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A remarkably ultra-sensitive large area matrix of

Cite this: J. Mater. Chem. B, 2021,
9, 4523
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MXene based multifunctional physical sensors
(pressure, strain, and temperature) for mimicking
human skin†
Vivek Adepu,a Venkat Mattelab and Parikshit Sahatiya *a

Received 26th April 2021,
Accepted 13th May 2021
DOI: 10.1039/d1tb00947h
rsc.li/materials-b
Electronic skin has attracted a lot of interest in recent years due to its ability to mimic human skin and
also its excellent conformability. Even though there are reports on electronic skin, the major issue that
still needs to be resolved is achieving multifunctional sensing at the same time as ultra-high sensitivity.
Hence, there is an immediate requirement to develop inexpensive, highly sensitive, and superior
performance piezoresistive multifunctional sensors that mimic skin. Herein, an as synthesized pure
MXene (Ti3C2Tx) colloidal solution was used to deposit a thin film on flexible polyurethane foam, forming
a three-dimensional conductive network with an ultra-high sensitivity of B34.24 kPa1 (1.477–3.185 kPa
of applied pressure range) and an elevated gauge factor of B323.59 (5–20% of applied strain range).
Further merits such as reproducibility, low cost, high scalability, and excellent stability after 2500 cycles
imply the sturdiness of the fabricated device. The remarkable sensing efficiency can be attributed to the
strong interaction of Ti3C2Tx and PU foam, the inherent 3D network of PU coupled with the excellent
electrical properties of Ti3C2Tx, and the interconnection of the unconnected branches present in the
internal framework of PU-foam, which indicates the existence of more conduction paths. Besides, the
fabricated Ti3C2Tx was deposited on cellulose paper to be utilized as a temperature sensor which
displayed B2.22  103 1C1 TCR and 29.43 meV activation energy. Lastly, real time applications for the
fabricated device are investigated including detecting an unknown position of an object and human
gestures. The successful demonstration of the low-cost, flexible Ti3C2Tx based piezoresistive sensor has
shown innovative applications in biomedical, security, educational, and health sectors.

Introduction biocompatible and fabricated over a large area. These stringent

In recent years, flexible and wearable electronics based sensors
have shown a wide range of scope for potential applications
such as artificial e-skin,1 health monitoring,2,3 flexible touch
displays,4 bio-monitoring,5 etc. Out of the above applications,
electronic skin (e-skin) has attracted a lot of interest due to its
ability to mimic skin and provide multifunctional behavior.6,7
Even though there are reports on the development of e-skin,
one of the issues that still remains is multifunctional sensing
(pressure, strain, and temperature) at the same time as retaining
high sensitivity.8 To exactly mimic skin, the sensor should be able
to detect pressure (touch sensation), strain (for human motion),
and temperature (body temperature) and further should be
a
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Birla Institute of Technology
and Science Pilani Hyderabad Campus, Hyderabad, 500078, India.
E-mail: parikshit@hyderabad.bits-pilani.ac.in
b
Ceremorphic, Inc., San Jose, California, 95131, USA
† Electronic supplementary information (ESI) available. See DOI: 10.1039/d1tb00947h
requirements coupled with the lack of low-cost fabrication tech-
niques elevate the issues of e-skin.9 Hence there is an urgent
need to design sensors which perform multifunctional sensing
and can be fabricated over a large area in a cost-effective manner
at the same time as retaining high sensitivity. Over the years,
researchers have focused on utilizing functional nanomaterials
for the fabrication of physical sensors but less importance has
been given to the substrate on which the functional materials are
utilized.8,10,11 To design highly sensitive physical sensors, the
substrate plays an important role and should be taken into
consideration along with the functional nanomaterial. There
are various substrates available which are the natural choice for
physical sensing because of their inherent excellent mechanical
properties and their ability to deform even upon the slightest
pressure. These include rubber, polyurethane (PU) foam, tissue
and cellulose paper, hydrogels, etc. Among them, PU foam has
gained attention due to its porous 3-dimensional cellular like
structure.12,13 In comparison to rubber, tissue, and cellulose paper
substrates, PU foam has high porosity, great compressibility, and a

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large specific surface area as well as being biocompatible.14 The
mechanical properties of PU foam are mainly dependent on its 3D
cellular matrix and the morphology of its cells.15 The compressive
Young’s modulus of PU foam plays a vital role in its use in physical
sensing applications, which can be further enhanced by the
addition of functional nanomaterials due to excellent dispersion,
chemical affinity, and load transfer.16 Another of the peculiar
properties of PU foam is its resemblance to spiders’ legs, which
possess excellent vibration sensation because of their crack-based
slit morphology. One of the possible solutions is to utilize a
functional nanomaterial possessing excellent mechanical and
electrical properties and deposit it on a substrate which has an
inherent nature to provide high sensitivity.
