ESA ASSIGNMENT

1. What are the requirements in selection in Photo elastic materials?

A. Requirements in selection of Photo elastic materials:
One of the most important factors in a photo elastic analysis is the selection of the proper
material for the photo elastic model. Unfortunately, an ideal photo elastic material does not exist,
and the investigator must select from the list of available polymers the one which most closely
fits the investigation’s needs. The quantity of photo elastic plastic used each year is not sufficient
to entice a chemical company into the development and subsequent production of a polymer
especially designed for photo elastic applications. As a consequence, the photoelastician must
select a model material which is usually employed for some purpose other than photo elasticity.
The following list gives properties which an ideal photo elastic material should exhibit. The
material should
1. Be transparent to the light employed in the polariscope
2. Be sensitive to either stress or strain, as indicated by a low material fringe value in terms of
either stress fs or strain fe
3. Exhibit linear characteristics with respect to (a) stress-strain properties, (b) stress-fringe-order
properties, and (c) strain-fringe-order properties
4. Exhibit mechanical and optical isotropy and homogeneity
5. Not exhibit viscoelastic behavior
6. Have a high modulus of elasticity and a high proportional limit
7. Have sensitivities fa or fe, that are essentially constant with small variations in temperature
8. Be free of time-edge effects
9. Be capable of being machined by conventional means
10. Be free of residual stresses
11. Be available at reasonable cost
2. Write the difference between model and prototype? Explain about Dimensional Analysis.
A. a) Dimensional Analysis:
The study of the relationship between physical quantities with the help of dimensions and
units of measurement is termed as dimensional analysis. Dimensional Analysis is a mathematical
technique which makes use of the study of dimensions as an aid to the solution of several
engineering problems. Each physical phenomenon can be expressed by an equation, composed of
variable which may be dimensional and non-dimensional quantities. Dimensional Analysis helps
in determining a systematic arrangement of the variables in the physical relationship and
combining dimensional variables to form non-dimensional parameters. Dimensional analysis is
essential because it keeps the units the same, helping us perform mathematical calculations
smoothly.

Principle of Homogeneity states that dimensions of each of the terms of a dimensional equation
on both sides should be the same. This principle is helpful because it helps us convert the units
from one form to another.

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 Applications of Dimensional Analysis:
Dimensional analysis is a fundamental aspect of measurement and is applied in real-life physics.
We make use of dimensional analysis for three prominent reasons:
● To check the consistency of a dimensional equation
● To derive the relation between physical quantities in physical phenomena
● To change units from one system to another

Limitations of Dimensional Analysis:

Some limitations of dimensional analysis are:
● It doesn’t give information about the dimensional constant.
● The formula containing trigonometric function, exponential functions, logarithmic function, etc.
cannot be derived.
● It gives no information about whether a physical quantity is a scalar or vector.

b) Difference between model and Prototype:

Model Prototype
(Model is the small-scale replica of the actual (The actual structure or machine)
structure or machine. It is not necessary that
models should be smaller than the prototypes
(although in most of the cases it is), they may be
larger than the prototypes.)
1. Not necessarily functional (don't need to 1. Is fully functional, but not fault-proof.
work).
2. Can be to any scale (usually smaller but can2. Is an actual version of the intended product.
also be of the original size or bigger). 3. Used for performance evaluation and further
improvement of product.
3. Used for Display or/and [Visual]
4. Contains complete interior and exterior.
Demonstration of product.
4. May consist of only the exterior of the 5. Is relatively expensive to produce.
object/product it replicates.
5. Relatively cheap to manufacture.

3.Explain about acoustic emission inspection

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 Acoustic emission (AE) testing is a non-destructive testing (NDT) technique that detects and
monitors the release of ultrasonic stress waves from localised sources when a material deforms
under stress
Acoustic emission testing works by mounting small sensors onto a component under test. The
sensors convert the stress waves into electrical signals, which are relayed to an acquisition PC for
processing. The waves are captured when the component is submitted to an external stimulus,
such as high pressures, loads or temperatures. As the damage grows in the component, there is a
greater release of energy. The rates in which the acoustic emission is detected, the activity, and
the intensity of the acoustic emission, the loudness, are monitored and used for assessing
structural integrity and for health monitoring of components.
Acoustic emission can be thought of as tiny earthquakes that occur in the material. The technique
globally monitors a component for defects, allowing large structures and machines to be
monitored while in operation with minimal disruption, unlike destructive testing. By using
multiple sensors, acoustic emission sources (and hence the damage) can be located. Through
signal analysis, the presence of different source mechanisms can also be determined.
There are two AE testing methods: transient and continuous. The transient method captures AE
bursts that exceed a threshold (loudness level) and extract features such as peak amplitude, signal
energy and duration of the burst. These features are then used to assess the condition of the
component under test. This method is well suited for testing structures for defects such as cracks.
The continuous method captures all AE within a set time period, for example 1/10th of a second.
Then, features such as average signal level and root-mean squared (RMS) values are then
extracted. This method is well suited to applications where there is a lot of background AE or AE
amplitude is low, for example when testing gearboxes or detecting leaks
Acoustic emission testing can be conducted in a laboratory, as well as in-field conditions, over
both relatively short durations, such as a few hours, and longer durations, such as a few months.
Wireless data relay methods make it possible to analyse the data remotely.
Advantages :-
 Ability to detect a range of damage mechanisms including, but not limited to, fibre breakages,
friction, impacts, cracking, delamination and corrosion in their early stages, before they become
significant issues
 Can be conducted during operation, during qualification (proof) testing or development testing
 Can locate damage sources and can be differentiate these based on acoustic signatures Global

monitoring of a structure

 Assesses the structure or machine under real operational conditions A non-invasive method

 Operational in hazardous environments, including high temperatures, high pressures and

corrosive and nuclear environments
 Can be conducted remotely

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 Can detect damages in defects that are difficult to access with conventional non- destructive
testing techniques

Limitations:-
 Limited to assessing structural integrity or machine health by locating issues, further inspection
is usually required to fully diagnose issues
 Cannot detect defects that may be present, but that do not move or grow Can be slower than
other non-destructive testing techniques
Applications -
Acoustic emission can be applied to a range of applications and materials. These include:
Structures –
 Concrete structures such as bridges and buildings
 Metallic structures such as pressure vessels, pipelines, storage tanks, aircraft structures and steel
cables
 Composite structures such as aircraft structures, motorsport structures and composite beams
Machines-
 Rotating machinery such as detecting early wear in bearings and gearboxes Electrical machinery
such as detecting partial discharge in transformers and bushings

4) Derive an expression for change in output voltage of wheatstone bridge circuit in terms of the
changes in resistances
Wheatstone Bridge :-
The wheatstone bridge diamond shaped circuit who’s concept was developed by Charles
Wheatstone can be used to accurately measure unknown resistance values, or as a means of
calibrating measuring instruments, voltmeters, ammeters, etc, by the use of a variable resistance
and a simple mathematical formula.
Although today digital multimeters provide the simplest way to measure a resistance.
The Wheatstone Bridge can
be used to compare an unknown resistance to that of a known resistance to determine its value
allowing very low values of resistances down in the milli-Ohms (mΩ) range to be measured.
The Wheatstone bridge (or resistance bridge) circuit can be used in a number of applications and
today, with modern operational amplifiers we can use the Wheatstone

Bridge Circuit to interface various transducers and sensors to these amplifier circuits
The Wheatstone Bridge circuit is nothing more than two simple series-parallel arrangements of
resistances connected between a voltage supply terminal and ground producing zero voltage
difference between the two parallel branches when balanced. A Wheatstone bridge circuit has
two input terminals and two output terminals consisting of four resistors configured in a familiar
diamond-like arrangement as shown. This is typical of how the Wheatstone bridge is drawn.

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The Wheatstone Bridge:-
By replacing R4 above with a resistance of known or unknown value in the sensing arm of the
Wheatstone bridge corresponding to RX and adjusting the opposing resistor, R3 to “balance” the
bridge network, will result in a zero voltage output. Then we can see that balance occurs when:
Voltage change is too small to be accurately measured and for this reason an amplifier is
used
The strain gauge is connected into a Wheatstone Bridge circuit. The change in resistance is
proportional to applied strain and is measured with Wheatstone bridge.

