AP Chapter 6 Skeletal System

pter 6
Cha
SKELETAL
SYSTEM
SEELEY'S ESSENTIALS OF ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY, 9TH EDITION.
Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

SKELETAL SYSTEM
The skeletal system consists of bones, as well
as their associated connective tissues, which
include cartilage, tendons, and ligaments.
OSTEOLOGY is the study of bone structure and the treatment
of bone disorders.
A joint, or an articulation, is a place where two bones come
together
Joints can be classified into two: movable and immovable.
FUNCTIONS OF
SKELETAL SYSTEM
4. STORAGE
Bone tissue stores about 99%
1. SUPPORT
of the body’s calcium which is
The skeleton serves as the
released into the blood to
structural framework for the
maintain critical mineral
body by supporting soft
balances and to distribute the
tissues and providing
minerals to other parts of the
attachment points for the
body.
tendons of most skeletal
Aside from calcium, the bones
muscles.
also store triglycerides
through the adipose cells
2. PROTECTION
found in the yellow bone
The skeleton protects the
marrow.
internal organs from injury.
Fat -> stored energy
Example:
skull -> brain 5. RBC PRODUCTION
rib cage -> heart and lungs
Many bones contain cavities
filled with red bone marrow,
3. MOVEMENT
which produces blood cells
Most skeletal muscles attach
and platelets.
to bones; when they contract,
they pull on bones to produce
movement.
SKELETAL SYSTEM
Red bone marrow is also seen
in the spongy part of the long
bones while the yellow
marrow is located at the
medullary cavity. In adults, red bone marrow is
commonly found in the flat
bones while yellow bone
marrow is seen inside the long
bones.
COLLAGEN PROTEOGLYCANS
polysaccharides that are
attached to core proteins
Ropelike protein
attacts water molecules
for the toughness
for the resiliency and
smoothness
Ligaments and tendons are

made up of mostly collagen
while the cartilage is a
mixture of collagen and
proteoglycans.
SKELETAL SYSTEM
LONG BONES SHORT BONES
Length is greater than the Width is approx. equal to the
width length
bones of the upper and lower bones of the wrist and ankle
limbs
FLAT BONES IRREGULAR

Have a thin, flattened shape shapes that do not fit readily
skull, ribs, sternum, scapula into the other 3 categories
vertebrae and facial bones
SKELETAL SYSTEM
Epiphyseal plate, or growth plate, is where the bone grows in length.
When bone growth stops, the cartilage of each epiphyseal plate is replaced by bone
and becomes an epiphyseal line.
Medullary cavity is the large

cavity located in the shaft of a
long bone.
These spaces are filled with

soft tissue called marrow.
As a person ages, red marrow is mostly replaced by yellow marrow.

In adults, red marrow is confined to some axial bones and in the most
proximal epiphyses of the appendicular bones.
PERIOSTEUM ENDOSTEUM
made up of dense connective
made up of thinner
tissue
connective tissue membrane
consists of two layers and
lines the medullary cavity
contains blood vessels and
nerves
SKELETAL SYSTEM
BONE HISTOLOGY
OSTEOBLAST- builds bone COMPACT BONE

OSTEOCYTE- bone cells has a solid matrix
OSTEOCLAST- removes/ forms most of the diaphysis of
crushes existing bones a long bone and the thinner
surfaces of all other bones.
OSTEOBLAST SPONGY BONE
deposits calcium into bones consist of many small,
decreases blood calcium level marrow-filled spaces in
between the trabeculae
OSTEOCLAST located mainly in the
removes calcium from the epiphyses of long bones. It
bones forms the interior of all other
increases blood calcium level bones.
SKELETAL SYSTEM
The trabeculae add strength to

a bone without the added
weight that would be present
if the bone were solid
mineralized matrix.
SKELETAL SYSTEM
BONE
OSSIFICATION
Process of bone formation.
In fetuses, it involves two
processes: the
intramembranous and the
endochondral ossification.
INTRAMEMBRANOUS
OSSIFICATION
Osteoblasts began to produce
bone in connective tissue
membranes.
Occurred primarily in the
bones of the skull, most of the
facial bones, mandible, and
middle part of the clavicle.
Started at ossification centers
that fuses as they enlarge.
Bones developed from

cartilage models.
Occurred to bones at the base
ENDOCHONDRAL of the skull and most of the
remaining skeletal system
OSSIFICATION Cartilage cells enlarge, die,
and get replaced by the
osteoblasts.
SKELETAL SYSTEM
STEPS OF BONE GROWTH

