6/7/2023

Site Investigation
Sangam Acharya

2.1 Objectives and methods of soil exploration

• A detailed and systematic enquiry of the sub‐surface profile up to a
depth based on the structure to be founded on the ground is known
as soil exploration.
• The purpose of soil exploration are:
• Selecting the type and depth of foundation suitable for a given structure.
• Evaluating the load‐bearing capacity of the foundation.
• Estimating the probable settlement of a structure.
• Determining potential foundation problems (eg. Expansive soil, sanitary
landfill, etc.)
• Determining the location of the water table.
• Predicting the lateral earth pressure for structures such as retaining wall,
sheet pile, anchor bulkheads and braced cuts.
• Establishing construction methods for changing subsoil conditions.

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2.1 Methods of soil exploration

The subsoil explorations are usually carried out in three stages:
A) Reconnaissance: The engineer should always make a visual inspection of the site to
obtain information about:
• General topography of the site (drainage, debris dumps, creep of slope, tension and
shrinkage cracks, etc.)
• Soil stratification from deep cuts
• Type of vegetation, which may indicate the nature of top soil
• High‐water marks and natural springs
• Groundwater levels from nearby wells
• Types of construction nearby and existence of cracks in walls or any other problems
The reconnaissance helps in deciding future programs of site investigation, scope of work,
types of samples to be taken and types of laboratory and in‐situ testing to be carried out.

2.1 Methods of soil exploration

B) Preliminary investigation:
• The aim of a preliminary exploration is to determine the depth, thickness, extent and composition of
each soil stratum at the site.
• The depth of bed rock and the ground water table is also determined.
• Few borings or test pits are excavated for preliminary exploration.
• Geophysical methods can also be very useful.

• Test Pits
Low Depth 2 – 4 m
• Boring
Large Depth > 4 m
• Geophysical Methods
Non‐destructive testing cheaper and faster

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2.1 Methods of soil exploration

The subsoil explorations are usually carried out in three stages:
C) Detailed explorations:
• Its purpose is to determine the engineering properties of the soils in different strata.
• It includes extensive boring programs, sampling and testing of the samples in laboratory.
• Field tests such as vane shear test, plate load tests and permeability tests are conducted to
determine the properties of the soils in natural state.
• For small projects, detail exploration may not be required. But for large and major projects
the detail investigation should be carried out.
• Accessible investigation: Direct inspection of soil through trial pits and trench, so disturbed
and undisturbed samples can be collected.
• Inaccessible investigation: Not direct access to the subsoil, but sample is obtained making
hole by boring.

2.1 Methods of soil exploration

The extent of subsoil explorations depend on:
• Location of project and purpose of investigations
• Type of structure to be built on proposed site
• Relative cost of explorations
• Cost of investigations varies between 0.05 to 0.2% of total cost of entire
structure

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2.2 Soil sampling, types of sample, soil samplers

and its basic requirements for cohesive soil
Components of a Subsurface Investigation
• Drilling
• To a structural marker
• Requires stratigraphic and structural control
• Sampling
• Visual classification
• Laboratory testing
• Instrumentation
• Piezometers and/or standpipes
• Inclinometers
• In situ testing such as a standard penetration test (SPT),cone penetrometer (CPT), pressure
meter, packer tests, etc.

2.2 Soil sampling

• Soil sampling is the process of obtaining samples of soil from the desired depth
at the desired location in a natural soil deposit, in order to assess the
engineering properties of soil.
• Objectives:
• Determine soil engineering properties
• Determine ground water level
• Stratigraphic interpretation
• Constraints:
• Cost
• Type of soil (soft clays and loose saturated sands are very difficult to sample)

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2.2 Types of samples

1. Disturbed samples: A disturbed sample is that in which the natural structure,
physical properties, mineralogical composition gets modified partly or fully
during sampling process. They can be further classified into:
a) Non‐representative sample: The original soil structure, size of soil grains as well as
mineralogical constituents might have changed in such sample. Eg. Samples obtained
from Auger boring. These samples have no use except giving rough idea about soil and
its stratification.
b) Representative sample: In these samples, the natural water content and mineral
constituents of particular soil layer are preserved, but the structure of soil may be
significantly disturbed. These samples are suitable for identification of Atterberg’s
limits, specific gravity of solids, and for compaction tests. Eg. Samples obtained from
split‐spoon sampler.

