.B. Poorooshasb, Characteristics of acoustic emission from reinforced concrete,
in Proceedings of the 8th International AE Symposium, Tokyo, Progress AE III, JSNDI
(1986), pp. 522– 528.
[108] A.K. Maji, C. Ouyang, and S.P. Shah, Fracture mechanism of quasi-brittle materials based on
acoustic emission, J. Mater. Res. 5 (1990), pp. 206– 217.
[109] S. Nagataki, T. Okamoto, T. Ayata, and S. Yuyama, Classification of crack pattern developed
in reinforced concrete members by acoustic emission, in Proceedings of the Symposium on
NDE in Civil Engineering, JSCE, 1991, pp. 139– 144.
[110] A.K. Maji and R. Sahu, Acoustic emissions from reinforced concrete, Exp. Mech. 34 (1994),
pp. 379– 388.
[111] S.W. Hearn and C.K. Shield, Acoustic emission monitoring as a nondestructive testing
technique in reinforced concrete, ACI Mater. J. 94 (1997), pp. 510– 519.
[112] K. Wu, B. Chen, and W. Yao, Study on the AE characteristics of fracture process of
mortar, cement and steel-fiber-reinforced concrete beams, Cem. Conc. Res. 30 (2000),
pp. 1495– 1500.
[113] J.F. Labuz, S. Cattaneo, and L.-H. Chen, Acoustic emission at failure in quasi-brittle
materials, Contsr. Build. Mater. 15 (2001), pp. 225– 233.
[114] B. Chen and J. Liu, Investigation of effects of aggregate size on the fracture behavior of high
performance concrete by acoustic emission, Constr. Build. Mater. 21 (2007), pp. 1696 –1701.
[115] P. Rossi, J.L. Robert, J.P. Gervais, and D. Bruhat, Identification of physical mechanisms
underlying acoustic emission during the cracking of concrete, Mat. Struct. 22(129) (1989),
pp. 194– 198.
[116] P. Rossi, J.L. Robert, J.P. Gervais, and D. Bruhat, The use of acoustic emission in fracture
mechanics applied to concrete, Eng. Fract. Mech. 35 (1990), pp. 751– 763.
[117] B.J. Brindley, J. Holt, and I.G. Palmer, Acoustic emission-3: The use of ring down counting,
Non-Destr. Test. 6 (1973), pp. 299– 306.
[118] M.T. Tam and C.C. Weng, Acoustic emission Kaiser effect in fly ash cement mortar under
compression, J. Mater. Civil Eng. 11 (1995), pp. 212– 217.
68 R.V. Sagar and B.K.R. Prasad

[119] T. Kawakami and T. Uomoto, Application of AE monitoring and planar source location in
split-tensile tests of concrete, Proc. JCI 10(2) (1988), pp. 385– 390.
[120] M.C. Reymond, A. Raharinaivo, and M. Brachet, Characterization of concrete damages by
acoustic emission analysis, J. Acoust. Emission 2(3) (1983), pp. 159– 168.
[121] N. Nomura, H. Mihashi, and M. Izumi, Correlation of fracture process zone and tension
softening behavior in concrete, Cem. Conc. Res. 21 (1991), pp. 545– 550.
[122] K. Otsuka and H. Date, Fracture process zone in concrete tension specimen, Eng. Fract.
Mech. 65 (2000), pp. 111–131.
[123] A.K. Maji and S.P. Shah, Process zone and acoustic emission measurement in concrete,
Exp. Mech. 3 (1988), pp. 27 – 33.
[124] H.S. Hadjab, J.-Fr. Thimus, and M. Chabaat, The use of acoustic emission to investigate
fracture process zone in notched concrete beams, Curr. Sci. 93(5) (2007), pp. 648– 653.
[125] R. Vidya Sagar and B.K. Raghu Prasad, An experimental study on fracture process zone in
HSC three point bend beam specimen using acoustic emission method, J. Struct. Eng. (SERC,
Chennai, India) 36(1) (2009), pp. 59 – 69.