1. Chondrocytes divide and
BONE GROWTH arrange to form stacks of cells

2. Chondrocytes mature and
enlarge.
3. Chondrocytes die and calcify.
4. Dead chondrocytes are being
replaced by osteoblast.
SKELETAL SYSTEM
BONE CALCIUM
REMODELING HOMEOSTASIS
Involves removal of
existing bone by
osteoclasts and the
deposition of new bone
by osteoblasts
Responsible for changes
in bone shape and size,
the adjustment of bone
to stress, bone repair,
and calcium ion
regulation in the body
fluids.
SKELETAL SYSTEM
BONE FRACTURE
Insufficient amount of calcium
deposits in the bones causes it OPEN FRACTURE
to be weak and prone to
pathologic fractures—non a.k.a. compound fracture
injurious form of fracture. The broken bone protrudes
through the skin
A bone fracture is a term to

describe a break in the
continuity of the bone.
SKELETAL SYSTEM
CLOSED COMPLETE
FRACTURE FRACTURE
a.k.a. simple fracture The fracture totally separates
The skin is not perforated the two bone fragments
INCOMPLETE COMMINUTED
FRACTURE FRACTURE
a.k.a. Greenstick fracture bone breaks into more than
One side of the bone is broken two fragments or small
and the other only bent. pieces.
SKELETAL SYSTEM
BONE REPAIR
SKELETAL SYSTEM
There are 206 bones in the average adult skeleton.

SKELETAL SYSTEM
COMPLETE SKELETON
SKELETAL SYSTEM
AXIAL APPENDICULAR
SKELETON SKELETON
Consists of the bones along the Consists of the bones of the
axis of the body. appendages (arms and legs) and
Composed of the skull, the the girdles (shoulder and pelvic)
vertebral column, and the that connect them with the axial
thoracic cage. skeleton.
THE SKULL
The skull consists of 22 bones: 8
forming the braincase and 14 facial
bones.
The hyoid bone and 6 auditory
ossicles are associated with the
skull.
A suture is a joint uniting bones of
the skull
The mastoid process is the point of
attachment for neck muscles
involved in rotation of the head
The zygomatic process forms a
bridge across the side of the face and
provides a major attachment site for
a muscle moving the mandible.
At foramen magnum, the spinal cord
joins the brain
The sella turcica contains the
pituitary gland
The hyoid bone provides an
attachment for some tongue
muscles.
It an attachment point for important
neck muscles that elevate the larynx
(voicebox) during speech or
swallowing.
AXIAL SKELETON
AXIAL SKELETON
AXIAL SKELETON
THE VERTEBRAL
COLUMN
In adults, it usually consists of 26
individual bones, grouped into five
regions:
(7) cervical vertebrae,
(12) thoracic vertebrae,
(5) lumbar vertebrae,
(1) sacral bone, and
(1) coccyx bone.
The vertebral bodies are separated
by intervertebral disks which are
formed by fibrocartilage
The vertebral foramen is large
opening that forms the vertebral
canal, where the spinal cord is
located.
ATLAS
The first cervical vertebra is called
the atlas because it holds up the
head
For nodding and slight tilting from
side to side.
AXIAL SKELETON
AXIS
The second cervical
vertebra is called the axis
because a considerable
amount of rotation occurs at
this vertebra. This rotation
occurs around a process
called the dens which
protrudes superiorly from
the axis.
REGIONAL DIFFERENCES IN VERTEBRAE