A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit used to measure an unknown electrical resistance by

balancing two legs of a bridge circuit, one leg of which includes the unknown component:
The unknown resistance R is to be X measured;

resistances R₁, R₂ and R3 are known and R₂ is adjustable.

If the measured voltage V is 0, then R₂/R₁ = Rx/R3.

Wheatstone Bridge for Strain Measurement

One of the most commonly used applications of Wheatstone
Bridge is in the Strain Measurement. Strain Gauge is a device
whose electrical resistance varies in proportion to the
mechanical factors like Pressure, Force or Strain. Usually, the
range of strain gauge resistance is from 30 Ω to 3000 Ω. For a
given strain, the resistance change may be only a fraction of
the full range. Therefore, to accurately measure the fractional
changes of resistance, a Wheatstone Bridge configuration is used.
Due to the external force, the resistance of the strain gauge changes and as a result, the bridge
becomes unbalanced. The output voltage can be calibrated to display the changes in strain.
One popular configuration of Strain Gauges and Wheatstone Bridge is in Weight Scales. In this,
the Strain Gauges are carefully mounted as a single unit called as Load Cells, which is a
transducer which converts mechanical force to electrical signal.
Usually, weight scales consist of four load cells, where two strain gauges expand or stretch
(tension type) when external force is acting and two strain gauges compress (compression type)
when load is placed.

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 If the strain gauge is either tensed or
compressed, then the resistance can
increase or decrease. Therefore, this
causes unbalancing of the bridge.
This produces a voltage indication
on voltmeter corresponds to the
strain change. If the strain applied
on a strain gauge is more, then the
voltage difference across the meter
terminals is more. If the strain is
zero, then the bridge balances and
the meter shows zero reading.This is
about the resistance measurement
using a Wheatstone bridge for
precise measurement. Due to the
fractional measurement of
resistance, Wheatstone bridges are
mostly used in strain gauge and thermometer measurements.
Applications
 The Wheatstone Bridge is used for measuring the very low resistance values precisely.
Wheatstone bridge along with operational amplifier is used to measure the physical parameters
like temperature, strain, light, etc.
 We can also measure the quantities capacitance, inductance and impedance using the variations
on the Wheatstone Bridge.
5. Explain about electrical resistance and mechanical type of strain gage?
A. Mechanical Strain Gage:
Mechanical Strain Gages Mechanical strain gages such as the Huggenberger tensometer
or the Johansson mikrokator are rarely used today because the electrical-resistance strain gages
are more accurate, lower in cost, and easier to use. Mechanical gages, often called
extensometers, are still widely used today in material test systems. However, these
extensometers utilize electrical devices such as displacement transformers or resistance strain
gages for sensors. A typical extensometer, shown in Fig. 5.3a, is employed in the conventional
tensile test where the stress-strain diagram is recorded. The extensometer is equipped with knife
edges and a wire spring that forces the knife edges into the tension specimen. Elongation or
compression of

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 Figure: Detail of an extensometer: (a) extensometer attached to a tensile specimen (gage length-
25 mm); (b) cover removed to show the vertical and cross-flexural plates which respond to
motion of the arms. (MTS Systems Corporation.)

The specimen causes movement of the arms. As these arms move, they bend a small
cross-flexural element (see Fig.b) ensuring center-point bending over the entire range of the
extensometer. The cross-flexural member, which is the sensing element, also provides good
lateral stability and requires low actuating forces (about 50 g). Electrical-resistance strain gages,
bonded to the cross-flexural element, sense the bending strains and give a signal output that is
proportional to the contraction or extension of the tensile specimen. The extensometer provides
an accurate response to specimen strain with maximum nonlinearity of 0.3 percent of range and
maximum hysteresis of only 0.1 percent of range.

Electrical Resistance Strain Gages:

In the electrical resistance strain gauges the displacement or strain is measured as a
function of the resistance change produced by the displacement in the gauging circuit.

An ideal strain gauge should have the following basic characteristics:

● The gauge should be of extremely small size (gauge length and width) so as to adequately
estimate strain at a point.
● The gauge should be of significant mass to permit the recording of dynamic strains.
● The gauge should be easy to attach to the member being analysed and easy to handle.
● The strain sensitivity and accuracy of the gauge should be sufficiently high.
● The gauge should be unaffected by temperature, vibration, humidity or other ambient conditions.
● The calibration constant for the gauge should be stable over a wide range of temperature and
time.
● The gauge should be capable of indicating both static and dynamic strains.
● It should be possible to read the gauge either on location or remotely.

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● The gauge should exhibit linear response to strain.
● The gauge and the associated equipment should be available at a reasonable cost.
● The gauge should be suitable for use as a sensing element or other transducer systems.

Types of Resistance Strain Gauges:

There are basically four types of electrical resistance strain gauges as classified below:
● Unbonded gauges:Non-metallic & Metallic
● Bonded gauges: Non-metallic & Metallic - (i) Wire type -(ii) Foil type
● Weldable gauges
● Piezoresistive gauges

Unbonded - NonMetallic Gauges

● The unbonded nonmetallic gauge is a mechanically actuated gauge.
● When one part of the gauge is displaced with respect to another is developed a change in
pressure on the measuring element of the gauge.
● This change in pressure changes the resistance of the element which may recorded by electrical
means.

Unbonded Non-metallic strain gauge

● This gauge is composed of a series of carbon plates arranged in a stack. The stack is so adjusted
that a displacement of one parts of the gauge relative to another changes the pressure, on the
stack of plates.
● When the strain is applied in the structure to which the gauge is attached, the change in length is
communicated to the carbon-plates.
● Gauge of this kind have been used to determine displacements, loads members, dynamometers
and pressure gauges.
● However, with the advancement of metallic gauges the usefulness of these types of gauges has
reduced materially.

Unbonded-Metallic Gauges:

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● The principle of the unbonded metallic gauges is based on the change in electrical resistance of a
metallic wire due to the change in tension of the wire. The first device of this kind was designed
by Carlson and Eaton in 1930. . This type of gauge is constructed by winding wire in three coils:
● The first providing a coil unaffected by the gauge motion, and the other two having tensions
altered by the gauge motion, each in an opposite manner.
● The whole is mounted in a sleeve that allows only longitudinal movement.
● The coils are placed under initial tension into a four arm Wheatstone bridge.
● A gauge of this type is shown in Fig.
● These type of gauges are rarely used for experimental stress analysis.
● However, these type of gauges have been incorporated into accelerometers and pressure pickups.

Unbonded metallic strain gauge

Bonded Non-Metallic Gauges:

● A strain gauge using direct bonding of a non-metallic resistor element to a material in which the
strain is so to be measured was reported by Bleach in 1935.
● In this gauge a carbon coating is applied directly to the surface of the structure in which strain is
to be measured.
● For metallic structures the surface is first coated with a non-conducting material.
● Such a coating is stretched, the carbon particle would move apart, and the under-coating is
compressed, the particles would move closer together, and the resistance will change.
● This resistance change is interpreted in terms of strain.
● Generally these type of gauges are made by impregnating carbon particles in plastic sheets.
● These sheets are then cut into strips about 6 mm wide and 25 mm long.
● On each end of the strip a silver band is plated so that lead wires may be attached (fig).
● The gauge is bonded directly to the surface to be strained with a common glue.

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 Bonded non-metallic strain gauge

● These sensitivity and resistance of the gauge are affected by temperature and humidity.
● This gauge is of rugged construction and can withstand rough handling.
● However, the cross-sensitivity of the gauge is quite high.