2.2 Types of samples

2. Undisturbed samples:
• In these samples, the original structure the soil and its mineral properties are
preserved to an extent.
• However, it is impossible to obtain a perfectly undisturbed sample as even the
most efficient method of cutting of sample from parent material involves a
change in stress conditions.
• Hence for practical purpose, an undisturbed sample may be considered as one
in which material has been subjected to very small disturbance that it still
suitable for laboratory tests.
• Eg. Samples obtained from piston samplers.

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2.2 Requirements of a good sampler

D1= Inner diameter of the cutting edge

D2= Outer diameter of the cutting edge
D3= inner diameter of the sampling tube
D4= Outer diameter of the sampling tube

2.2 Requirements of a good sampler

D1= Inner diameter of the cutting edge

D2= Outer diameter of the cutting edge
D3= inner diameter of the sampling tube
D4= Outer diameter of the sampling tube

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2.2 Types of samplers

2.2 Types of samplers

1. Open drive sampler
• Thick tube type sampler
• Consists of tube open at lower end with
screw threads at both ends.
• Driving/ cutting shoe is screwed at lower end
• Upper end is screwed in to a sampler head,
which is ultimately connected to the boring
rod.
• Ar = about 30%, so disturbed samples are
obtained.

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2.2 Types of samplers

2. Split spoon sampler
• It is a thick walled sampler, split length wise.
• Similar to the open drive sampler, drive shoe is
attached to lower end and sampler hear at the upper
end of the split spoon/ barrel.
• The sampler is lowered to the bottom of bore hole by
attaching it to the drill rod.
• The sampler is then driven by forcing it into the soil by
blows from a hammer.
• Then the two halves of the barrel are removed and
sample is withdrawn.
• It collects disturbed but representative samples.
• Ar = 110%

2.2 Types of samplers

3. Thin walled sampler (Shelby tube
sampler)
• For these samplers Ar < 15%
• It is used to collect undisturbed samples of soil.
• The lower end of the tube is machined to form a
cutting edge.
• Sampling tube is always kept away from the sun and
under normal temperature (avoid expansion)

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2.2 Types of samplers

4. Piston sampler
• Thin walled sampler
• It is provided with a piston
instead of air‐relief port.
• Initially piston is flushed with
cutting edge of sampling tube.
• Sampling tube is pushed down
into the ground and the piston
moves up.
• When sampler is withdrawn,
piston is kept in place relative to
tube which holds the sample
against moving down.

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2.2 Types of samplers

4. Piston sampler
• Piston samplers are excellent
tools for obtaining very fine
undisturbed samples, especially
in soft and sensitive clays.

2.2 Types of samplers

5. Rotary samplers
• It consists of double walled tube
sampler, with an inner removable liner.
• The outer tube is provided with cutting
bit and rotates.
• The inner tube which is stationary
slides over the cylindrical sample cut by
the outer rotating tube/ barrel.
• This type of sampler is good for hard
ground and rock, and the sample is
referred as “core”.

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2.3 Planning of exploration, number of bore holes,

depth of exploration
Depth of exploration:
• The depth of exploration is governed by the depth of influence zone.
• The depth up to which the stress increment due to superimposed loads can produce
significant settlement and shear stress is known as significant depth.
• The significant depth is generally taken as the depth at which the vertical stress is 20% of
the load intensity, and the depth of exploration should be at least equal to this depth.
• To determine the depth of boring for hospitals and office buildings (multistoried), Sower
and Sowers (1970) used the following rules,
For light steel or narrow concrete buildings:
𝐷 Db = depth of boring
𝑎
𝑆 . S = number of stories
For heavy steel or wide concrete buildings: a = 3 if Db is in meters
𝐷 b = 6 if Db is in meters
𝑏
𝑆 .

2.3 Planning of exploration, number of bore holes,

depth of exploration
Depth of exploration:
• According to Sower and Sowers (1970), the following approximation is made:
Number of stories Boring depth
1 3.5 m
2 6m
3 10 m
4 16 m
5 24 m

• When deep excavations are to be made, the depth of boring should be at least 1.5 times
the depth of excavation.
• If bedrock is expected to encounter for the foundation load to be transferred, the borings
should extend to the bedrock. The minimum depth of core boring into the bedrock is
about 3 m, which might be deeper depending on the weathering grade of rock.