AXIAL SKELETON
SACRUM
ABNORMAL
CURVATURE
Kyphosis – posterior curvature;
hunchback
Lordosis – anterior curvature;
swayback
Scoliosis – lateral curvature; S-
shaped
THE RIBS
The rib cage protects the vital organs within the thorax and prevents the
collapse of the thorax during respiration.
RIBS AND COSTAL CARTILAGES
The 12 pairs of ribs can be divided into true ribs and false ribs. The true ribs,
ribs 1–7, attach directly to the sternum by means of costal cartilages. The
false ribs, ribs 8–12, do not attach directly to the sternum. Ribs 8–10 attach to
the sternum by a common cartilage; ribs 11 and 12 do not attach at all to the
sternum and are called floating ribs.
STRENUM
The sternum, or breastbone (figure 6.21), is divided into three parts: the
manubrium (m̆-n̄′br̄ -̆m; handle), the body, and the xiphoid (zif′oyd, zı′foyd;
sword) process. The sternum resembles a sword, with the manubrium forming
the handle, the body forming the blade, and the xiphoid process forming the
tip.
AXIAL SKELETON
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
UPPER LIMB PECTORAL GIRDLE
ARM The scapula, or shoulder blade, is a
flat, triangular bone with three
large fossae where muscles
The arm is the region between the
extending to the arm are attached.
shoulder and the elbow; it contains
The clavicle, or collarbone,
the humerus
articulates with the scapula at the
acromion process.
FOREARM
The forearm has two bones: the
ulna on the medial (little finger)
side of the forearm and the radius
on the lateral (thumb) side
WRIST
The wrist is a relatively short
region between the forearm and
the hand; it is composed of eight
carpal (kar′p̆l; wrist) bones
HAND
Five metacarpal bones are attached to the carpal bones and form the bony
framework of the hand. The metacarpal bones are aligned with the five
digits: the thumb and fingers. They are numbered 1 to 5, from the thumb to
the little finger.
Each finger consists of three small bones called phalanges.
PELVIC GIRDLE
The pelvic girdle is the place where
the lower limbs attach to the body.
The right and left coxal bones, or
hip bones, join each other
anteriorly and the sacrum
posteriorly to form a ring of bone
called the pelvic girdle.
LOWER LIMB
THIGH
The thigh is the region between the
hip and the knee. It contains a
single bone called the femur.
LEG
The leg is the region between the
knee and the ankle. It contains two
bones, called the tibia and the
fibula. The tibia is the larger of the
two and is the major weight-
bearing bone of the leg.
ANKLE
The ankle consists of seven tarsal
bones. The tarsal bones are the
talus, calcaneus, cuboid, and
navicular, and the medial,
intermediate, and lateral
cuneiforms. The talus articulates
with the tibia and fibula to form the
ankle joint, and the calcaneus
forms the heel. A mnemonic for the
distal row is MILC—that is, Medial,
Intermediate, and Lateral
cuneiforms and the Cuboid. A
mnemonic for the proximal three
bones is No Thanks Cow—that is,
Navicular, Talus, and Calcaneus
FOOT
The metatarsal (met′̆-tar′s̆l) bones
and phalanges of the foot are
arranged and numbered in a
manner very similar to the
metacarpal bones and phalanges of
the hand.
JOINT
JOINT CLASSIFICATION
A joint, or an articulation, is a OF JOINT
place where two bones come Functional classification
together based on the degree of
movement
Structural classification
based on the type of connective
tissue it has
FUNCTIONAL
CLASSIFICATION
Synarthrosis STRUCTURAL
nonmovable joint
Amphiarthrosis CLASSIFICATION
slightly movable joint FIBROUS JOINTS
Diarthrosis consist of two bones that are united
freely movable joint by fibrous tissue and that exhibit
little or no movement.
subdivided on the basis of structure
as sutures, syndesmoses, or
gomphoses.
SUTURE
fibrous joints between the bones
of the skull
In a newborn, some parts of the
sutures are quite wide and are
called fontanels that allow
flexibility in the skull during the
birth process
SYNDESMOSES
An example is the fibrous
membrane connecting most of
the distal parts of the radius and
ulna
GOMPHOSES
consist of pegs fitted into sockets
and held in place by ligaments.
The joint between a tooth and its
socket
JOINT
STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION
CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS
unite two bones by means of cartilage. Only slight movement can occur at these
joints
located in the epiphyseal plates of growing bones, and between the ribs and
sternum
may be reinforced by additional collagen fibers forming the fibrocartilage of the
internal vertebral disk
SYNOVIAL JOINTS
Freely movable joints that contain fluid in a cavity surrounding the ends of
articulating bones.
Most joints that unite the bones of the appendicular skeleton are synovial joints
synovial membrane lines the joint cavity and produces synovial fluid that acts as
a lubricating film around the joint
In certain synovial joints, the synovial membrane may extend as a pocket, or sac,
called a bursa thatreduces friction.
JOINT
TYPES OF SYNOVIAL JOINT
JOINT
EXAMPLES OF SYNOVIAL JOINT
MOVEMENT
TYPES OF MOVEMENT
DISEASES
SUMMARY
FUNCTIONS OF SKELETAL SYSTEM
1. The skeletal system provides the major support for the body.
2. Bone protects internal organs.
3. Joints allow movement between bones.
4. Bones store and release minerals as needed by the body.
5. Bone marrow gives rise to blood cells and platelets.
EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX
1. Bone, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments are connective tissues.
2. Varying amounts of collagen, proteoglycan, organic molecules, water, and minerals in
the matrix determine the characteristics of connective tissue.
GENERAL FEATURES OF BONE

There are four categories of bone: long, short, flat, and irregular:
STRUCTURE OF LONG BONE