Bonded Metallic Gauges:

● The bonded metallic type of strain gauge consists of a length of a strain sensitive conductor
mounted on a small piece of paper or plastic backing.
● In use this gauge is cemented to the surface of the structural member to be tested.
● These gauges may be either of the wire or foil type.
● In the case of wire strain gauges, the filament consists of a long length of wire in the form of a
grid fixed in place with a suitable cement.
● The wire grid may be either of the flat type (fig. a) or wrap-around type (Fig.b).

a)Bonded wire flat grid gauge

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● After attaching the lead wires to the two ends of the grid, a second piece of paper is cemented
over the wire as a cover.
● In the wrap around type of wire gauges, the strain-sensitive wire is wound around a cylindrical
core in the form of a close-wound helix.
● This core is then flattened and cemented between layers of paper for purpose of protection and
insulation.
● Fig.(c) shows a flat wire grid free filament construction.
● The foil type of stain gauge has a grid made from a very thin strain sensitive foil (fig d).

b) Bonded wire wrap-around gauge

c) Flat wire grid free filament construction

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 d) Bonded flat foil grid gauge

● The width of foil is very large as compared to the thickness so that the gauge provides a much
larger area for cementing the gauge.
● The gauge configuration is obtained by printing the desired pattern on a sheet of foil with acid
resistant ink and subsequently etching away unprotected metal.
● Another method of manufacture involves precision punching of the gauges from a foil sheet.
● The foil type of gauges has the . following advantages over the wire type gauges.
● The width of the foil at the end of each loop can be greatly increased to reduce the sensitivity of
the gauge to transverse strains.
● The cross-section of the gauge conductor is rectangular, resulting in the high ratio of surface area
to cross section area.
● This increases heat dissipation and avoids adhesion between the grid and he backing material.
● The gauge factor is higher by 4 to 10 per cent that other gauges. These gauges are easier to
manufacture.
● These gauges can be used to measure strain on curved surfaces. These gauges are suitable for
static and dynamic strain measurements. They have very good fatigue properties. Stress
relaxation and hysteresis is very less in these gauges.

6. Explain in detail the working principle and measurement of strains from an Acoustical strain
gage with neat sketch?
A. Acoustical strain gage:
Acoustical strain gages have been employed in a variety of forms in several countries
since the late 1920s. To date, they have been largely supplemented by the electrical-resistance
strain gage. However, they are unique among all forms of strain gages in view of their long-term
stability and freedom from drift over extended time periods. The acoustical gage described here,
due to R. S. Jerrett, was developed in 1944 and is typical of the devices currently being
employed. The strain-measuring system is based on the use of two identical gages identified as a
test gage and a reference gage. The significant parts of a gage are shown schematically in Fig.
In the figure it can be seen that the gage has the common knife-edge mounting provision.
One knife edge is mounted to the main body, which is fixed, while the other knife edge is
mounted in a bearing suspension and is free to elongate with the specimen. The gage length(l)
3in (76 mm). One end of a steel wire is attached to the movable knife edge while the other end of
the wire passes through a small hole in the fixed knife edge and is attached to a tension screw.
The movable knife edge is connected to a second tension screw by a leaf spring. This design
permits the initial tension in the wire to be applied without the transmission of load to the knife
edges.

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 Figure: Schematic drawing showing the operation of the Jerrett
acoustical strain gage.

The wire passes between the pole pieces of two small electromagnets. One of these
magnets is used to keep the wire vibrating at its natural frequency; the other is employed to pick
up the frequency of the system. Electrically both magnets operate together in that the signal from
the pickup magnet is amplified and fed back into the driving magnet to keep the string excited in
its natural frequency.
The reference gage is identical to the test gage except that the knife edges are removed
and a micrometer is used to tension the wire. A helical spring is employed in series with the wire
to permit larger rotations of the micrometer head for small changes of stress in the wire.
To operate the system, the test gage is mounted and adjusted and the reference gage is
placed near it to attempt to compensate for temperature effects. Both gages are energized, and
each wire emits a musical note. If the frequency of vibrations from the two gages is not the same,
beats will occur. The micrometer setting is varied on the reference gage until the beat frequency
decreases to zero. The reading of the micrometer is then taken and the strain is applied to the test
gage. The change in tension in the wire of the test gage produces a change in frequencies, and it
is necessary to adjust the reference gage with the micrometer until the beats are eliminated. This
new micrometer reading is proportional to the strain.
If the test gage is located in a remote position and the beat signals from the test and
reference gages cannot be developed, it is possible to balance the two gages by using an
oscilloscope. The voltage output from the pickup coils of each gage are displayed while
operating the oscilloscope in the xy mode. The resulting Lissajous figure provides the readout

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which permits adjustment of the micrometer on the reference gage to match the frequency of the
test gage.
The natural frequency f of a wire held between two fixed points is given by the
expression

Where, L = the length of wire between supports

σ = the stress in the wire
ρ = the density of the wire

In terms of strain in the wire, the frequency is governed by the following equation, which comes
directly from Eq.

Where, E is the modulus of elasticity

The sensitivity of this instrument is very high, with possible determinations of

displacements of the order of 0.1 μin (2.5 μm). The range is limited, in general, to about one-
thousandth of the wire length before over- or under-stressing of the sensing wire becomes
critical. The gage is temperature-sensitive unless the thermal coefficients of expansion of the
base and wire are closely matched over the temperature range encountered during a test. Finally,
the force required to drive the transducer is relatively large, and it should not be employed in
high-compliance systems where the large driving force will be detrimental.

7. What are Strain Rosettes? What are their uses?For a rectangular rosette on steel specimen εA
=-600x10-6, εB=300x10-6,εC=400x10-6.Determine Principal strains, Principal stresses and
directions Esteel= 210GPa?
A Strain gauge rossette is a term for an arrangement of two or more strain gauges that are
positioned closely to measure strains along different directions of the component under
evaluation. Single strain guages can only measure strain effectively in one direction, so that use
of multiple strain guages enables more measurements to be taken, providing a more precise
evaluation of strain on the surface being measured.
It is also defined as the arrangement of two or more closely positioned guage grids, seperately
oriented in different angles to measure the normal strains along different directions in the
underlying surface of the test part.
There are two common configurations of strain gauge rosettes; rectangular and delta. 1)A
rectangular strain gauge rosette consists of three strain gauges; A, B, and C. Strain gauges A and
C are placed at a 90°angle on an XY-axis, and strain gauge B is placed in between the two at a
45°angle.

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2)A delta strain gauge also consists of three strain gauges, which are in an equilateral triangle
orientation, which features 60° angles.
There are many other types of strain gauge rosette configurations in addition to rectangular and
delta.
Three Element Rectangular Rosette:
In this rosette the three guages are laid out so that the axis of guages B and C are at 45° and 90°
respectively to the axis of guage A. Taking the OA axis to be coincident with OX axis the angles
corresponding to A,B and C in three element rectangle rossete are
θA =0°, θB =45°, θC =90°.

Then
εA =εxx
εB =½{εxx+εyy+γxy}
εC =εyy
We can rewrite these equations in terms of εxx,εyy,γxy as
εxx= εA
εyy=εC
γxy=2εB-(εA+εC)
The principal strains are given by:
ε1=½(εxx+εyy)+½((εxx-εyy)2+γxy2)1/2
Subtitute above values
ε1=½(εA+εC)+½((εA-εC)2+2εB-(εA+εC))1/2
ε2=½(εA+εC)-½((εA-εC)2+2εB-(εA+εC))½
The principal Strain direction's are given:
tan2ϕ =γxy/(εxx+εyy)
tan 2ϕ =[2εB-(εA+εC)]/(εA +εB)
By substituting ε1 and ε2 values in general equation of principal stresses we get

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The principal stresses as :
σ1 =E(ε1+ με2)/(1- μ2)
σ2 =E(ε2+ με1)/(1- μ2)
Uses of strain Rosettes:
1.As the strain guage measures strain in one direction in order to get principal strains we use
strain rosette
2.Rosettes are designed with different combinations of grid alloys and backing materials and
hence incresases efficiency.
3.They are offered with different guage lengths provinding feasibility to use in different
conditions.
4.Strain guages attached with wheatstone bridges are used for measurement of tension,bending,
torsion.
Problem:
Given εA= -600x10-6
εB= 300x10-6
εC= 400x10-6
Esteel=210Gpa
1.Principal Strains:
From above mentioned formule we know that
ε1=½(εA+εC)+½((εA-εC)2+(2εB-εA+εC)2)1/2
=[½( -600+400)+½((-600-400)2+(2(300)+600-400)2)½ ]x10-6
=[ -100+½(√(1640000)]x10-6
= [-100+ 640]x10-6
= 540.3x10-6
ε1 = 540.3x10-6
ε2=1/2(εA+εB)-1/2((εA-εC)2+(2εB-εA+εC)2)½
=[½( -600+400)-½((-600-400)2+(2(300)+600-400)2)½ ]x10-6
=[ -100-½(√(1640000)]x10-6
= [-100-640]x10-6
= -740x10-6
ε2 = -740x10-6
2.Principal Directions:
ϕ1=½( tan-1[ (2εB-εA-εC)/(εA-εC)]2)
=½( tan-1[(600+600-400)/(-600-400)]2)
=½( tan-1[0.8]2)
=16°18'
ϕ1= 16°18'
ϕ2= 90°+ϕ1 = 90°+16°18'= 106°18'.
ϕ2 = 106°18'
3.Principal Stresses:
Let us assume here μ= 0.3

