Jagannath University

Department of Management Studies

Course Name: Management Thoughts

Course code: MGT- 4201

An Assignment On:

Literature Seminar Paper on Behavioral Management Theory

Submitted to:

Md. Shahidul Islam Fakir

Associate Professor

Department of Management Studies

Jagannath University, Dhaka.

Submitted by:

Sunjida Khanam Purnima (G.L.)

On Behalf of the Group “07”

Department Of Management Studies,

Jagannath University, Dhaka.

Date of Submission: 20th September, 2022

 Group Profile: “07”

S.No. Name ID Remarks

1 Kazi Amadul Haq Polash B170202101

2 Shoriful Sharder B170202111

3 Irfan Hossain B170202118

4 Asma Akter B170202119

5 Abdullah Al Shafi B170202134

6 Amina Sultana Mim B170202155

7 Sunjida Khanam Purnima B170202157

8 Md Shah Alam B170202160

Contents
BEHAVIORAL MANAGEMENT THEORY ................................................................................................................... 1

MOTIVATION ................................................................................................................................................................1
Mayo’s Hawthorne Studies ..................................................................................................................................2
Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs: ..............................................................................................................................3
Herzberg’s two factor theory: ..............................................................................................................................4
McGregor's theory x and theory y ........................................................................................................................5
William Ouchi's theory z .......................................................................................................................................6
Drucker’s Management by Objectives .................................................................................................................7
Vroom’s expectancy theory: .................................................................................................................................8
LEADERSHIP ..................................................................................................................................................................8
1. The Great Man Theory .....................................................................................................................................9
2. The Trait Theory of leadership..........................................................................................................................9
3. Transactional leadership ..................................................................................................................................9
4. Transformation leadership .............................................................................................................................10
5. The Theory of Contingency .............................................................................................................................10
6. The Situational leadership theory ..................................................................................................................11
7. The Skills theory leadership: ...........................................................................................................................11
8. The Style theory of leadership: .......................................................................................................................12
The Leader - Member exchange theory :............................................................................................................13
Servant Leadership Theory : ...............................................................................................................................13
CULTURE ....................................................................................................................................................................14
1. Power Distance Index (PDI) ............................................................................................................................14
2. Individualism Versus Collectivism (IDV) ..........................................................................................................15
3. Masculinity Versus Femininity ........................................................................................................................16
4.Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI) .................................................................................................................16
5. Long- Versus Short-Term Orientation.............................................................................................................17
CONFLICT MANAGEMENT ..............................................................................................................................................17
Early conflict management models ....................................................................................................................21
Khun and Poole's model .....................................................................................................................................21
DeChurch and Marks's meta-taxonomy .............................................................................................................21
Rahim's meta-model ..........................................................................................................................................22
 1

Behavioral Management Theory

As management research continued in the 20th century, questions began to come up regarding the
interactions and motivations of the individual within organizations. Management principles
developed during the classical period were simply not useful in dealing with many managerial
situations and could not explain the behavior of individual employees. In short, classical theory
ignored employee motivation and behavior. As a result, the behavioral school was a natural
outgrowth of this revolutionary management experiment.

The Behavioral Management Theory is often called the human relations movement because it
addresses the human dimension of work. Behavioral theorists believed that a better understanding
of human behavior at work, such as motivation, conflict, expectations, and group dynamics,
improved productivity.

The theorists who contributed to this school viewed employees as individuals, resources, and assets
to be developed and worked with — not as machines, as in the past. Several individuals and
experiments contributed to this theory.

Based on different philosopher contribution, different segments have influenced the Behavioral
Management Theory. These segments are-

• Motivation
• Leadership
• Culture
• Conflict
• Communication etc.

They are described below:

Motivation
Motivational sectors: Different philosophers have contributed to different theories within many
decades. They are mentioned below:

• Elton Mayo (Hawthorne Study)

• Abraham Maslow (Hierarchy of Needs)
• Douglas McGregor (Theory X & Theory Y)
• Dr. William Ouchi (Theory Z)
• Frederick Herzberg (Two factors Theory of Motivation)
 • Peter Drucker (Management by Objectives)
• Victor H. Vroom (Expectancy theory)

Mayo’s Hawthorne Studies

Elton Mayo, Harvard Professor born in Australia and trained in Psychology, he also worked in the
realm of social factors and industrial relationships. His work was experimental rather than
theoretical.

Elton Mayo's contributions came as part of the Hawthorne studies, a series of experiments that
rigorously applied classical management theory only to reveal its shortcomings. The Hawthorne
experiments consisted of two studies conducted at the Hawthorne Works of the Western Electric
Company in Chicago from 1924 to 1932.

The first study was conducted by a group of engineers seeking to determine the relationship of
lighting levels to worker productivity. Surprisingly enough, they discovered that worker
productivity increased as the lighting levels decreased - that is, until the employees were unable to
see what they were doing, after which performance naturally declined.

A few years later, a second group of experiments began. Harvard researchers Mayo and F. J.
Roethlisberger supervised a group of five women in a bank wiring room. They gave the women
special privileges, such as the right to leave their workstations without permission, take rest
periods, enjoy free lunches, and have variations in pay levels and workdays. This experiment also
resulted in significantly increased rates of productivity.