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2.3 Planning of exploration, number of bore holes,

depth of exploration
Depth of exploration:
a) Footings placed far apart
b) Raft/ Mat foundation
c) Footings placed at close intervals
d) Pile foundation

2.3 Planning of exploration, number of bore holes,

depth of exploration
Location and number of boreholes:
• The lateral extent of boring and the spacing of bore holes
depend mainly on the variation of the strata in horizontal Type of project Bore hole
direction. Spacing
(m)
• More the number of bore holes, greater the knowledge Multistoried building 10‐30
of sub‐surface layers, and also increased cost.
• For small buildings, one bore hole in the center may be One‐storey industrial plant 20‐60
sufficient.
Highways 250‐500
• For compact buildings, covering area of 4000 sq. m, there
should be at least 5 bore holes, one at center and four Dams 40‐80
near the corners.
• For multistoried buildings, the bore holes should be
drilled at all corners and at important locations (eg. At
heavy item/ machine/ plant)

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2.4 Field penetration tests and their suitability

2.4.1 Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
• Most extensively used penetration test over the world
• SPT is used in determining relative density, angle of internal friction, elastic modulus,
UCS of soil using many correlations.
• The test is conducted by driving a split spoon sampler into the soil for 450 mm by a
standard hammer of 65 kg weight falling through a height of 760 mm.
• Procedure:
1. The borehole is advanced to a required depth and bottom is cleaned.
2. The split spoon sampler is attached to the drill rods and lowered into the borehole
and rested at bottom.
3. The sampler is driven into the soil for a distance of 450 mm by blows of a drop
hammer of 65 kg weight free falling vertically from a height of 760 mm.

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2.4.1 Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

4. The number of blows required to penetrate every 150 mm is recorded while driving
the sampler.
5. The number of blows required for the last 300 mm of penetration is added together
and recorded as the N value at that particular depth of borehole.
6. The number of blows for the first 150 mm of penetration is called seating drive, and
is neglected.
7. The test is halted if:
• 50 blows are required for any 150 mm penetration
• 100 blows are required for 300 mm penetration
• 10 successive blows produce no penetration
The SPT values/ N values obtained in the field have to be corrected before
they are used for any correlations.

2.4.1 Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

1. Correction for overburden:
• With the increase in confining pressure in sands, N‐values are increased considerably.
As a result values of relative density greater than actual values can be observed.
• Thus, the N value for cohesionless granular soil shall be corrected, as the N values at
shallow depths are under‐estimated, and the same at greater depths are over‐
estimated.
• The corrected N value is given by: N’ = CN .N
where, N’ = corrected value of N for overburden
CN = correction factor for overburden pressure
According to Peck et al (1974),
𝐶 0.77 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ; where 𝜎′ (KN/m2) is the effective overburden pressure at which N
value is measured, and 𝜎′ > 25KN/m2

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2.4.1 Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

1. Correction for overburden:
According to Bazaraa (1967),
𝐶 ; if 𝜎′ 75 𝐾𝑁/𝑚 and,
.

𝐶 ; if 𝜎′ 75 𝐾𝑁/𝑚
. .

2. Correction for dilatancy:

• Dilatancy correction is to be applied when the test is conducted in fine or silty
saturated sand when N’ obtained after overburden correction exceeds 15.
• According to Terzaghi and Peck (1967),
N’’ = 15 + 0.5 (N’ ‐15); where N’’ is the final corrected SPT value.
If N’ ≤ 15, then N’’ = N’.

Numerical
The observed SPT value in a deposit of silty fine sand is 32. The test was
carried out in a borehole at a depth of 7 m from the ground surface.
Determine the corrected SPT value for dilatancy and overburden
pressure. Take saturated unit weight of soil as 18 KN/m3.

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2.4.1 Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

Advantages
Relatively quick and simple
Boring, sampling and testing done in one step
Equipment is widely available
Provides a representative sample
Provides useful data of relative density, UCS, etc.
Able to penetrate dense layers, gravels and fills
Disadvantages
Somewhat slower than other available methods
Difference in apparatus and procedure causes
significant variability of N‐value
Provides disturbed sample
Limited applicability to cohesive soils, cobbles and
boulders.

For correlations between corrected SPT‐ N values and engineering properties such as Relative density,
angle of internal friction, modulus of elasticity, etc. please refer text book (BM Das‐ Principles of
Foundation Engineering)

2.4.2 Static Cone Penetration Test (SCPT)

• It is also known as Dutch cone test,
widely used particularly for soft
clays and silts and fine to medium
sand deposits.
• The penetrometer that is
commonly used is a 60° cone
with the base area of 10 cm2 and
a friction jacket.