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 σ1 =E(ε1+ με2)/(1- μ2)
=210x10-3[ 540.3+(0.3)(-740.3)]/(1-0.32)
=73.435 MPa
σ1 = 73.43Mpa
σ2=E(ε2+ με1)/(1- μ2)
=210x10-3[ -740.3+(0.3)(540.3)]/(1-0.32)
=-13.34Mpa
σ2= -13.34Mpa
8.Explain about Photoelasticity with its advantages and limitations.Write briefly about temporary
double refraction?
A.Defination: The term photoelasticity is divided in to photo and elasticity where photo means
light and elasticity means changes in optical properties of material under mechanical
deformation.
1. It is one of the methods for determining stress distribution in a material especially in areas where
mathematical expressions are inconvenient.
2. This is an important point to determine stress points and stress concentration in irregular bodies.
3. It is valuable because it gives overall picture of stress field, quickly showing regions of stress
intensification.
Photoelasticity:
● Photoelasticity is a non destructive,whole field, graphic stress analysis technique based on
optomechanical property called birefringence,possessed by many transparent polymers.
● When it combines with other optical elements and illuminated with an ordinary light source,and
is loaded with photoelastic specimen exhibits fringe patterns that are related to difference
between Principal stresses in a plane normal to light propogation direction.
● This method is primarily used for analysing 2D plane problems.
● For 3D planes,a method called stress freezing is allowed for stress analysis.
● Photo elastic coatings are used to analyse surface stresses in bodies of complex geometry.
Advantages:
Generally photo elasticity is used for 2D problems
1. It provides reliable fulfilled values of difference between Principal normal stresses in plane of
modal.
2. It provides uniquely value of non vanishing principal normal stress along perimeter of model
where stresses are generally largest
3. It provides the fulfilled values of principle stresses in directions adaptable for both static and
dynamic investigations.
4. It requires only a modest investment in equipment and materials for ordinary work and is fairly
simple to use.
Disadvantages:
1. On the other hand , Photoelasticity requires that a model of actual part made.
2. It requires rather tedious calculations in order to seperate values of principal stresses at general
interior points.

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3. For large components,it requires expensive equipment for precise analysis.
4. It is very tedious and time consuming in case of 3D works.
Temporary double refraction:
1.Defination: Many transparent non crystalline materials that are optically isotropic when free
from stress becomes optically anisotropic and displays characteristics similar to 'crystals' when
they are stressed.These characteristics persists while loads on materials are removed ,this
behaviour is called"Temporary double refraction".
● This was first observed bt sir David Brewster in year 1816.The method of photo elasticity is
based on these transparent non crystalline materials.
● The optical anisotropy which develops in the material as a result of stress can be represented by
ellipsoid known as "Index ellipsoid".
● The semi axis of the index ellipsoid represents principal indices of refraction of material at a
point as shown in fig below. And radius of ellipsoid represents light propogation through point
● A plane through the origin ,which is perpendicular to radius intersects the ellipsoid as an ellipse
● The semi axes of an ellipse represents the indices of refraction associated with light waves
having planes of vibration which contains the radius vector and an axis of ellipse
● For a material which is partially isotropic contains 3 principal indices of refraction are equal, and
the index of ellipsoid becomes sphere. The index of refraction becomes same for all directions
through the material.

Index ellipsoid
Index ellipsoid and Stress ellipsoid:
● The refractive properties of glass at any point may be represented by an index ellipsoid as shown
above similar to the state of stress at a point.
● The stress optic law states that index and stress ellipsoids are coincident and are related by linear
stress optic constant.
Stress optic relationship:

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 n=Cσ1
Where, C = Stress birefringence coefficient.
n1, n2, n3= Principal indices of refraction.
σ1, σ2, σ3= Principal stresses.

Stress Ellipsoid
.
9. (i) EXPLAIN FRINGE SHARPENING
To obtain the sharpened or multiplied fringe pattern a set of partial mirrors is
introduced into a standard circular polariscope. A mirror is placed on each side of the specimen
and parallel to the specimen
The degree of fringe sharpening increases with increasing reflectance of the
mirrors and is independent of the transmittance and adsorption. If compensation techniques are
to be used the compensator must be inserted between the mirrors next to the specimen. The
compensation technique of analyzer rotation cannot be used in conjunction with the mirrors
when using the fringe sharpening technique.

(ii). EXPLAIN FRINGE MULTIPLICATION TECHNIQUE USED IN

PHOTOELASTCITY
 Fringe multiplication is achieved by passing the light back and forth through the model, so that
the relative retardation occurring in each passage is accumulated and the sum is displayed in the
multiplied isochromatic pattern. Figure 6.13 shows an example in which the basic specimen
exhibits very low relative retardation.
 The patterns labeled 1×, 5× and 11× are. Respectively, the ordinary isochromatic pattern, the
five-times multiplied pattern from light passing five times through the same specimen, and the
eleven-time multiplied pattern for the same specimen.
 The inserts show enlarged views of the stress concentration zone for the 5× and 11× patterns,
revealing that the method does not sacrifice fringe resolution.

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 Fringe multiplication is accomplished by installing a partial mirror on each side of the model-
mirrors that reflect about 85 percent of the incident light and transmit about 15 percent
 The mirrors are slightly inclined, so that the light beams emerge in slightly different directions
according to their number of passages through the model. Light passing through the model 1, 3
and 5 times is converged to points a, b and c, respectively.
 A plate with a small hole stops all the unwanted beams and allows only the beam carrying the
desired multiplication pattern to pass into the eye of the observer (as shown) or into a camera. In
the figure, the 7× pattern would be viewed

 With fringe multiplication, the stress-optic law becomes

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 f Ń
σ 1 −σ 2=
t α

 Where α is the fringe-multiplication factor, or the number of times light passed through the
model, and N is the fringe order read off the multiplied pattern.
 Fringe multiplication is applicable to both two-dimensional models and slices taken from frozen-
stress three-dimensional models.
 However, the need for enhancement of sensitivity of measurements is less frequently required in
two-dimensional work

10. Explain about Ultrasonic testing and Rebound hammer testing and their applications?
Ultrasonic instrument is a handy, battery operated and portable instrument used for assessing
elastic properties or concrete quality. The apparatus for ultrasonic pulse velocity measurement
consists of the following
(a) Electrical pulse generator
(b) Transducer – one pair
(c) Amplifier
(d) Electronic timing device
OBJECTIVE
The ultrasonic pulse velocity method could be used to establish:

(a) The homogeneity of the concrete

(b) The presence of cracks, voids and other imperfections

(c) Change in the structure of the concrete which may occur with time

(d) The quality of concrete in relation to standard requirement

(e) The quality of one element of concrete in relation to another

(f) The values of dynamic elastic modulus of the concrete

PRINCPLE

The method is based on the principle that the velocity of an ultrasonic pulse through any
material depends upon the density, modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio of the material.
Comparatively higher velocity is obtained when concrete quality is good in terms of density,
uniformity, homogeneity etc. The ultrasonic pulse is generated by an electro acoustical