In this case, Mayo and Roethlisberger concluded that the increase in productivity resulted from
the supervisory arrangement rather than the changes in lighting or other associated worker benefits.
Because the experimenters became the primary supervisors of the employees, the intense interest
they displayed for the workers was the basis for the increased motivation and resulting
productivity. Essentially, the experimenters became a part of the study and influenced its outcome.

The general conclusion from the Hawthorne studies was that human relations and the social needs
of workers are crucial aspects of business management. This principle of human motivation helped
revolutionize theories and practices of management. The Hawthorne effect can help improve
employee motivation. According to this effect employees perform better when they feel special by
all the attention or feel that the management is concerned about their development. Mayo’s
researchers noted that workers productivity increased not from changes in environment, but when
being watched.
The Hawthorne Effect can be used in modern workplaces such ways-

The Hawthorne effect can result in many positive outcomes when used in the right way, especially
in the current conditions of work. There has some learning that have been drawn using the
Hawthorne effect such as:

• It is important that employees feel heard.

• Observation could increase productivity.
• Your circle of colleagues will impact your work.
• Gender diversity is crucial at workplaces.
• Small changes in work ethics or culture can lead to great changes overall.

Using the teachings of the Hawthorne effect managers can better manage employees so they feel
more like an integral part of their business. Managers can try to put themselves in the shoe of their
employees and observe the business operation from their perspective. Managers can benefit from
the fact that employees tend to be more productive when they feel that their efforts are being
watched and that their performance is being noticed.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs:

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is an idea in psychology proposed by American Abraham in his
19143 papers “A Theory of Human Motivation” in the journal psychological review Maslow
subsequently intended the idea to include observations of human innate curiosity. Maslow's
hierarchy of needs is a theory of motivation which states that five categories of human needs and
individuals’ behavior. The hierarchy of needs shows the general progression of pursuits for people
once survival and comfort are assured into the spiritual, the creative and or intellectual. The levels
of the hierarchy, starting from the base of the pyramid are:

➢ Physiological needs - These are biological requirements for human survival. Examples
include air, food, water, shelter, clothing, warmth, sex and sleep.
➢ Safety needs – Examples include protection from elements, security, order, law and
stability.
➢ Love and belongingness needs – These are the first of social needs, involving the desire
for interpersonal relationships and being part of a group. Examples of these needs include
friendship, intimacy, trust, acceptance, receiving and giving affection and love.
➢ Esteem needs - Classified into two categories:
▪ Self-esteem, stemming from dignity, achievement, mastery and
independence.
▪ The desire for reputation or respect from others, including status and
prestige.
➢ Self-actualization needs – Examples include realizing personal potential, self- fulfillment
and seeking personal growth and peak experiences.
Maslow broke down the first four levels of his hierarchy into deficit needs that generally must be
satisfied before moving on to being or growth needs of the self-actualization level of the hierarchy.
A notable difference in growth needs is that achievement increases motivation where achievement
of deficit needs causes a decrease in motivation.

Herzberg’s two factor theory:

In 1959, Frederick Herzberg, a behavioral scientist proposed a two-factor theory or the motivator-
hygiene theory. According to Herzberg, there are some job factors that result in satisfaction while
there are other job factors that prevent dissatisfaction.

Herzberg classified these job factors into two categories-

Hygiene factors: Hygiene factors are those job factors which are essential for existence of
motivation at workplace. These do not lead to positive satisfaction for long-term. But if these
factors are absent at workplace, then employee led to dissatisfaction. These factors describe the
job scenario. The hygiene factors symbolized the physiological needs which the individuals
wanted and expected to be fulfilled. Hygiene factors include:

▪ Pay - The pay or salary structure should be appropriate and reasonable. It must be equal.
▪ Company Policies and administrative policies - The company policies should not be too
rigid. They should be fair and clear. It should include flexible working hours, dress code,
breaks, vacation, etc.
▪ Fringe benefits - The employees should be offered health care plans, benefits for the
family members.
▪ Physical Working conditions - The working conditions should be safe, clean and
hygienic. The work equipment’s should be updated and well-maintained.
▪ Status - The employees’ status within the organization should be familiar and retained.
▪ Interpersonal relations - There should be no conflict or humiliation element present.
▪ Job Security - The organization must provide job security to the employees.

Motivational factors: According to Herzberg, the hygiene factors cannot be regarded

as motivators. The motivational factors yield positive satisfaction. These factors motivate the
employees for a superior performance. Employees find these factors intrinsically rewarding.
Motivational factors include:

• Recognition- The employees should be praised and recognized for their accomplishments
by the managers.
• Sense of achievement - The employees must have a sense of achievement. This depends
on the job. There must be a fruit of some sort in the job.
• Growth and promotional opportunities - There must be growth and advancement
opportunities in an organization to motivate the employees to perform well.
 • Responsibility- The employees must hold themselves responsible for the work. The
managers should give them ownership of the work.
• Meaningfulness of the work - The work itself should be meaningful, interesting and
challenging for the employee to perform and to get motivated.