In the search for functional nanomaterials, 2D nanomaterials
have received the utmost interest due to their intriguing properties
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and high surface to volume ratio. In particular, transition metal
dichalcogenides (TMDs) have been widely explored for physical
sensing applications.17,18 Very recently, during an exploration to
find suitable materials for flexible pressure and strain sensors, a
new class of emergent 2D nanomaterials known as MXenes
(transition metal based carbide and nitrides) with the chemical
formula Mn+1XnTx, which are derived from MAX (i.e. M = early
transition metal, A = group-A element, X = C or N, n = 1 to 3)
phases, were found to be promising candidates owing to their
outstanding electronic properties with improved electrical
conductivity,19 reproducible synthesis procedure, etc.20 In 2011,
the first MXene Ti3C2Tx was synthesized and the field quickly
expanded with the discovery of around 30 different compositions
of MXenes to date. In general, to synthesize 2D materials there
are two methods. The first method is a bottom-up approach such
as CVD which can deposit high-quality thin films on different
substrates. This approach is not appropriate for MXenes because
the films obtained are not a single layer but extremely thin and
multi-layered. The second method is a top-down approach such
as etching followed by exfoliation, which is the most suitable
technique for MXenes and generates minimal e-waste in com-
parison to sophisticated techniques such as CVD. In particular,
for etching weaker metallic/van der Waals bonds present in
MAX phases various etching techniques were used i.e., (i) HF
etching, (ii) LiF + HCl etching (MILD method), (iii) hydrother-
mal etching, etc.20 Among all these techniques, the MILD
(minimally intensive layer delamination) method was found to
be non-toxic and the most efficient technique for synthesizing
MXene from the MAX phase because the obtained MXene
displayed enhanced electronic, mechanical, and thermal properties.
The synthesized MXenes have shown potential applications in
renewable energy generation and storage,21,22 optoelectronics,23
EMI (electromagnetic interference) shielding,24,25 sensors,26 etc. It
would be highly interesting to incorporate Ti3C2Tx possessing
excellent material properties with PU foam possessing excellent
substrate properties to obtain a synergistic combination to achieve
ultra-high sensitivity physical sensors.
In the present work, a pristine Ti3C2Tx based flexible pres-
sure and strain sensor was demonstrated, wherein the Ti3C2Tx
colloidal solution was deposited on the PU foam by using
the dip-coating technique. The fabricated sensor has shown
4524 | J. Mater. Chem. B, 2021, 9, 4523–4534
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Journal of Materials Chemistry B
remarkable sensitivity and gauge factor values of B34.24 kPa1
and B323.59, respectively. The stability of the device was tested for
30 days and displayed an infinitesimal change in performance.
The strength of the flexible device was tested in which the device
exhibited an insignificant change in performance even after
2500 bending cycles. Also, the fabricated device was utilized to
detect human gestures. Further, a large area MXene matrix (5  5)
was fabricated on a cellulose paper substrate which was developed
to detect the location and position of unknown objects. Further-
more, the backside of the cellulose paper was deposited with
Ti3C2Tx and used as a temperature sensor to display potential
applications in monitoring skin temperature. The successful
demonstration of the low-cost, flexible Ti3C2Tx based piezoresistive
sensor has shown potential applications in the fields of security,
education, health, etc.