[126] H. Mihashi, N. Nomura, and S. Niseki, Influence of aggregate size on fracture process zone of
concrete detected with three dimensional acoustic emission techniques, Cem. Conc. Res. 21
(1991), pp. 737– 744.
[127] N. Nomura, H. Mihashi, and S. Niiseki, Influence of coarse aggregate size on fracture energy
and tension softening of concrete, Conc. Res. Tech. JCI 2(1) (1991), pp. 57 – 66.
[128] M. Izumi, H. Mihashi, and N. Nomura, Acoustic emission technique to evaluate fracture
mechanics parameters of concrete, in Fracture Toughness and Fracture Energy of Concrete,
F.H. Wittmann, ed., Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam, 1986, pp. 259– 268.
[129] B. Chen and J. Liu, Effect of aggregate on the fracture behavior of high strength concrete,
Constr. Build. Mater. 18 (2004), pp. 585– 590.
[130] B. Chen and J. Liu, Experimental study on AE characteristics three-point-bending concrete
beams, Cem. Conc. Res. 34 (2004), pp. 391– 397.
[131] M.V. Lysak, Development of the theory of acoustic emission by propagating cracks in terms
of fracture mechanics, Eng. Fract. Mech. 55 (1996), pp. 443– 452.
[132] B.K. Raghu Prasad and R. Vidya Sagar, Relationship between AE energy and fracture energy
of plain concrete beams-experimental study, ASCE J. Mater. Civil Eng. 20(3) (2008),
pp. 212– 220.
[133] R. Vidya Sagar and B.K. Raghu Prasad, AE energy release during the fracture of HSC beams,
Mag. Conc. Res. 61(6) (2009), pp. 419– 435.
[134] L.J. Jacobs and J.O. Owino, Effect of aggregate size on attenuation of Rayleigh surface waves
in cement based materials, J. Eng. Mech. 126 (2000), pp. 1124– 1130.
[135] E.N. Landis and S.P. Shah, Frequency-dependent stress wave attenuation in cement-based
materials, J. Eng. Mech. 121 (1995), pp. 737– 743.
[136] RILEM Committee 50-FMC, Determination of the fracture energy of mortar and concrete by
means of three-point bend tests on notched beams, Mater. Struct. 18 (1985), pp. 285– 290.
[137] RILEM draft recommendations, TC-89 FMT fracture mechanics of concrete – Test methods,
Mater. Struct. 23 (1991), pp. 461–465.
[138] S. Yuyama, T. Okamoto, M. Shigeishi, and M. Ohtsu, A proposed standard for evaluating
structural integrity of reinforced concrete beams by AE, Acoustic Emission: Standards and
Technology Update, ASTM, STP 1353 (1998), pp. 25 – 40.
[139] A. Carpinteri, G. Lacidogna, and A. Manuello, Damage mechanisms interpreted by acoustic
emission signal analysis, Key Eng. Mater. 347 (2007), pp. 577– 582.
[140] P.R. Rajagopalan, J. Prakash, and V. Narasimhan, Correlation between ultrasonic pulse
velocity and strength of concrete, Ind. Conc. J. 11 (1973), pp. 416– 418.
[141] T. Shiotani, S. Yuyama, Z.W. Li, and M. Ohtsu, Application of the AE improved b-value to
qualitative evaluation of fracture process in concrete materials, J. Acoust. Emission 19
(2001), pp. 118– 132.
[142] Y. Tanigawa, K. Yamada, and S. Kiriyama, Frequency characteristics of AE in concrete,
Japan Concrete Institute, Tokyo, Proc. JCI 2 (1977), pp. 129– 132.
[143] J.V. Kaiser, Knowledge and research on noise measurements during the tensile stressing of
metals, Archiv für das Eisenhüttenwesen. 24 (1953), pp. 43 – 44.