Implications of Two-Factor Theory:

The Two-Factor theory implies that the managers must stress upon guaranteeing the adequacy of
the hygiene factors to avoid employee dissatisfaction. Also, the managers must make sure that the
work is stimulating and rewarding so that the employees are motivated to work and perform harder
and better. This theory emphasizes upon job-enrichment so as to motivate the employees. The job
must utilize the employee’s skills and competencies to the maximum. Focusing on the motivational
factors can improve work-quality.

McGregor's theory x and theory y

Theory X and Theory Y are theories of human work motivation and management. They were
created by Douglas McGregor while he was working at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(MIT). McGregor’s work was rooted in motivation theory alongside the works of Abraham
Maslow, who created the hierarchy of needs. The two theories proposed by McGregor describe
contrasting models of workforce motivation applied by managers in human resource management,
organizational behavior, organizational communication, and organizational development.

The basic understanding is that people belonging to

(i) Theory X are generally lazy, not ready to take up the challenge unless motivated
through punishments and/or strict controls.
(ii) Theory Y assumes that people are generally motivated, self-starters who are
ready to take up the challenges without too much supervision, direction, and
control.

Theory X

Theory X is based on assumptions regarding the typical worker. This management style assumes
that the typical worker has little ambition, avoids responsibility, and is individual-goal oriented. In
general, Theory X style managers believe their employees are less intelligent, lazier, and work
solely for a sustainable income. Management believes employees’ work is based on their own self-
interest. Managers who believe employees operate in this manner are more likely to use rewards
or punishments as motivation. Due to these assumptions, Theory X concludes the typical
workforce operates more efficiently under a hands-on approach to management.

According to McGregor, there are two opposing approaches to implementing Theory X: the hard
approach and the soft approach:
The hard approach depends on close supervision, intimidation, and immediate punishment. This
approach can potentially yield a hostile, minimally cooperative workforce that may cause
resentment towards management.

The soft approach is characterized by leniency and less strict rules in hopes of creating high
workplace morale and cooperative employees. Implementing a system that is too soft could result
in an entitled, low-output workforce. McGregor believes both ends of the spectrum are too extreme
for efficient real-world applications. Instead, McGregor feels that an approach located in the
middle would be the most effective implementation of Theory X.

Because managers and supervisors are in almost complete control of the work, this produces a
more systematic and uniform product or workflow. Theory X can benefit a workplace that utilizes
an assembly line or manual labor. Using this theory in these types of work conditions allows
employees to specialize in particular work areas which in turn allows the company to mass-
produce a higher quantity and quality of work.

Theory Y

Theory Y managers assume employees are internally motivated, enjoy their job, and work to better
themselves without a direct reward in return. These managers view their employees as one of the
most valuable assets to the company, driving the internal workings of the corporation. Employees
additionally tend to take full responsibility for their work and do not need close supervision to
create a quality product. It is important to note, however, that before an employee carries out their
task, they must first obtain the manager’s approval. This ensures work stays efficient, productive,
and in-line with company standards.

Theory Y managers gravitate towards relating to the worker on a more personal level, as opposed
to a more conducive and teaching-based relationship. As a result, Theory Y followers may have a
better relationship with their boss, creating a healthier atmosphere in the workplace. In comparison
to Theory X, Theory Y incorporates a pseudo-democratic environment for the workforce. This
allows the employee to design, construct, and publish their work in a timely manner in co-
ordinance with their workload and projects.

William Ouchi's theory z

Management Theory Z, which has been developed in Japanese industry, focused on the
achievement of three management conditions. First, management increases the level of trust
between worker and manager. Secondly, management develops a holistic concern for the worker's
welfare; and thirdly, management creates a system of shared decision making. Trust between
worker and manager develops as managers set the example of work habits and share the burdens
of increased work, loads, salary cuts, or other unpleasant consequences of depressed economic
conditions.
 A holistic approach to management recognizes that the worker is a part of a larger social world
of family, financial, and personal concerns. By showing concern for job security, family
responsibility, and the need for a sense of self-worth, correctional managers can increase job
satisfaction and a worker's commitment to the goals of the organization. An increase of worker-
manager interaction through shared decision-making gives employees a sense of control over their
jobs and a greater use of their abilities. Steps in implementing Theory Z include reading about the
theory, involving top management, evaluating current management policies, training managers at
all levels, starting from the top down, involving unions and employee leadership, and planning to
evaluate and revise. Eleven footnotes are provided.

Drucker’s Management by Objectives

Management By Objectives (MBO), also known as Management By Planning (MBP), was first
popularized by Peter Drucker in his 1954 book The Practice of Management.

Management by objectives (MBO) is a strategic management model that aims to improve the
performance of an organization by clearly defining objectives that are agreed to by both
management and employees. According to the theory, having a say in goal setting and action
plans encourages participation and commitment among employees, as well as aligning objectives
across the organization.

An important part of MBO is the measurement and comparison of an employee's actual

performance with the standards set. Ideally, when employees themselves have been involved with
the goal-setting and choosing the course of action to be followed by them, they are more likely to
fulfill their responsibilities.