Experimental section
Materials
Titanium aluminium carbide (Ti3AlC2) with an average particle
size of 40–60 mm was purchased from Intelligent Materials Pvt.
Ltd. Lithium fluoride (LiF, SRL, 98.5%) and hydrochloric acid
(HCl, 36–38%) were used as obtained without any additional
refinement.
Synthesis of multilayer Ti3C2Tx
The etching process of Al from Ti3AlC2 was performed using the
MILD (minimally intensive layer delamination) method. In brief,
0.8 grams of LiF was added to 10 mL HCl (6 M) and was
continuously stirred for 5 minutes. Later, 0.5 grams of Ti3AlC2
was added gradually (over 5 minutes (due to the exothermic
reaction)) to the above solution and kept with constant stirring at
700 rpm speed for 36 hours at 35 1C. The resultant colloidal
solution was washed with B150 mL of deionized water (resistivity =
B18.2 M O cm) for multiple wash cycles by centrifugation at
4000 rpm, 7000 rpm continuously for 30 minutes each cycle,
till the pH of the solution reaches Z6–7 (i.e., till the solution
pH becomes neutral). Furthermore, the solution was ultrasoni-
cated for 60 minutes in an ice bath. Finally, the resultant
Ti3C2Tx colloidal solution was kept drying for 24 hours at
120 1C in a hot air oven to obtain a multilayer free-standing
Ti3C2Tx ultra-thin film on a Petri dish. The typical synthesis of
the multilayer MXene solution employing the MILD method is
illustrated in Fig. 1 below.
Ti3C2Tx thin film deposition on PU foam
The Ti3C2Tx thin film deposition on PU foam was done in
two steps.
(i) Substrate cleaning.
(ii) Thin film deposition.
(i) Substrate cleaning. Initially, PU foam was cut into
2 cm  1.5 cm dimensions with 8.15 mm thickness and cleaned
thoroughly using DI water and isopropyl alcohol (IPA) followed
by drying at 80 1C for 2 hours repeatedly 3 times to ensure no
impurities were left on the surface of the foam.
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Fig. 1 Illustration of the typical synthesis of multilayer MXene using the MILD method.
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Fig. 2 The typical Ti3C2Tx thin film deposition on the flexible PU-foam substrate schematic procedure by using the dip-coating technique.
(ii) Thin film deposition. The pre-cleaned PU foam was
further utilized for Ti3C2Tx thin film deposition using the
dip coating technique, wherein the PU foams are immersed
in B30 mL of Ti3C2Tx colloidal solution initially and later dried
in a hot air oven for 3 hours at 80 1C. The entire process was
done B6 times until a uniform thin film of Ti3C2Tx was
deposited on the surface of the PU foam. The typical Ti3C2Tx
thin film deposition on the PU-foam schematic is shown in
Fig. 2 below.