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2.4.2 Static Cone Penetration Test (SCPT)

• Cone assembly is connected with the sounding rods,
whose lengths can be added if required for deeper
depths.
• The figure in right is the main cone assembly
consisting of mantle tube and friction jacket
assembly.
• Mantle tube provides a guide for the sounding rod
to move along.
• The main parameters measured in this test is soil
resistance against penetration and are of two types:
a) Tip or cone resistance
b) Side or skin friction

2.4.2 SCPT
• Position 1: Cone and friction jacket is in a
stationary position

• Position 2: The sounding rod is pushed with

cone into the ground for depth a at a steady
rate 20 mm/sec.
The tip or cone resistance qc is given by,
𝑄
𝑞
𝐴
Where, Qc = force read on pressure gauge
Ac = base area of cone
a= 40 mm

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2.4.2 SCPT
• Position 3: The cone is pushed along with
friction jacket for depth b. The total force
required for this is Qt.
Then, the force required to push the friction
jacket Qf is then obtained as,
Qf = Qt – Qc
The side or skin friction is equal to:
𝑄
𝑓
𝐴
Where, Af is the surface area of friction jacket.
b= 40 mm.

• Position 4: The outside mantle is pushed down to distance (a+b), bringing the cone and
friction jacket to position 1.
• The whole procedure is continued till the proposed depth is reached.
• SCPT gives a continuous record of variation of both cone and friction resistance with
depth.
• SCPT however, does not give any samples.
• It is unsuitable in gravels and very dense sand.
• Data from CPT can be used to estimate the point bearing resistance and skin friction of
pile foundation.
• Correlations between SCPT values and N values also can be found in books.
• For correlations between corrected SCPT qc values and engineering properties such as
Relative density, angle of internal friction, undrained cohesion, OCR, etc. please refer text
book (BM Das‐ Principles of Foundation Engineering)

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2.4.3 Dynamic Cone Penetration Test (DCPT)

• DCPT is done if hard layer is found, and SPT is not suitable
• In this test, a cone with apex angle 60° is attached to the drill rods and is driven
into the soil by blows of a hammer of 65 kg, falling freely from a height of 750
mm. The diameter of cone can be 50 mm or 65 mm.
• The procedure is similar to SPT.
• No samples can be obtained in this test.
• It is more applicable for soils having boulder, gravel and rock layers.
• For cones of larger diameter, bentonite slurry can also be provided on the walls of
bore hole.
• It is a quick test, and helps to cover a large area under investigation rather
economically than the SPT.
• When a 50 mm diameter cone is used, following correlations can be used:
• Ndc = 1.5 x N, for depth up to 3 m
• Ndc = 1.75 x N, for depth 3 m to 6 m
• Ndc = 1.5 x N, for depth greater than 6 m.
•

2.4.3 Dynamic Cone Penetration Test (DCPT)

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2.5 Methods of boring

• Making or drilling holes into the ground with a view to obtaining soil or rock samples
from specified or known depths is known as boring.
• The common methods of advancing bore holes are:
1. Auger Boring
2. Wash Boring
3. Rotary Drilling
4. Percussion Drilling

The choice of boring method depends on:

• Nature of soil
• Water table location
• Sample disturbance
• Accuracy of soil exploration

1. Auger boring
• Diameter of holes normally varies from 10 to 20 cm.
• It is used mainly in the soils in which bore holes can be kept
dry and unsupported.
• Hollow auger in the figure right can be used to collect soil
samples.

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2. Wash Boring
• This method is used for soil exploration below ground water table
where the auger method is unsuitable.
• This method can be used for all types of soil except those mixed
with gravel and boulders.

3. Rotary drilling
• The rotary drilling is primarily intended for investigation
on rocks, but can be done in soil as well.
• Water or drilling mud is pumped down the hollow
drilling rods and passes under pressure through narrow
holes in the rotating drill bit.
• The drilling fluid cools and lubricates the drilling tools
and carries the loose debris to the surface through
annular space between rods and the side of the hole.
• The drilling fluid also provides some support to the sides
of the hole if no casing is used.
• For sampling, the drilling bit is replaced by a sampler.