Characteristics:

• It is designed to align objectives throughout an organization and boost employee

participation and commitment.
• There are five steps: Define objectives, share them with employees, encourage employees
to participate, monitor progress, and finally, evaluate performance and reward
achievements.
• Critics of MBO argue that it leads to employees trying to achieve the set goals by any
means necessary, often at the cost of the company.

Example: A company can set various goals with its employees. In the case of a call center, an
MBO could be to increase customer satisfaction, say, by 10%, while reducing call times by one
minute. The onus is now on finding ways to achieve this goal. Once that’s decided on, it’s
important to get employees on board and then monitor their progress, provide feedback, and
reward those who do a good job.
Vroom’s expectancy theory:
Vroom’s expectancy theory assumes that behavior results from conscious choices among
alternatives whose purpose it is to maximize pleasure and to minimize pain. Vroom realized that
an employee’s performance is based on individual factors such as personality, skills, knowledge,
experience and abilities. He stated that effort, performance and motivation are linked in a person’s
motivation. He uses the variables Expectancy, Instrumentality and Valence to account for this.

Expectancy is the belief that increased effort will lead to increased performance i.e., if I work
harder than this will be better. This is affected by such things as:

1. Having the right resources available (e.g., raw materials, time)

2. Having the right skills to do the job
3. Having the necessary support to get the job done (e.g., supervisor support, or correct
information on the job)

Instrumentality is the belief that if you perform well that a valued outcome will be received. The
degree to which a first level outcome will lead to the second level outcome. i.e., if I do a good job,
there is something in it for me. This is affected by such things as:

1. Clear understanding of the relationship between performance and outcomes – e.g., the rules
of the reward ‘game’
2. Trust in the people who will take the decisions on who gets what outcome
3. Transparency of the process that decides who gets what outcome

Valence is the importance that the individual places upon the expected outcome. For the valence
to be positive, the person must prefer attaining the outcome to not attaining it. For example, if
someone is mainly motivated by money, he or she might not value offers of additional time off.

Thus, Vroom’s expectancy theory of motivation is not about self-interest in rewards but about the
associations people make towards expected outcomes and the contribution they feel they can make
towards those outcomes.

Leadership
Theories of leadership explain how and why specific individuals become leaders. They emphasize
the character characteristics and actions that people might adopt to improve their leadership skills.
Here are ten of the best-known leadership theories:

1. The Great Man Theory

One of the first theories on leadership makes the assumption that these qualities are inherent, which
indicates that leaders are born, not created, and cannot be learned. This hypothesis asserts that a
leader has certain innate human characteristics, such as:

• Glamour
• Decisive
• Wisdom
• Daring
• Assertiveness
• Appeal

This viewpoint emphasizes the fact that individuals cannot be taught to be effective leaders. It's a
quality that either you have or you don't. These abilities come naturally, thus you cannot learn
them or receive training in them.

2. The Trait Theory of leadership

The great man theory is expanded upon by the trait theory of leadership, which is predicated on
the idea that effective leaders have particular personality qualities and features of behavior. They
can become effective leaders in a number of circumstances thanks to these qualities. It also
promotes the idea that certain people are more naturally gifted as leaders than others.

The main characteristics of a successful leader are:

• Emotional equilibrium
• Acknowledging one's duty
• Competence
• Recognizing obstacles
• Thinking with action
• Motivational abilities
• Talents in communication
• Tenacity and flexibility
• Making decisions with assurance.

3. Transactional leadership
Well during Industrial Revolution, this transactional theory was developed to boost company
productivity. Managers who practice transactional leadership keep an eye on their staff, making
sure they are rewarded for reaching milestones and disciplined when they fall short. Leaders Who
Practice Transactional Leadership:

• Target immediate objectives.

• Favor standardized processes and regulations
• Recent changes
• Discourage original thought
• Emphasis on one's own interests
• Encourage performance

4. Transformation leadership
The relationship between leaders and staff can help the organization, according to the
transformational theory of management. This leadership theory contends that effective leaders
inspire workers to go above and beyond what they are capable of. Leaders develop a vision for
their team members and motivate them to realize it.

Employee morale is raised and inspired by transformational leaders, which helps them perform
better at work. These managers encourage staff members by their deeds rather than their words
because they specialize in setting an example.

Leaders Who Practice Transformational Leadership:

• Self-manage
• Set an example
• Give interaction a high priority
• Be proactive in your work
• Promote the development of employees
• Receptive to fresh concepts
• Take chances and make difficult choices

Transformational leaders, as opposed to transactional leaders, prioritize failed processes and gather
personnel who get along well to accomplish shared corporate objectives. Additionally, effective
executives prioritize the requirements of the organization and its employees over their own.

5. The Theory of Contingency

According to the contingency hypothesis, there is no one right way to run an organization.
Determining the optimal strategy for leading an organization to achieve depends on both internal
and external considerations. The right candidate should fit the correct scenario, according to the
contingency theory.

The following elements influence the leadership style, based on contingency theory:

• Management approach
• Work speed
 • Organizational policies and culture
• Employee spirit
• Employees' level of maturity
• Relationship between coworkers or members of a team
• Organizational objectives
• Environment and routine at work

The management strategy that will help the organization achieve its objectives in a particular
situation is decided by the leader.