Results and discussion
Material characterization
The X-ray diffraction spectra of the Ti3AlC2, partially exfoliated
Ti3C2Tx film, and fully exfoliated Ti3C2Tx film are depicted in
Fig. 3a. These XRD patterns confirm the successful formation
of the 2-dimensional Ti3C2Tx, wherein the obtained XRD pat-
tern of Ti3AlC2 was ascribed to typical diffraction peaks at 9.521
(0 0 2), 19.201 (0 0 4), 341 (1 0 1), 35.931 (1 0 3), 38.821 (0 0 8),
39.041 (1 0 4), 41.821 (1 0 5), 48.551 (1 0 7), and 56.401 (1 0 9)
with JCPDS number 52-0875. The eradication of the (1 0 4)
pattern at 39.041 and the alteration of the (0 0 2) pattern from
9.521 to 6.551 demonstrates the complete exfoliation of Al layers
from Ti3AlC2 and also the existence of –OH, –O, and –F terminal
groups in Ti3C2Tx film.27 The partial oxidation observed in the
spectra due to the entire thin film deposition on PU foam was
performed in open atmospheric conditions. The results obtained
are found to be consistent with the literature.20 Fig. 3b depicts
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the survey spectra of the Ti3C2Tx film deposited on the PU foam,
wherein Ti 3p, Ti 3s, C 1s, Ti 2p, O 1s, and Ti 2s are ascribed to
36.03 eV, 60.61 eV, 285.33 eV, 455.72 eV, 530.16 eV, and 562.70 eV
binding energies, respectively. Fig. 3c–e display the XPS spectra of
Ti 2p, C 1s, and O 1s. Fig. 3c displays the core level fitted with
4 doublet peaks of Ti 2p i.e., Ti 2p1/2 and Ti 2p3/2 with an area
ratio of 1 : 2, wherein the individual doublet is separated by
B6 eV binding energy. The Ti 2p3/2 components at 455.37,
456.49, 457.58, and 459.49 eV were ascribed to Ti–C (Ti+), Ti–X
(Ti2+), TixOy (Ti3+), and TiO2 (Ti4+), in which the Ti–X relates to
substoichiometric titanium oxycarbides or titanium carbides.28
The TiO2 peak existence at 459.49 eV indicates that the Ti3C2Tx
films are marginally oxidized during the process of deposition
using the as synthesized colloidal solution. Fig. 3d exhibits the
C 1s core level fitting with 5 components such as Ti–C, C–C,
–CH2 & –CH3, C–O, and –COO at 281.96, 284.38, 285.26, 286.63,
and 289.19 eV, respectively. Fig. 3e depicts the core level fitting of
O 1s with 3 components at 529.88, 530.93, and 532.78 eV, which
were assigned to O–Ti species, corresponding to amorphous or
crystalline TiO2 (O 1s a), CQO (O 1s b), and C–O (O 1s c),
respectively. The XPS spectra obtained for Ti3C2Tx film were
found to be consistent with the reported data.29,30 Fig. 3f displays
the Raman spectra of the Ti3C2Tx film on PU foam. The Raman
spectra were recorded on a Raman spectrometer with an excitation
wavelength of 532 nm. The Raman spectra of pristine Ti3C2Tx were
similar to the reported data, i.e. from 150 to 800 cm1.31 The
characteristic peaks observed at the Raman shift 203 cm1 were
ascribed to first-order out-of-plane vibrations related to Ti and
C,32 and the peaks observed at Raman shifts 403 and 630 cm1
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Fig. 3 (a) XRD patterns of Ti3AlC2, partially exfoliated Ti3C2Tx, and fully exfoliated Ti3C2Tx; (b) XPS survey spectra of Ti3C2Tx film deposited on PU foam;
(c)–(e) are XPS spectra for Ti 2p, C 1s, and O 1s, respectively; (f) Raman patterns of Ti3C2Tx ranging between 150 and 800 cm1; (g) FTIR spectra of Ti3C2Tx
film between 300–4000 cm1; (h) and (i) FESEM images of Ti3C2Tx thin film deposited on PU foam at various magnifications; and (j) a high-resolution
FESEM image of Ti3C2Tx film using the MILD method in cross-sectional view.
were attributed to the in-plane (shear) modes of Ti, C, and surface
functional groups of Ti3C2Tx film deposited on the PU foam.33,34
From the Raman spectra we can also infer that the Ti3C2Tx
solution was successfully synthesized from the Ti3AlC2 MAX
phase powder. The FTIR spectra of the Ti3C2Tx film are displayed
in Fig. 3g. The functional groups existing on the surface of the
Ti3C2Tx were analyzed using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR)
spectroscopy. The characteristic peaks were ascribed to the
stretching vibrations of –OH, CQO, O–H, C–F, and Ti–O bonds
at 3430 cm1, 1630 cm1, 1390 cm1, 1100 cm1, and 662 cm1,
respectively.35–38 The FESEM images of the Ti3C2Tx film on PU
foam at different magnifications are displayed in Fig. 3h and i. In
brief, the surface morphology displayed in Fig. 3h and i exhibited
a porous 3D-cellular like structure and internal framework of the
Ti3C2Tx deposited PU foam. Further, the high-resolution FESEM
image (i.e., at 65 000) of the as synthesized free standing Ti3C2Tx
thin film by employing the MILD method in a cross-sectional
view depicts the layered structure of Ti3C2Tx from the surface
morphology, which is displayed in Fig. 3j shown below.