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 transducer. When the pulse is induced into the concrete from a transducer, it undergoes multiple
reflections at the boundaries of the different material phases within the concrete. A complex
system of stress waves is developed which includes longitudinal (compression), shear
(transverse) and surface (Rayleigh) waves. The receiving transducer detects the onset of
longitudinal waves which is the fastest
The velocity of the pulses is almost independent of the geometry of the material through which
they pass and depends only on its elastic properties.
 Pulse velocity method is a convenient technique for investigating structural concrete.
For good quality concrete pulse velocity will be higher and for poor quality it will be less.
 If there is a crack, void or flaw inside the concrete which comes in the way of transmission of the
pulses, the pulse strength is attenuated and it passed around the discontinuity, thereby making the
path length longer. Consequently, lower velocities are obtained.
 The actual pulse velocity obtained depends primarily upon the materials and mix proportions of
concrete.
 Density and modulus of elasticity of aggregate also significantly affects the pulse velocity
METHODOLOGY
The equipment should be calibrated before starting the observation and at the end of test to
ensure accuracy of the measurement and performance of the equipment. It is done by measuring
transit time on a standard calibration rod supplied along with the equipment. A platform/staging
of suitable height should be erected to have an access to the measuring locations. The location of
measurement should be marked and numbered with chalk or similar thing prior to actual
measurement (pre decided locations)
Path Length(mm) Natural frequency of Minimum transverse
transducer(KHz) dimensions of members
Up to 500 150 25
500-700 ≥60 70
700-1500 ≥40 150
Above 1500 ≥20 300

MOUNTING OF TRANSDUCERS
The direction in which the maximum energy is propagated is normally at right angles to
the face of the transmitting transducer, it is also possible to detect pulses which have travelled
through the concrete in some other direction. The receiving transducer detects the arrival of

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component of the pulse which arrives earliest. This is generally the leading edge of the
longitudinal vibration. It is possible, therefore, to make measurements of pulse velocity by
placing the two transducers in the following manners

a) Direct transmission
b) Semi-Direct Transmission
c) Indirect Transmission
Direct Transmission (on opposite faces): This arrangement is the most preferred arrangement
in which transducers are kept directly opposite to each other on opposite faces of the concrete.
The transfer of energy between transducers is maximum in this arrangement. The accuracy of
velocity determination is governed by the accuracy of the path length measurement. Utmost care
should be taken for accurate measurement of the same. The couplant used should be spread as
thinly as possible to avoid any end effects resulting from the different velocities of pulse in
couplant and concrete
Semi-direct Transmission: This arrangement is used when it is not possible to have direct
transmission (may be due to limited access). It is less sensitive as compared to direct
transmission arrangement. There may be some reduction in the accuracy of path length

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 measurement, still it is found to be sufficiently accurate. This arrangement is otherwise similar to
direct transmission
Indirect or Surface Transmission: Indirect transmission should be used when only one face of
the concrete is accessible (when other two arrangements are not possible). It is the least sensitive
out of the three arrangements. For a given path length, the receiving transducer get signal of only
about 2% or 3% of amplitude that produced by direct transmission. Furthermore, this
arrangement gives pulse velocity measurements which are usually influenced by the surface
concrete which is often having different composition from that below surface concrete.
Therefore, the test results may not be correct representative of whole mass of concrete. The
indirect velocity is invariably lower than the direct velocity on the same concrete element. This
difference may vary from 5% to 20% depending on the quality of the concrete. Wherever
practicable, site measurements should be made to determine this difference
Determination of pulse velocity
 A pulse of longitudinal vibration is produced by an electro acoustical transducer, which is held in
contact with one surface of the concrete member under test.
 After traversing a known path length (L) in the concrete, the pulse of vibration is converted into
an electrical signal by a second electro-acoustical transducer and electronic timing circuit enable
the transit time (T) of the pulse to be measured.
 The pulse velocity (V) is given by
Width of structure
Pulse Velocity= go through¿
Time taken by pulse¿
L
V=
T
Where
V =Pulse Velocity ; L=Path Length
T =Time Taken By The Pulse ¿ Transverse Path Length

Pulse Velocity By Cross Concrete Quality Grading

S.No Probing(Km/S)

1 Above 4.5 Excellent

2 3.5-4.5 Good
3 3.0-3.5 medium

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 4 Below3.0 Doubtful

Note: In case of doubtful quality, it will be able to carry out further tests

APPLICATIONS:
 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity can be used to.

 Evaluate the quality and homogeneity of concrete materials

 Predict the strength of concrete

 Evaluate dynamic modulus of elasticity of concrete.

 Estimate the depth of cracks in concrete.

 Detect internal flaws, cracks, honeycombing, and poor patches.

REBOUND HAMMER TEST:

This is a simple, handy tool, which can be used to provide a convenient and rapid indication of

the compressive strength of concrete. It consists of a spring controlled mass that slides on a

plunger within a tubular housing. The schematic diagram showing various parts of a rebound

hammer is given as shown below.

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2
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FOR STRENGTH ESTIMATION OF CONCRETE:

The operation of Rebound Hammer (also called Schmidt’s Hammer) is illustrated in Fig When

the plunger of rebound hammer is pressed against the surface of concrete, a spring controlled

mass with a constant energy is made to hit concrete surface to rebound back. The extent of

rebound, which is a measure of surface hardness, is measured on a graduated scale. This

measured value is designated as Rebound Number (a rebound index). A concrete with low

strength and low stiffness will absorb more energy to yield in a lower rebound value.

OBJECTIVE:

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 The rebound hammer method could be used for

(a) Assessing the likely compressive strength of concrete with the help of suitable co-relations

between rebound index and compressive strength.

(b) Assessing the uniformity of concrete

(c) Assessing the quality of concrete in relation to standard requirements.

(d) Assessing the quality of one element of concrete in relation to another

This method can be used with greater confidence for differentiating between the questionable

and acceptable parts of a structure or for relative comparison between two different structures.

Approximate Impact Energy

S.No Application Required for the Rebound

Hammers(N-m)

1 For testing normal weight concrete 2.25

For light weight concrete or small and impact

2 sensitive part of concrete 0.75

For testing mass concrete i.e. in roads, airfield

3 pavements and hydraulic structures 30.00

Depending upon the impact energy, the hammers are classified into four types i.e. N, L, M & P.
Type N hammer having an impact energy of 2.2 N-m and is suitable for grades of concrete from
M-15 to M-45.
 Type L hammer is suitable for lightweight concrete or small and impact sensitive part of the
structure
 Type M hammer is generally recommended for heavy structures and mass concrete.
 Type P is suitable for concrete below M15 grade
METHODOLOGY:

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Before commencement of a test, the rebound hammer should be tested against the test anvil, to
get reliable results. The testing anvil should be of steel having Brinell hardness number of about
5000 N/mm2. The supplier/manufacturer of the rebound hammer should indicate the range of
readings on the anvil suitable for different types of rebound hammer. For taking a measurement,
the hammer should be held at right angles to the surface of the structure. The test thus can be
conducted horizontally on vertical surface and vertically upwards or downwards on horizontal
surfaces.

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If the situation so demands, the hammer can be held at intermediate angles also, but in each case,

the rebound number will be different for the same concrete.

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 OBSERVATIONS:

 The surface should be smooth, clean and dry

 The loosely adhering scale should be rubbed off with a grinding wheel or stone, before testing

 Do not conduct test on rough surfaces resulting from incomplete compaction, loss of grout,

spalled or tooled surfaces.