According to this view, situations determine whether or not leaders are effective. No matter how
successful a leader is, the idea explains, difficult situations will always arise. It emphasizes that
the leaders are aware that the conditions in combination with their abilities have a role in their
achievement.

6. The Situational leadership theory

Similar to the contingency theory, this idea emphasizes the significance of context and holds that
a leader should adjust to the shifting context to achieve objectives and make judgments. The level
of competence and dedication of the team members can influence how these leaders choose to
lead.

Situational leadership, as per situational theory:

• Develop a connection with the workforce

• Encourage employees
• Recognize when alternative leadership philosophies are required in a given situation
• Develop teams and organizational units

The theory lists a few essential traits of a situational leader, such as problem-solving abilities, trust,
adaptability, insight, and coaching.

7. The Skills theory leadership:

The skills leadership theory defines effective leadership with a set of skills rather than personality
traits. By measuring a leader's performance by the skills they possess, the skills leadership theory
allows anyone interested in becoming a leader to learn the skills required to become one.

The theory outlines three types of skills most useful for an effective leader. They are as follows:

Conceptual

Conceptual skills are those that help leaders create solutions to important problems and theories
and measure a leader's ability to work with new ideas. They include skills such as:
 • Innovation
• Decision-making
• Critical thinking
• Abstract and creative thinking
• Persuasiveness

Technical

Technical skills are the specific skills required to perform the day-to-day tasks of a position.
Technical skills measure a leader's ability to work with the tools that help them perform their tasks
effectively. These skills vary depending on a particular job but often include:

• Computer software skills

• Writing reports
• Making project management schedules
• Creating digital art
• Handling industrial machinery

Human

Human skills are interpersonal skills that help a leader manage a team. These skills measure a
leader's ability to work with others. Though the definition of human skills is broad, these skills
often include:

• Effective communication
• Motivational skills
• Social judgment
• Active listening
• Compassion.

8. The Style theory of leadership:

It focuses on the actions of effective leaders rather than the individual traits that comprise an
effective leader. The theory states that there is no one style of leadership that is effective in each
unique situation, but there are usually two distinct behaviors that leaders exhibit to improve their
effectiveness.

These two behaviors are:

Task behavior: These behaviors can help a team achieve its goals and focus on the concrete
actions a leader can take to increase their effectiveness. Some strengths of task behaviors include:

• Clarification of daily objectives

 • Defined task outlines
• Setting deadlines
• Clear advice and direction
• Effective delegation
• Reward systems
• Often achieve desired outcomes

Relationship behaviors: These behaviors help improve rapport and morale among team members
and enable each individual to feel more comfortable within their work environment.

Some strength of relationship behaviors include:

• Encouraged communication
• Close observation of team members' progress
• Active listening and effectively solve people's issues
• Coach and mentor team members to optimize their performance.

The Leader - Member exchange theory :

The Leader-Member Exchange Theory describes how leaders maintain their position in groups
and how relationships develop with other members of a team that can contribute to growth or
hinder development.

The model assumes that leadership consists of several dyadic (two-way) relationships that connect
the leader to the members. The quality of the relationship is measured by means of the level of
trust, respect, support, loyalty, job satisfaction and job performance.

Furthermore, the Leader Member Exchange Theory suggests that leaders automatically develop a
relationship with each of their subordinates, and that the quality of this relationship strongly
influences the responsibility, decision making, access to resources and performance of
subordinates.

This gives rise to two sides of employees, the in-group and the out-group (exchange relationships).
The in-group members are given more space to fulfill the work they do, more responsibility, more
attention and greater rewards. They work within the personal circle of the leader. On the other
hand, there are the out-group members. They receive less attention, responsibility and fewer
rewards. Exchanging leadership can cause friction and displeasure among the out-group, but it
could also create opportunities to give capable employees room for development.

Servant Leadership Theory :

 Servant leadership is a philosophy where a leader is a servant first. Servant leaders aspire to serve
their team and the organization first ahead of personal objectives. It is a selfless leadership style
where a leader possesses a natural feeling to serve for the greater good.

Servant leadership leads employees to put an optimal effort in achieving the objectives of the
organization as they feel included and valued.

This form of leadership raises trust between leaders and followers, which fallouts in amplified
productivity, creativity, innovation, customer satisfaction, and loyalty. In a nutshell, servant
leadership crafts thriving teams who are enthused to be their best selves. Besides, servant leaders
are compromisers rather than dominators.

Culture

Hofstede's four Dimensions of Culture:

Psychologist Dr. Geert Hofstede published his cultural dimension model at the end of the 1970s,
based on a decade of research. Since then, it's become an internationally recognized standard for
understanding cultural differences.
Hofstede studied people who worked for IBM in more than 50 countries. Hofstede collected data
on employee attitudes and values for more than 1000 individuals from 1967-1973.These data
enabled him to compare dimensions of culture across 40 countries. Initially, he identified four
dimensions that could distinguish one culture from another. These are:
• Power Distance Index (high versus low).
• Individualism Versus Collectivism.
• Masculinity Versus Femininity.
• Uncertainty Avoidance Index (high versus low).
• Long- Versus Short-Term Orientation
Hofstede scored each country on a scale of 0 to 100 for each dimension. When Hofstede analyzed
his database of culture statistics, he found clear patterns of similarity and differenc ealong the four
dimensions. And, because his research focused solely on IBM employees, he could attribute those
patterns to national differences, and minimize the impact of company culture.