Pressure sensing
The fabricated Ti3C2Tx sensor was employed for pressure
sensing. An external voltage of 1 volt was applied to the 2 cm 
1.5 cm dimensions Ti3C2Tx/PU-foam sensor by inserting copper
wires into both edges of the Ti3C2Tx film deposited PU foam to
4526 | J. Mater. Chem. B, 2021, 9, 4523–4534
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Journal of Materials Chemistry B
determine the pressure sensing properties. Fig. 4a displays the
digital photograph of the weight placed on the fabricated sensor,
which demonstrates the real time application. The I–V character-
istics of the fabricated sensor are illustrated in Fig. 4b and show
an increase in the value of the device current by an increase in the
pressure applied. The electrical conductivity of the sensor was
measured using the 4-probe technique and the value was found
to be B0.289 mS m1. The temporal response plot was measured
at various pressures applied to the fabricated sensor. Fig. 4c
displays the temporal response wherein a constant pressure of
B2.167 kPa was applied and the corresponding change in the
value of current was examined and it was seen that the sensor
was continually able to sense the applied pressure. The sensor
also exhibited a constant current change of B31.4 mA at an
applied pressure of B2.167 kPa. Similarly, for increasing pres-
sure, the same measurement was executed which is displayed in
Fig. 4d and e, wherein the sensor current increased with an
increase in the pressure under loading and unloading conditions
and this was found to be reliable with the results with the I–V
characteristics. It is interesting to note that there was a slight
variation in the response time as the pressure was increased.
Table S1 (ESI†) shows the variation of response time under
different pressures and can be found in the ESI.† The reason
for the slight change in response time can be attributed to
the manual pressure testing. Fig. 4f depicts the sensitivity plot,
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Fig. 4 (a) A digital photograph of external pressure applied to the pressure sensor, (b) I–V characteristics of the Ti3C2Tx/PU foam sensor, (c) temporal
response of the fabricated sensor under the constant pressure of B2.167 kPa, (d) temporal response of the fabricated sensor under different applied
pressures, (e) temporal response of the fabricated sensor to increased pressures under loading and unloading conditions, (f) sensitivity plot displaying a
sensitivity value of B34.24 kPa1, (g) the durability test of the sensor under the applied pressure of B2.167 kPa, and (h) the response time and recovery
time of the fabricated sensor is B316 ms and B357 ms, respectively, at 1.477 kPa of applied pressure.

a crucial plot of the pressure sensor. In this plot, sensitivity is denoted by DP. The Ti3C2Tx/PU-foam sensor exhibited a remark-
defined as S = (DI/I0)/DP, where I0 is the initial current where no able sensitivity of B34.24 kPa1, which is displayed in Fig. 4f,
pressure is applied, changes in the current due to applied pressure wherein the normalized current was plotted against applied
are denoted by DI and the change in the applied pressure is pressure. Further, the sensor was subjected to B2500 cycles to

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test its durability which is shown in Fig. 4g. In particular, an
insignificant change was seen during the durability test, which
indicated the extremely robust nature of the fabricated Ti3C2Tx/
Pu-foam sensor. The response time and recovery time of the
fabricated sensor are B316 ms and B357 ms, respectively, at
1.477 kPa of applied pressure, as displayed in Fig. 4h. It should
be noted that the maximum pressure applied was 3.185 kPa as
the intended applications demand the pressure to be sensed in
the range of 1–2 kPa. To test whether the fabricated sensor can
withstand high pressures, the fabricated sensor was subjected
to higher pressures (6 kPa) and, as expected, the device current
increased upon the application of high pressures. The graph
showing the response of the fabricated device can be found in
the ESI† as Fig. S1.