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4. Percussion drilling
• It is the method used for making holes in rocks, boulders
and other hard strata.
• Heavy chisel is alternatively lifted and dropped in
vertical hole with casing inserted.
• The materials in the hole are reduced to fine particles
(pulverized).
• Water is added which forms slurry with the pulverized
material and can be removed by sand pump or a bailer
at intervals.
• It is difficult to get good quality undisturbed sample.

2.6 Ground water observations

• The determination of the location of ground water
is an essential part of every exploratory program.
• Ground water can be observed through observation
wells or the bore hole itself.
Ground water observation from piezometers:
• In this method the ground water level is
determined from bore holes by allowing the water
to reach equilibrium level.
• It is easy to reach the equilibrium in sandy soils, but
very difficult and time consuming in clayey soils.
• Piezometers are generally used in clay and silt, and
observations must be taken for several week until
the water gets stable.
• Casagrande piezometer consists of an open pipe
with cylindrical porous filter at bottom.

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Piezometers
• The porous filter is placed in the center
of a borehole and typically surrounded
by sand.
• Above and below the sand are seals
(clay or bentonite), while rest of the
borehole is filled with backfill or grout.
• The pore water pressure in the ground
at the center of the porous filter is
equivalent to the height of the water
inside the standpipe above the
measuring point.
• The level of water inside the standpipe is
measured using an electric dipmeter,
which when lowered inside the
standpipe emits an audible sound when
it makes contact with water.

Types of piezometers
1. Open standpipe piezometers Not needed in
2. Diaphragm piezometers exam
3. Pneumatic piezometers
4. Hydraulic piezometers
5. Flushable diaphragm piezometers

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Rising water level method

• Also known as Hvorslev method.
• The borehole should have a casing to
stabilize the sides.
• This method consists of bailing/
dewatering the water out of the casing
and observing the rate of rise of the
water table in the casing at intervals of
time until the rise in water level
becomes negligible.
• The rate is observed by measuring the
elapsed time and depth of water
surface below the top of the casing.
• In sands and gravel, the time interval
between the successive readings may
not exceed 1 to 2 hours.

Rising water level method

• But in case of soils of low permeability,
the interval may rise from 12 to 24
hours, and it might take a few days to
know the depth of stabilized water
level.
• Let the time be to when the water level
at Ho below the normal water level.
Similarly let the successive water levels
be at depth H1, H2, H3, etc at times t1,
t2, t3, etc.
• Let the difference in time (t1‐to), (t2‐t1),
(t3‐t2), etc. are kept constant.
• Ho – H1 = h1
• H1 – H2 = h2
• H2 – H3 = h3

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Rising water level method

• The depth Ho, H2, H3 of water level
in the casing from the normal water
level is calculated as,
• 𝐻
Hw
• 𝐻

• 𝐻
• Let the corresponding depth of
water tables below the ground
surface be hw1, hw2, hw3,… then,
hw1 = Hw – Ho
hw2 = Hw – (h1 + h2) – H2 Where, Hw is the depth of water level in casing from ground surface
before the start of test.
hw3 = Hw – (h1 + h2 + h3) – H3 Normally hw = hw = hw ; if not then we take the average.
1 2 3

2.7 Bore hole log

It should consist of:
• Project name and location
• Bore hole number
• Boring method
• Sample type and method
• Diameter of bore hole
• Soil types and depth
• SPT/ CPT/ DCPT values

From the bore hole log from different bore

holes excavated at a site, we can draw an
approximate soil profile. Greater the
number of bore holes, more accurate will
be the soil profile.

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2.8 Site Investigation Report

A good soil investigation report should be presented in the following headings:
• Background and Introduction‐ giving the scope of works.
• Description of proposed structure, the location and geological conditions at the site.
• Details of the methods of explorations.
• General description of the sub‐soil conditions, as obtained from in‐situ tests, such as SPT, DCPT,
etc.
• Details of laboratory tests conducted on the soil samples collected and results obtained.
• Depth of ground water table and changes in water levels.
• Analysis and discussion of test results.
• Calculations for determining safe bearing pressure, pile loads, UCS, etc.
• Recommendation about the allowable bearing capacity and type of foundation suitable.
• Tables containing bore hole logs, and other lab/ field test results.
• Drawings, graphs, soil profiles, etc.
• Conclusion, the main findings of investigation should be clearly stated. It should be brief and
should include salient features.
• Limitations of the investigation should be briefly stated (if any).

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