1. Power Distance Index (PDI)

Hofstede’s power distance dimension focused on how a society deals with the fact that people are
unequal in physical and intellectual capabilities. This refers to the degree of inequality that exists
and is accepted between people with and without power.
High Power Distance:
According to Hofstede’s high power distances cultures were found in countries that let inequalities
grow over time into inequalities of power and wealth. A high PDI score indicates that a society
accepts an unequal, hierarchical distribution of power, and that people understand "Their place" in
the system. The people with high power can take any decision (economic, physical, educational).
Application: According to the model, in a high-power distance culture country, such as
Malaysia (100), team members will not initiate any action, and they like to be guided and directed
to complete a task. If a manager doesn't take charge, they may think that the task isn't important.
Low Power Distance:
Low power distance cultures were found in societies that tried to play down such inequalities as
much as possible. A low PDI score means that power is shared and is widely dispersed, and that
society members do not accept situations where power is distributed unequally.
Application: According to the model, in a low power distance culture country, such as
Israel (13), team members have the right to take any decision to complete any task. People put
their opinion to make any decision in that country.

2. Individualism Versus Collectivism (IDV)

This refers to the strength of the ties that people have to others within their community.
Individualism (high IDV score) is the extent to which people prefer to live with a strong sense of
personal identity, while collectivism (low IDV score) refers to the preference of a group identity.
The majority of the world’s cultures exhibit a low IDV score, and IDV and PDI tend to be
negatively correlated.
Individualism: In individualistic society, the ties between the individual were loose and individual
achievement and freedom were highly valued. In a culture with individualism, members have loose
ties with each other and operate as individuals, looking after themselves and their immediate
family and friends, making their own decisions, and developing their own identity. Members will
tend to avoid developing close ties and loyalties to others; they will express personal opinions and
ideas, and are not afraid to speak out against the majority.
Application: The US and UK are countries with high individualism in which focus on self
and immediate family causes IDV to be their dominant Cultural Dimension.
Collectivism:
In society where collectivism is emphasized, the ties between individuals are tight. In a culture
with low IDV, members form a part of strong groups. Low individualism societies tend to work
as a group and think for the group, even to the point of experiencing ‘groupthink’, where
individuals down play their own theories and suggestions in order to conform more readily to the
group. A given individual will more likely to be willing to sacrifice personal gains for the benefit
of the greater group.
 Application: Central American countries Panama and Guatemala have very low IDV
scores (11 and six, respectively). In these countries, as an example, a marketing campaign that
emphasizes benefits to the community would likely be understood and well received, as long as
the people addressed feel part of the same group.

3. Masculinity Versus Femininity

This refers to the distribution of roles between men and women.
Masculinity dimension: Masculinity stands for a society in which social gender roles are clearly
distinct. Men are supposed to be assertive, tough, and focused on material success; women are
supposed to be more modest, tender, and concerned with the quality of life. In masculine cultures,
men hold more positions of power, get paid more, and are expected to act in a masculine manner.
Women get the short end of the stick. They are expected to be caretakers, are paid less, and are not
fairly represented in positions of power in any field. It's also important to note the different values
masculine cultures hold. They tend to prioritize money, materialistic items, and dominance.
Application: The United States (62), Mexico (69), China, and Japan (95) are all considered
to be masculine.
Femininity dimension: Femininity stands for a society in which social gender roles overlap: Both
men and women are supposed to be modest, tender, and concerned with the quality of life.
Feminine cultures tend to have loose gender roles, equal pay, female representation in most
positions of power, and quality of life and relationships with people are valued over materialistic
items like money or expensive cars.
Application: Sweden (5), Norway, the Netherlands (14), and Costa Rica are all considered
to be femininity. Here, people focus on managing through discussion, consensus, compromise, and
negotiation.

4.Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI)

The uncertainty avoidance index offers a means by which to measure a society’s tolerance for
uncertainty and ambiguity. It indicates the extent to which a culture’s members feel comfortable
in unstructured situations. Uncertainty avoiding cultures try to minimize the possibility of these
situations by imposing strict laws and rules. Uncertainty accepting cultures on the other hand are
more tolerant of opinions that differ from what they are used to; they tend to have fewer rules and
allow for the coexistence of many beliefs.
High uncertainty avoidance:
People in cultures with high uncertainty avoidance try to minimize the occurrence of unknown and
unusual circumstances and to proceed with careful changes step by step by planning and by
implementing rules, laws and regulations.
Application: In Germany there is a reasonable high uncertainty avoidance (65) compared
to countries as Singapore (8) and neighboring country Denmark (23). Germans are not too keen
on uncertainty, by planning everything carefully they try to avoid the uncertainty. In Germany
there is a society that relies on rules, laws and regulations. Germany wants to reduce its risks to
the minimum and proceed with changes step by step.
Low uncertainty avoidance:
Low uncertainty avoidance persons act first and then get information. They are very comfortable
with ambiguity and uncertainty. Cultural value clusters of low uncertainty avoidance work hard to
minimize rules and laws that infringe on people's diverse perspectives.
Application: The United States scores a 46 compared to the 65 of the German culture.
Uncertainty avoidance in the US is relatively low, which can clearly be viewed through the national
cultures.