 The point of impact should be at least 20mm away from edge or shape discontinuity. Around

each point of observation, six readings of rebound indices are taken and average of these

readings after deleting outliers as per IS 8900:1978 is taken as the rebound index for the point of

observation

11.How will you obtain dark and light field in circular Polariscope
Ans:

Components of a Polariscope:

 Polarizer and
Analyzer If the
polarizer and analyser are
crossed, so that no light exits
from the analyser, the setup is
called dar k field. Light will only
be transmitted due to
effects resulting from
birefringence in the
model. If the polarizer and analyser are aligned to pass all the light going through the system, the
setup is called light field. The effect of the model is to then darken the image. Almost all work is

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 done in the dark field setup. Two types of fringes occur in the image: isochromatic, which
identify the magnitude of the maximum shearing stress vector by their colour, and isoclinic,
which give the direction of the maximum shearing stress vector.
 Two Quarter-Wave Plates The two quarter wave plates are aligned in crossed mode
with the fast axis of one aligned with the slow axis of the other. The purpose of the quarter wave
plates is to convert the incoming linearized polarized light to circularly polarized light before the
light goes through the model, and then convert the light emerging from the model back into
linearly polarized light before it passes through the analyser. Actually, these plates are not
necessary, but they remove the isoclinic lines from the pattern so as to produce a clear
isochromatic pattern. They can be removed physically, or optically by aligning their axes with
the polarizer axes.
 Loading Mechanism Some type of mechanism is required to load the model specimen. It
must be placed between the polarizer and quarter-wave pairs.
 Light Source with Filters The light source can either be standard white light or a
monochromatic source (usually with a wavelength matching the tint-of- passage, which is also
the design wavelength of the quarter-wave plates). White light gives coloured
fringes, isochromatic, which aid in estimating stresses, but has the disadvantage that only a very
few coloured fringes can be distinguished easily. Monochromatic light, on the other hand, gives
much narrower fringes which can be observed up to much higher order. In either case, the light
must be expanded to the size of the model area it is desired to study. The beam can be either
from an extended source (fluorescent or incandescent bulbs) diffused by a ground glass, or from
a point source (arc lamp or discharge tube) with the light beam expanded and collimated by a
collimating lens. Large collimating lenses are expensive, so much work is done with diffuse light
sources. In this case however, a telecentric imaging system should be used to select out the light
which travelled parallel through the specimen.
 Image Detector This can be a camera film (preferably one with high contrast), a CCD
digital camera, or the human eye. Frequently, a ground glass plate is fixed to a camera film plane
for visual inspection and alignment, then replaced with film for obtaining a permanent image. In
recent times, there has of course been great interest in digital images from a CCD.
 Collimating and Field Lenses The collimating lens is used as described above. The field
lens is used to focus the large image exiting from the polariscope down onto an image detector.
Example:
The following image is taken from the Measurements Group Wall Chart and shows the
isochromatic fringe pattern obtained when a curved plastic (PSM-1) model of a curved bar is
subjected to tensile stress.

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Schematic representation of a circular polariscope. 
12) Explain with necessary equations how isoclinics are eliminated in circular polariscope
set up. What are the Properties of Iso‐Chromatic Fringe Patterns?
Ans:
• In general, the directions of principal stresses vary continuously from point to point in a
photo elastic model. Conditions depicted in Figs. 6.9(b) and (d), therefore, occur simultaneously
at different regions in the model.
• Again, since changes in stresses and stress directions occur in a continuous manner in a
body, points at which the principal stresses have a common direction lie along a continuous
curve.

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• For any orientation of the model, the focus of points at which φ = 0° forms a continuous
black (extinction) curve, called an isoclinic, or an isoclinic fringe.
• Elsewhere, for values of φ not equal to zero, the isochromatic pattern is present.
• Isoclinics are developed in a plane polariscope, which is merely a circular polariscope
with the quarter-wave plates removed; the axes of polarization for polarizer and analyzer are
crossed. The equation of intensity distribution in the case of a plane polariscope is
• I =a 2 sin2 2 ∅ sin2 π Ń
• A photoelastic pattern produced in a plane polariscope is shown in Fig. 6.10(a). This
shows the zero-degree isoclinic, together with the isochromatic pattern. Obviously, the pattern is
ambiguous, for one cannot distinguish the isoclinic curve from the isochromatics.
• This problem can be minimized by employing white-light illumination. In white light, the
isochromatic pattern is everywhere colored, except at points for which N = 0. For φ = 0°,
however, extinction prevails for all wavelengths, and the isoclinic is always black.
• Figure 6.10(b) shows the same zero degree isoclinic, photographed with white-light
illumination on panchromatic film
• It is immediately evident that the emergent intensity is zero at every point where 0 is
zero, regardless of the value of N. In addition, I = 0 when N = 0, 1, 2, 3... and this prescribes the
formation of isochromatic fringes in regions of φ ≠0°.
• In essence, the plane polariscope yields the isochromatic pattern, but the intensity of this
pattern is modulated by the isoclinic term sin22φ

Properties of Iso‐Chromatic Fringe Patterns

• Let us view a plane-stress model in a circular polariscope. A pattern of dark and light
bands (Fig. 6.4) forms in the viewing screen when external forces or loads are applied to the
model, and the number of these bands increases in proportion to the external forces.
• These patterns, which provide the value of N throughout the model, are appropriately
called isochromatic patterns
• The isochromatic pattern is related to the stress system by the stress-optic law namely

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•
f
̄̄̄ σ 1 −σ 2= Ń
t
• where f is the stress-optical coefficient, a constant that depends upon the model material
and the wavelength of light employed, t is the model thickness, and N is the relative retardation
of rays forming the pattern. The term N is also known as isochromatic fringe order.
• Equation states that the relative retardation, N, at each point in the model is directly
proportional to the difference of principal stresses. σ 1−σ 2 at the point.
• Determine the fractional fringe number N of the isochromatic fringe pattern at the point
in question and use the equation:
• t max = CN/(2t)
• The direction of the shear stress at the point is found by determining the analyzer angle at
which an isoclinic line passes through the point.
•
•

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13. Derive stress optic law and apply to two dimensional photoelasticity.
A. STRESS OPTIC LAW: Maxwell reported that indices of refraction were linearly
proportional to the loads thus to stresses or strains for a linear elastic material. The relationship
can be expressed as,
n1 - n0 = c1σ1 + c2(σ2+σ3)
n2 - n0 = c1σ2 + c2(σ3+σ1)
n3 - n0 = c1σ3 + c2(σ1+σ2)
Where
σ1 ,σ2,σ3 = principal stresses at point
n0 = index refraction of material in unstressed state
n1 ,n2, n3 = principal indices of refraction which coincide with the principal stress directions
c1, c2, c3 = stress optic coefficients
The equation indicates complete state of stress can be determined by measuring the three
principal indices of refraction and establishing the directions of the three principal optical axes.
Stress-optic law in terms of relative retardation
The method of photoelasticity makes use of relative changes in index of refraction which can be
written by eliminating no from earlier equations,
∆n12 = n2 – n1 = (c2 – c1)(σ1 - σ2)
∆n23 = n3 – n2 = (c2 – c1)(σ2 – σ3)
∆n31 = n1 – n3 = (c2 – c1)(σ3 – σ1)
Where c = c2 – c1 is relative stress-optic coefficient (Brewster’s)
1 Brewster = 10-13cm2/dyne = 10-12 m2/N = 6.985x10-9 in2/lb
Positive birefringence = velocity of wave associated with the principal stress σ1 > Velocity of
wave associate with principal stress σ2 . So σ1 > σ2 > σ3 and n3> n2>n1
Photorealistic model behave like a temporary wave plate, we can use relative angular phase shift
∆ (or relative retardation) to changes in the indices of refraction in the material result from the
stresses.
Consider a slice of material (thickness h) oriented perpendicular to one of the principal-stress
directions at the point of interest in the model. If a linearly polarized light is passing through
the slice at normal incidence, the relative retardation ∆ accumulated along each of the
principal-stress directions can be obtained by substitute earlier relative index change into
∆12 = 2π∆n12δ/λ = 2πh(n2-n1)/λ to get

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∆ is linearly proportional to the difference between the two principal stresses having directions
perpendicular to the path of propagation of the light beam
∆12 = (Relative angular phase shift developed between components of light beam propagating
in σ3 direction)
∆23 = (Relative angular phase shift developed between components of light beam propagating in
σ1direction)
∆31 = (Relative angular phase shift developed between components of light beam propagating in
σ2 direction)
APPLICATION TO TWO DIMENSIONAL ELASTICITY :
For two dimensional plane-stress bodies where σ3 = 0, the stress-optic for light at normal
incident to the plane of the model without the subscript is

It is clear that relative stress difference in 2-D model can be determined if relative retardation n
can be measured and fσ can be established by calibration. Polariscope is used to determine the
value of n each point in the model.

If a photoelastic model exhibits a perfectly linear elastic behavior, the difference in the principal
strain can be measured by established the fringe order n. The stress-strain relationship for 2-D
state of stress are given by

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3
8
14.Discuss the effect of stressed model on a circular
polariscope.
A. The use of circular polariscope eliminate the isoclinical
fringe pattern while maintain the isochromatic fringe
pattern.