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was deposited on PU foam and utilized as a flexible strain sensor
which is resilient to different strains applied. Fig. 5a displays the
temporal response plot of the fabricated sensor under the con-
stant compressive strain of 10%. The temporal response plot of
the Ti3C2Tx sensor under various compressive strains is depicted
in Fig. 5b and c, wherein the sensor current was increased by
varying the applied strain at various bending angles. It is inter-
esting to note that there was a slight variation in the response
time as the applied strain was increased. Table S2 (ESI†) showing
the variation of response time under different applied strains can
be found in the ESI.† The reason for a slight change in the
response time can be attributed to the manual strain testing.
The durability test of the fabricated sensor was validated by
subjecting it to 2500 cycles of compressive strain, as shown in
the temporal response plot of Fig. 5d. The key parameter of the

Strain sensing flexible strain sensor is the gauge factor, which is defined as
 
The urgent requirement of low cost, high sensitivity based strain DI=I0
GF ¼ where DI is current variation upon strain loading,
sensors plays a vital role in the progress of wearable electronics.39–41 De
Further, to validate real time applications, a Ti3C2Tx thin film e is strain applied to the sensor and I0 is the initial current. The

Fig. 5 (a) Temporal response of the fabricated sensor under the constant applied strain of 10%, (b) and (c) temporal response of the fabricated sensor
under different applied compressive strains, (d) the durability test of the sensor under the constant applied strain of 10%, (e) the normalized current
was plotted again compressive strain and the gauge factor value was B323.59, and (f) the response time and recovery time of the fabricated sensor
is B 510 ms and B65 ms, respectively, at 5% of applied strain.

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fabricated Ti3C2Tx/PU-foam based sensor has displayed a remark-
able gauge factor value of B323.59 by plotting normalized
current against the various applied strains, as depicted in
Fig. 5e. It is admirable to note that the gauge factor measured
was elevated in comparison to the gauge factor of the fabricated
devices using advanced methods.41–43 The response time and
recovery time of the flexible Ti3C2Tx based strain sensor were
calculated as B510 ms and B65 ms, as illustrated in Fig. 5f. The
measurement was also performed when the sensor was subjected
to 420% tensile strain. As expected, there was an increase in the
device current observed, but the sensor current did not achieve
the baseline after the release of the strain. This can be attributed
to the fact that strain 420% are causing permanent cracks in the
PU foam which leads to unreliable data. Hence the sensor
performance was restricted to 20% of applied strain. Further, to
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point out that the maximum bending strain that can be applied
also depends upon the length of the fabricated sensor.44,45 If
more than 20% of strain needs to be applied, the fabricated
device should have larger lengths. The graph showing the
performance of the sensor with varying length (maximum strain
applied) can be found in the ESI† as Fig. S2.
Sensing mechanism of the flexible Ti3C2Tx/PU foam sensor
The sensing mechanism of the flexible Ti3C2Tx/PU foam sensor
is described by analyzing the effective resistance offered by the
sensor due to the application of the external stimuli. The major
reason for a substantial increase in the current response of the
fabricated device was due to the interconnection of the
branches which are not connected in the porous 3-D framework
of the as deposited Ti3C2Tx/PU foam displayed in the FESEM
image (i.e., in Fig. 3h) upon the application of external pressure
and strain to the device. Considering the structure of the PU
foam, it can be modeled as resistors connected in parallel.