5. Long- Versus Short-Term Orientation

This dimension was originally described as "Pragmatic Versus Normative (PRA)." It refers to the
time horizon people in a society display.

Countries with a long-term orientation tend to be pragmatic, modest. They behave in a modest
way. Avoid talking too much about yourself. People are more willing to compromise, yet this may
not always be clear to outsiders; this is certainly so in a culture that also scores high on PDI.

Application: Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Netherlands are the countries who follow long term
orientation.

In short-term oriented countries, people tend to place more emphasis on principles, consistency
and truth, and are typically religious and nationalistic. Sell yourself to be taken seriously. People
are less willing to compromise as this would be seen as weakness.

Application: The U.S. has a short-term orientation. This is reflected in the importance of short-
term gains and quick results (profit and loss statements are quarterly, for example). It is also
reflected in the country's strong sense of nationalism and social standards.

Conflict Management

The word “conflict” tends to generate images of anger, fighting, and other ugly thoughts that leave
people bruised and beaten. Conflict isn’t uncommon in the workplace.

A conflict arises:

▪ When one or more parties have desires, they are not willing to give up,
▪ When they feel that someone else is obstructing fulfillment of these desires.
▪ When this obstruction of important unfulfilled desires remains, frustration arises.
 ▪ This compels at least one of the parties to act in some way in relation to the other Party.
The fruitful three approaches considered for conflict management are: power, right and have
played a prominent role in working life in the West: the power-based approach, the rights-based
approach and the needs-based approach.

• The Power-based approach means applied when differences of opinion or cooperation

difficulties arose, the leader decided the outcome and the others had to accept it. For this
approach to work, there had to be clear power hierarchies and power resources enabling
those in power to enforce their decisions. One advantage of the power-based approach is
that conflicts can be resolved quickly. One disadvantage is that it is totally dependent on
the motives and skills of those in power.
• The growth of a Rights-based approach was with new approach, rules, rights and
principles were established to constrain those in power and protect their subordinates. The
issue is addressed through procedures that are guided by laws, agreements and other
principles. If, in the situation at hand, the principles are crystal clear, then there is no need
for negotiation. The rights-based (or principle-based) approach is of particular importance
to those who find themselves in vulnerable positions. The disadvantage of this approach is
that it requires that general rules and principles be formulated that are equally applicable
in all situations.
• The need approach builds on a search for ways to meet the involved parties’ needs, the
idea being that the conflict can be resolved in a way that will promote good relationships.
This typically involves creating various kinds of investigative dialogues, in which the
parties’ views, desires and needs are formulated and in which possibilities to achieve a
common view of what constitutes a good solution are sought.

The ABC models

The ABC model, also known as the conflict triangle, is a simple method for obtaining an overview
of various aspects of a conflict. The model was developed by the Norwegian peace researcher
Johan Galtung in the late 1960s. Since then, it has been used in many contexts. According to the
ABC model, a conflict can be depicted as a triangle the respective corners of which represent three
important aspects inherent to all conflicts. The A corner stands for attitude, the B corner for
behavior, and the C corner for conflict or contradiction.

Experience suggests that it is useful to talk about five common themes and, consequently, that
there are five common types of conflicts. These are distribution conflicts, position conflicts,
structure conflicts, behavioral norms conflicts, and conviction conflicts.

• Distribution conflict, the parties are competing for something that can be divided. This
may, for instance, involve money, workload. Distribution conflicts concern how the
available resources are divided up between parties.
 • Position conflict, the parties are competing for a resource that is indivisible, a position
within a system. Position conflicts may be informal in nature; they may concern who is the
most competent and should, therefore, have the last word, or who has a central position in
the group.

• Structure conflicts concern what order is to prevail in the organization. This may be, for
instance, a matter of organizational structure or it may concern delegation, authority,
decision-making processes, goals, routines, priorities, choice of methods, or distribution of
roles. Choices that concern structural issues often have consequences for the distribution
of time and other resources, such as when new routines force staff to dedicate more time
to administrative duties.

• Behavioral norms conflicts concern the interpersonal order, this is the type of conflict that
the parties most commonly need help with if they are to identify it and put it into words.
Behavioral norms conflicts often concern how the interrelations between the involved
party’s function., how they communicate with each other, what kinds of attitudes they have
toward each other, how much they stand up for each other, and so on.

• Conviction conflicts are special in nature. They have their roots in the parties’ personal
convictions bout what is morally right and wrong, in ideological value systems, and in
deeply rooted Beliefs about what does and does not work. The conflict itself concerns
which outlook should serve as a guide in the organization.

Conflict management is the approach and strategies geared towards achieving a positive outcome
and resolution amongst the parties involved in matters relating to conflicts. These strategies and
approaches are dependent on the type of conflict that exist, organizations, or institutions involved.
It could be a systematic or unordered method that is task-specific, research-oriented, and requires
proper attention. A conflict could be an outcome of Workplace Incivility.