After linear polarizer, the wave is

E = Eo cosα
Light enter quarter wave plate, it resolved into component Ef and Es with vibration parallel to
the fast and slow axes. Since quarter wave plate is oriented 45o to the polarizer Axis:
Ef = Eo cosα cosπ/4cosωt =√2/2 (Eo cosα cosωt)

Es = Eo cosα cosπ/4cosωt =√2/2 (Eo cosα cosωt)

Components propagate through the plate, they develop a relative angular phase shift ∆ = π/2,
And components emerge from plate out of phase by ∆:

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E’f = Eo cosα cosπ/4cosωt = √2/2 (Eo cosα cosωt)

E’s = Eo cosα cosπ/4 cos(ωt-π/2) =√2/2 (Eo cosα sinωt)

After leaving ¼ wave plate, the components of light vector enter the model. Since the stressed
Model exhibits the characteristics of a temporary wave plate, the components E’f and E’s are
resolved into component E1 and E2 which has directions coincident with principal-stress
directions In the model:
E1 = Ef cos(π/4-β) + Es sin(π/4-β)

E2 = Ef cos(π/4-β) +Ef cos(π/4-β)

By solving above equations
E1 = √2/2 Eo cos(ωt+ β- π/4)

E2 =√2/2 Eo sin(ωt+ β- π/4 )

Going into the model,
When it enter the model, an additional relative retardation ∆ accumulated during passage through
the model is given by
∆ = ∆2 - ∆1 = 2πh/λ (n2-n1) = 2πhc/λ (σ1-σ2)

E1 = √2/2 Eo cos(ωt+ β- π/4)

E2 =√2/2 Eo sin(ωt+ β- π/4-∆ )

The light emerge from the model propagates to
the second ¼ wave plate. The components
associate with fast and slow axes of second ¼
wave plate are

Ef = E1 sin(π/4-β) +E2cos(π/4-β)

Es = E1cos(π/4-β) +E2 sin(π/4-β)

By solving above equations

Ef = √2/2 Eo cos(ωt+ β- π/4) sin(π/4-β)+ √2/2 Eo sin(ωt+ β- π/4-∆ ) cos(π/4-β)

Es = √2/2 Eo cos(ωt+ β- π/4) cos(π/4-β)+ √2/2 Eo sin(ωt+ β- π/4-∆ ) sin(π/4-β)

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 As light pass through ¼ wave plate, a relative phase shift of ∆ = π/2 developed between the fast
and slow components
E’f = √2/2 Eo cos(ωt+ β- π/4) sin(π/4-β)+ √2/2 Eo sin(ωt+ β- π/4-∆ ) cos(π/4-β)

E’s = √2/2 Eo sin(ωt+ β- π/4) cos(π/4-β)+ √2/2 Eo cos(ωt+ β- π/4-∆ ) sin(π/4-β)

Light vector enter the analyser vertical components are aborted while horizontal components are
transmitted to give
Eax= √2/2(E’s- E’f)

An expression for light emerging from The analyzer (dark field arrangement)
Eax=√2/2Eo sin (∆/2) sin(ωt+2 β- π/2)

Since the intensity of light is proportional to the square of the amplitude of the light wave, the
Light emerging from the analyzer of a circular polariscope is given by
I =1/2EO2sin2(∆/2)

15.Write a short note on : a.Isochromatics and Isoclinics

b.Quarter wave and half wave plates
A (a)ISOCHROMATICS & ISOCLINIC FRINGES:
For model viewed with white light, a series of color bands of fringes will form.
 Intensity is zero and a black fringe appears only
when the principal-stress
difference is zero and a zero order of extinction
occurs for all wavelengths of light.
 For nonzero value of principal-stress difference,
only one wavelength can be extinguished from the
white light. A complementary color appears as
isochromatic fringe.
 Larger stress higher order, different colors at
higher orders can disappear at once.

With monochromatic light , the individual fringe in

an isochromatic fringe (dark
bands) pattern remain sharp and clear to very high
orders of extinction.
Number of fringes appearing in an isochromatic fringe pattern is
n= N = h(σ1-σ2)/fσ
Principal stress difference and the principal-stress direction vary from point to point in

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 photoelastic model. As a result isoclinic and isochromatic fringes pattern are superimposed
Bands should have zero width, but due to eye and photographic film, it appears non zero
Two different types of fringes can be observed in photoelasticity:
a.isochromatic and
b.isoclinic fringes.
Isochromatic fringes: These are lines of constant principal stress difference. If the source light
is monochromatic these appear as dark and light fringes, whereas with white light illumination
coloured fringes are observed. The difference in principal
stresses is related to the birefringence and hence the fringe colour through the
Stress-Optic Law.
Isoclinic fringes: These occur whenever either principal stress direction coincides with the axis
of polarisation of the polariser. Isoclinic fringes therefore provide information about the
directions of the principal stresses in the model. When combined with the values of from the
photoelectric stress pattern isoclinic fringes provide the necessary information for the complete
solution of a
two-dimensional stress problem.
A standard plane polariscope shows both isochromatic and isoclinic fringes, and
this makes quantitative stress analysis difficult.
with monochromatic light , the individual fringe in an isochromatic fringe (dark
bands) pattern remain sharp and clear to very high orders of extinction.
Number of fringes appearing in an isochromatic fringe pattern is
n= N = h(σ1-σ2)/fσ
as n= ∆/2π=hc/λ(σ1-σ2)/f fσ
Principal stress difference and the principal-stress direction vary from point to point in
photoelastic model. As a result isoclinic and isochromatic fringes pattern are superimposed
Bands should have zero width, but due to eye and photographic film, it appears nonzero.
b.Quarter Wave and Half Wave plates:
The quarter wave and half wave plates are commonly used phase retardation components in fiber
optic systems. Uniaxial crystal plate is made from calcite, KDP etc. When this plate is cut, then
introduced phase difference (Δφ) between o-ray and e-ray during propagation is expressed as
follows. Here o-ray stands for ordinary ray whereas e-ray stands for extraordinary ray.
∆φ =2π/λ*(optical path difference of o-ray and e-ray)
=2π/λ*|nod-ned|
In the expression, 'd' stands for thickness of the crystal plate. By selecting value of 'd', phase
difference (Δφ) between two emerging plane polarized waves can be π/2 for quarter wave plate
and it is π for half wave plate. The formula for thickness (‘d’) in both the cases is mentioned
below.
Half wave plate :
A wave passing through a half wave plate is shown in adjacent figure
 Thickness formula d=| λ /2(no-ne) |

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 It converts linearly polarized light into another linearly polarized light, mirrored by fast or slow
axis.
 A half-wave plate is very handy in rotating the plane of
polarization from a polarized laser to any other desired plane
(especially if the laser is too large to rotate)
Quarter wave plate :
Thickness formula d=| λ /4(no-ne) |
 It converts linearly polarized light into circularly
polarized light, when input polarization is 45o to the fast and
slow axis.
 At other azimuth angles it converts linearly polarized light
into an elliptically polarized light oriented along the fast and
slow axis.

16. Explain the Construction and working of the pneumatic strain gauge .
Pneumatic strain gauges
 The principal of operation of an air or pneumatic gauge depends upon the relative discharge of
air between a fixed orifice and a variable orifice.
 Air under constant pressure H, flows through two orifices placed in series.
 The pressure H which prevails between these two orifices is a function of the ratio of their areas.

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 The fixed orifice G is called the nozzle and the second orifice S, which is smaller , is called the
exhaust orifice and is of variable area of cross section.
 As a result of H , the pressure h serves to measure the dimension of S
 Air after passing through the orifice G,.
 Strikes the top plate and is vented to the atmosphere
 The flow of air through the two orifices in series must be equal if incompressibility is assumed.
 This assumption is practically valid as the pressures are quite low .
 Let,
 Ag = cross sectional are of nozzle orifice G
 Ass= cross sectional area of discharge orifice
 CG , CS = coefficients of contraction for the orifices

When the specimen is loaded, the distance between the two gauge point changes.
 This elongation is transmitted through the levels system to the pneumatic gauge , where it
changes the gap between orifices S and the top plate , this changing the area as in direct
proportion to the strain
 From Eq , It is obvious that the nanometer reading , varies as a quadratic function of the strain.
 However it has an inflection point when
h/H = ¾ or AS/AG = 0.58
 Hence , for values in the neighborhood , the relation is very nearly linear.
 Multiplication factors of 100 are possible with this type of pneumatic amplification.