Long bones consist of a diaphysis (shaft), epiphyses (ends), and epiphyseal (growth)
plates. The diaphysis contains a medullary cavity, which is filled with marrow, and the
end of the epiphysis is covered by articular cartilage.
HISTOLOGY OF BONE
Osteoblasts are bone-forming cells.
Osteocytes are bone cells located between thin sheets of extracellular matrix called
lamellae.
Compact bone tissue consists of osteons, which are composed of osteocytes organized
into lamellae surrounding central canals.
Spongy bone tissue consists of trabeculae without central canals.
BONE OSSIFICATION
Intramembranous ossification occurs within connective tissue membranes.
Endochondral ossification occurs within cartilage.
BONE GROWTH
Bone elongation occurs at the epiphyseal plate as chondrocytes proliferate, enlarge, die,
and are replaced by bone.
BONE REMODELING
Bone remodeling consists of removal of existing bone by osteoclasts and deposition of
new bone by osteoblasts.
BONE REPAIR
During bone repair, cells move into the damaged area and form a callus, which is
replaced by bone.
SUMMARY
BONE AND CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS
Osteoclasts remove calcium from bone, causing blood calcium levels to increase.
Osteoblasts deposit calcium into bone, causing blood calcium levels to decrease.
Parathyroid hormone increases bone breakdown, whereas calcitonin decreases bone
breakdown.
GENERAL BONE ANATOMY

There are 206 bones in the average adult skeleton.
AXIAL SKELETON
The axial skeleton includes the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage.
SKULL
The skull consists of 22 bones: 8 forming the braincase and 14 facial bones. The hyoid
bone and 6 auditory ossicles are associated with the skull.
From a lateral view, the parietal, temporal, and sphenoid bones can be seen.
From a frontal view, the orbits and nasal cavity can be seen, as well as associated bones
and structures, such as the frontal bone, zygomatic bone, maxilla, and mandible.
The interior of the cranial cavity contains three fossae with several foramina.
Seen from below, the base of the skull reveals numerous foramina and other structures,
such as processes for muscle attachment.
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
The vertebral column contains 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, and 5 lumbar vertebrae, plus 1
sacral bone and 1 coccyx bone.
Each vertebra consists of a body, an arch, and processes.
Regional differences in vertebrae are as follows: Cervical vertebrae have transverse
foramina; thoracic vertebrae have long spinous processes and attachment sites for the
ribs; lumbar vertebrae have rectangular transverse and spinous processes, and the
position of their facets limits rotation; the sacrum is a single, fused bone; the coccyx is 4
or fewer fused vertebrae.
RIB CAGE
The rib cage consists of the thoracic vertebrae, the ribs, and the sternum.
There are 12 pairs of ribs: 7 true and 5 false (2 of the false ribs are also called floating ribs).
The sternum consists of the manubrium, the body, and the xiphoid process.
The appendicular skeleton consists of the bones of the upper and lower limbs and their
girdles.
PECTORAL GIRDLE
The pectoral girdle includes the scapulae and clavicles.
SUMMARY
UPPER LIMB
The upper limb consists of the arm (humerus), forearm (ulna and radius), wrist (8 carpal
bones), and hand (5 metacarpal bones, 3 phalanges in each finger, and 2 phalanges in the
thumb).
PELVIC GIRDLE
The pelvic girdle is made up of the 2 coxal bones. Each coxal bone consists of an ilium, an
ischium, and a pubis. The coxal bones, sacrum, and coccyx form the pelvis.
LOWER LIMB
The lower limb includes the thigh (femur), leg (tibia and fibula), ankle (7 tarsal bones),
and foot (metatarsal bones and phalanges, similar to the bones in the hand).
JOINTS
A joint is a place where bones come together.
FIBROUS JOINTS
Fibrous joints consist of bones united by fibrous connective tissue. They allow little or no
movement.
CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS
Cartilaginous joints consist of bones united by cartilage, and they exhibit slight
movement.
SYNOVIAL JOINTS
Synovial joints consist of articular cartilage over the uniting bones, a joint cavity lined
by a synovial membrane and containing synovial fluid, and a joint capsule. They are
highly movable joints.
Synovial joints can be classified as plane, saddle, hinge, pivot, ball-and-socket, or
ellipsoid.
TYPES OF MOVEMENT
The major types of movement are flexion/extension, abduction/ adduction,
pronation/supination, eversion/inversion, rotation, circumduction,
protraction/retraction, elevation/depression, excursion, and opposition/reposition.
REFERENCE
Seeley's Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology, 9th Edition.
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AP Chapter 6 Skeletal System

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pter 6

Created by: Johmel De Ocampo

Ligaments and tendons are

FLAT BONES IRREGULAR

Medullary cavity is the large

These spaces are filled with

As a person ages, red marrow is mostly replaced by yellow marrow.

OSTEOBLAST- builds bone COMPACT BONE

The trabeculae add strength to

Bones developed from

STEPS OF BONE GROWTH

BONE GROWTH arrange to form stacks of cells

A bone fracture is a term to

There are 206 bones in the average adult skeleton.

REGIONAL DIFFERENCES IN VERTEBRAE

GENERAL FEATURES OF BONE

STRUCTURE OF LONG BONE

GENERAL BONE ANATOMY

Seeley's Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology, 9th Edition.

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