The four principal approaches to conflict management:

According to the definition provided earlier, conflicts are situations involving one or more parties
who have desires they are unwilling to give up, feel they are being obstructed by someone else,
and act so as to fulfill their desires. We can say that, in such situations, there are four main
approaches to doing away with the obstruction: dialogue, discussion, rule-based procedures and
steamrollering.

Dialogue:

▪ Good will – motivation to strive to reach a mutual agreement

 ▪ Interest in the other person’s experience
▪ Openness to be influenced
▪ Openness about what is important to oneself

Trust: The hope that the other party is willing to try to understand what I mean and to find a
mutually acceptable solution.

Discussion:

▪ Advocating own views using rational and relevant arguments

▪ Listening to rational arguments and assessing their relevance
▪ Negotiating a agreement.

Trust: The hope that the other party is receptive to objective arguments.

Rule-based procedures:

▪ The matter is settled by decision-making by someone who has a mandate; by referring to

rules, principles and powers; or through formal procedures.
▪ The involved parties accept the outcome, even though they have different opinions.

Trust: the other party is prepared to adhere to the rules of the game.

Power/Steamrollering:

▪ One of the parties forces his/her stand- point against the other party’s will: exercise of
coercive power, refusal, creating faiths accomplish.
▪ Can be done more or less skillfully.

Lost trust: No point in trying to reach consensus with the other party.

Conflict resolution:

Conflict resolution involves the process of the reducing, eliminating, or terminating of all forms
and types of conflict. Five styles for conflict management, as identified by Thomas and Kilmann,
are: competing, compromising, collaborating, avoiding, and accommodating.

There are three orientations to conflict: lose-lose, win-lose, and win-win.

➢ The lose-lose orientation is a type of conflict that tends to end negatively for all parties
involved.
➢ A win-lose orientation results in one victorious party, usually at the expense of the other.
 ➢ The win-win orientation is one of the most essential concepts to conflict resolution. A win-
win solution arrived at by integrative bargaining may be close to optimal for both parties.
This approach engages in a cooperative approach rather than a competitive one.

Early conflict management models

Blake and Mouton (1964) were among the first to present a conceptual scheme for classifying the
modes (styles) for handling interpersonal conflicts in five types: forcing, withdrawing, smoothing,
compromising, and problem solving.

In the 1970s and 1980s, researchers began using the intentions of the parties involved to classify
the styles of conflict management that they included in their models. Both Thomas (1976) and
Pruitt (1983) put forth a model based on the concerns of the parties involved in the conflict. The
combination of the parties' concern for their own interests (i.e. assertiveness) and their concern for
the interests of those across the table (i.e. cooperativeness) yielded a particular conflict
management style.

Khun and Poole's model

Khun and Poole (2000) established a similar system of group conflict management. In their system,
they split Kozan's confrontational model into two sub-models: distributive and integrative.

Distributive – Here conflict is approached as a distribution of a fixed amount of positive outcomes

or resources, where one side will end up winning and the other losing, even if they do win some
concessions.

Integrative – Groups utilizing the integrative model see conflict as a chance to integrate the needs
and concerns of both groups and make the best outcome possible. This model has a heavier
emphasis on compromise than the distributive model. Khun and Poole found that the integrative
model resulted in consistently better task-related outcomes than those using the distributive model.

DeChurch and Marks's meta-taxonomy

DeChurch and Marks (2001) examined the literature available on conflict management at the time
and Ni established what they claimed was a "meta-taxonomy" that encompasses all other models.
They argued that all other styles have inherent in them into two dimensions:

• Activeness :"The extent to which conflict behaviors make a responsive and direct rather than
inert and indirect impression". High activeness is characterized by openly discussing
differences of opinion while fully going after their own interest.
• Agreeableness: "The extent to which conflict behaviors make a pleasant and relaxed rather
than unpleasant and strainful impression". High agreeableness is characterized by attempting
to satisfy all parties involved.
In the study DeChurch and Marks conducted to validate this division, activeness did not have a
significant effect on the effectiveness of conflict resolution, but the agreeableness of the conflict
management style, whatever it was, did have a positive impact on how groups felt about the way
the conflict was managed, regardless of the outcome.

Rahim's meta-model
Rahim (2002) noted that there is agreement among management scholars that there is no one best
approach to how to make decisions, lead or manage conflict.
In a similar vein, rather than creating a very specific model of conflict management, Rahim created
a meta-model (in much the same way that DeChurch and Marks, 2001, created a meta-taxonomy)
for conflict styles based on two dimensions, concern for self and concern for others.
Within this framework are five management approaches: integrating, obliging, dominating,
avoiding, and compromising.

• Integration involves openness, exchanging information, looking for alternatives, and

examining differences to solve the problem in a manner that is acceptable to both parties.
• Obliging is associated with attempting to minimize the differences and highlight the
commonalities to satisfy the concern of the other party.
• Dominating in this style one party goes all out to win his or her objective and, as a result, often
ignores the needs and expectations of the other party.
• Avoiding here a party fails to satisfy his or her own concern as well as the concern of the other
party.
• Compromising involves give-and-take whereby both parties give up something to make a
mutually acceptable decision.
The End