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 Pneumatic strain gauge – single pressure output
 Figure shows the basic arrangement in a pneumatic strain gauge.
 Air at constant pressure flows through two orifices of cross sectional areas A1 , and A2.
 The area A2 of the variable area orifice is a function of the gap d which varies as the distance
between the knife edge changes .
 The pressure built up in the chamber is approximately given by


Thus the relationship between and the displacement of the extensometer is nonlinear.
 Magnifications up to 100000 and gauge length as small as 1mm are possible to achieve in these
gauges
 Pneumatic gauges are sensitive , robust and reliable
 They are suitable for both static and dynamic strain measurements.

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 17. Mention any three properties of an ideal strain gauge material and Explain with neat diagram
the working of marten’s optical strain gauge.
Strain gauge materials :
 Strain gauge sensing materials can be divided into two categories metallic and semiconductor
materials. The following are the fire most popular metals used in the manufacture of strain
gauges.
Constantan:- it is alloy of copper and nickel having a low and controllable temperature
coefficient.it finds applications in static and dynamic measurements.
Nichrome:- it is a nickel -chrome alloy that finds applications in static and dynamic
measurements.
Dynaloy:- it is made up of nickel and iron which has a high gauge factor and exhibits high
resistance to fatigue. It can be used for dynamic strain measurements
Stabiloy:- It is a modified nickel – chrome alloy It has a wide compensation range , from
cryogenic to elevated temperatures, and good fatigue life
Platinum alloy :- It is an alloy of platinum and tungsten and displays unusual stability and
fatigue life at elevated temperatures . It is used for dynamic and static tests up to a temperature of
goo and 650°C respectively.
Optional strain gauge :-
 The optical strain gauges are used to measure elongation as well as deflection , following are the
two type of optical strain gauges.
A. Marten's optical gauge
B. Tuckerman optical gauge.
Introduction to optical strain gauge.
 An optical strain gauge is device that uses optical technology to measure strain of a object
 It detects change in light transmission when the object attaches to it experiences a load
 Optical strain gaug9bhave some from optical lever to measure small displacements
Marten's optical gauge :-
These optical strain gauge employs variety of mirror system to optical magnification
 The well known optical system used in a strain gauge on a single mirror system is marten's
optical gauge
 The pivoted knife edge Carries a mirror and the other end of this arm is fastened to specimen as
the specimen elongates the measuring knife edge will rotate about its point there by tilting the
mirror

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 The reflection of the illuminated scale in this mirror is viewed through the telescope.

18)(a)Explain the following with relevant sketches:

-Rectangular rosette
-Delta rosette
-Two element rosette
ANS :
Rectangular rosette: A strain gage rosette is by definition an arrangement of two or more closely
positioned gage grids, separately oriented to measure the normal strains along different
directions in the underlying surface of the test part. Rosettes are designed to perform a very
practical and important function in experimental stress analysis.
It can be shown that for the not-uncommon case of the general biaxial stress state, with the
principal directions unknown, three independent strain measurements (in different directions) are
required to determine the principal strains and stresses. Moreover, even when the principal
directions are known in advance, two independent strain measurements are needed to obtain the
principal strains and stresses.

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Delta rosette:

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Two element rosette:

18(b) A rectangular rosette is mounted on a steel plate having modulus of elasticity E=200Gpa,
Poisson s ratio =0.3 the strains measured areE1=500*10^-6, E2=400*10^-6 & E3=-100*10^-

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6 Cal the principal strain & stresses, max shear stress and the orientation angle for principal axis
of stress.
ANS :
Given data
E=200Gpa
m = 0.3
Strain measured is
E1=500*10^-6
E2=400*10^-6
E3=-100*10^-6
Ymax=36*10^-07
Principal stress:
01=1/2 tan^-1 (2E2-E1-E3/E1-E3)
=1/2 tan^-1(2(400*10^-6-500*10^-6+100*10^-6)/(500*10^-6+100*10^-6)
01=0
02=01+90^0
Principal Stress :
1= E/1-v^2(E1+E2)
=200*10^3/1-v^2 (500*10^-6+0.3) 400*10^-6)
=200*10^3/1-0.3^2(500+0.3/400))10^-6
=200000/0.91(6.2*10^-4)
1=136.263Mpa
2= E/1-v^2(E2+E3)
=200*10^3/1-0.3^2 (400+0.3-100)10^-6
=200000/0.91(3.7*10^-04)
2= 81.318Mpa
T max = 1-2/2
=136.263-81.318/2
=54.945/2
T max = 27.4725 Mpa

19).Mention the use of strain gauge rosettes ?

ANS : Strain Rosettes
DEFINATION
A strain gauge rosette is, by definition, an arrangement of two or more closely
positioned gauge grids, separately oriented to measure the normal strains along different
directions in the underlying surface of the test part

INTRODUCTION & USES

Rosettes are designed to perform a very practical and important function in
experimental stress analysis. It can be shown that for the not-uncommon case of the general
biaxial stress state, with the principal directions unknown, three independent strain
measurements (in different directions) are required to determine the principal strains and
stresses. And even when the principal directions are known in advance, two independent
strain measurements are needed to obtain the principal strains and stresses.

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In common with single-element strain gauges, rosettes are manufactured from
different combinations of grid alloy and backing material to meet varying application
requirements. They are also offered in a number of gauge lengths, noting that the gauge
length specified for a rosette refers to the active length of each individual grid within the
rosette.
To meet the foregoing requirements, the Micro-Measurements Division manufactures
three basic types of strain gauge rosettes (each in a variety of forms):

Rosette selection consideration

The initial step in preparing for any strain gauge installation is the selection of the
appropriate gauge for the task. It might at first appear that gauge selection is a simple
Strain Rosettes
exercise, of no great consequence to the stress analyst; but quite the opposite is true. Careful,
rational selection of gauge characteristics and parameters can be very important in:
optimizing the gauge performance for specified environmental and operating conditions,
obtaining accurate and reliable strain measurements, contributing to the ease of installation,
and minimizing the total cost of the gauge installation.
The installation and operating characteristics of a strain gauge are affected by the following
parameters, which are selectable in varying degrees:
• Strain-sensitive alloy
• Backing materials (carrier)
• Grid resistance
• Gauge pattern
• Self-temperature compensation number
• Gauge length
• Options
Basically, the gauge selection process consists of determining the particular available
combination of parameters which is most compatible with the environmental and other
operating conditions, and at the same time best satisfies the installation and operating
constraints. These constraints are generally expressed in the form of requirements such as:
• Accuracy
• test duration
• Stability
• Cyclic endurance
• Temperature
• ease of installation
• Elongation
• Environment
The cost of the strain gauge itself is not ordinarily a prime consideration in gauge
selection, since the significant economic measure is the total cost of the complete installation,
of which the gauge cost is usually but a small fraction. In many cases, the selection of a
gauge series or optional feature which increases the gauge cost serves to decrease the total
installation cost.
It must be appreciated that the process of gauge selection generally involves
compromises. This is because parameter choices which tend to satisfy one of the constraints

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or requirements may work against satisfying others. For example, in the case of a small-
radius fillet, where the space available for gauge installation is very limited, and the strain
gradient extremely high, one of the shortest available gauges might be the obvious choice. At
the same time, however, gauges shorter than about 0.125 in [3 mm] are generally
characterized by lower maximum elongation, reduced fatigue life, less stable behaviour, and
greater installation difficulty.

SUBMITTED TO

Mrs.S.Shameem Banu Madam

ASSIGMNENT DONE BY
M.Tech 2021 batch
200121D2001
200121D2002
200121D2006
200121D2009
200121D2011
200121D2012
200121D2015
200121D2017
200121D2019
200121D2021

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