Further, an assumption is made that Ti3C2Tx deposition is
uniform and each branch of the PU possesses the same resis-
tance. Under a pristine state when no external pressure is
applied, some of the branches are not connected (as evidenced
from low magnification FESEM images) leading to an effective
resistance of Reffective. Upon external pressure, the number of
parallel branches contributing to the resistance increases,
which decreases the effective resistance (Reffective_pressure),
Fig. 6 A schematic for the sensing mechanism of the Ti3C2Tx/PU foam sensor, which displays the less effective resistance of the device under external
pressure/strain in comparison to the as-deposited Ti3C2Tx on PU foam (i.e. Reffective_pressure/strain o Reffective).
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thereby increasing the current. As the applied pressure increases,
the number of parallel branches increases, which further
decreases the effective resistance. Further, the conductivity also
increases due to the overlapping of the individual Ti3C2Tx
nanosheet as evidenced from the FESEM images, which causes
increases in the tunneling current. The authors anticipate that
both these phenomena are responsible for the increase in the
sensor current upon external pressure. A similar physical mecha-
nism holds good for strain sensing. When the device was subjected
to compressive strain i.e., the device bent inwards, there was an
interconnection of the unconnected branches of PU foam which
indicates the existence of more conduction paths, which increases
the current, thereby reducing the resistance (Reffective_strain) of the
fabricated sensor. Upon application of tensile strain, even though
the device was bent outwards there was an increment in the
current observed due to the symmetry of the PU foam wherein
the upper region of the PU foam experiences tensile strain, the
lower portion would be in compressive strain and hence it is
anticipated that there would be more parallel resistance branches
connected which decreases the effective resistance. A schematic
for the sensing mechanism of the Ti3C2Tx/PU foam sensor is
depicted in Fig. 6 below.
Applications
Human motion monitoring. The human motion monitoring
was examined thoroughly with the help of wearable strain
sensors. The fabricated Ti3C2Tx based sensor was employed to
detect different human movements. The current variations in
the device were observed by the incorporation of the Ti3C2Tx
sensing device onto human fingers, which is demonstrated in
Fig. 7a. Subsequently, by applying more strain (i.e., bending
angles), a corresponding increase in the amplitude of current
was seen. Fig. 7b demonstrates the inclusion of the sensor on the
elbow of an individual and proportionate changes in the device
current at different elbow bending angles. Later, analogous
measurements were performed for the sensor placed on the wrist
and alteration in angles of the wrist displayed elevation in the
current of the sensor which is shown Fig. 7c. The fabricated
device was further used on the human neck, wherein the posture
of the neck indicates the beneficial applications to identify the
incorrect sitting position of an individual, as depicted in Fig. 7d.
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Fig. 7 The MXene (Ti3C2Tx) based sensor affixed to an individual to sense various bending angles of (a) the finger joint, (b) elbow, (c) wrist, (d) neck, and
(e) knee and (f) walking and running, which illustrates a wide range of exceptional human motion detection.
Fig. 7e illustrates the integration of the sensor on the knee of an
individual and similar measurements, i.e. alteration in the device
current, were detected. This kind of sensor could find potential
applications in tracking the fitness of an individual while perform-
ing physical activities etc. Finally, the fabricated sensor was also
utilized to distinguish walking and running movement, which is
evidently displayed in Fig. 7f. During walking motion by landing on
and lifting the sensor, variations in current were noticed. Further, in
running motion, incisive peaks and an increase in the frequency
of the response exhibited exceptional properties for detecting
significant gestures of an individual. Also, to check the stability of
the fabricated sensor when in contact with water, the fabricated
Ti3C2Tx/PU foam based sensor was dipped in DI water for
30 seconds, dried in a hot air oven, and later utilized for performing
the electrical characterization to plot the temporal response of the
sensor at an applied constant pressure and strain. Subsequently, a
minimal change was observed in the temporal response of the
fabricated sensor which indicates the excellent stability of the sensor
upon contact with water. The corresponding temporal response
plots of the fabricated sensor are shown in Fig. S3 of the ESI.†
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Besides, the fabricated Ti3C2Tx sensing device was also
utilized to fabricate a 5  5 array integrated on the copper tape
which is attached to the cellulose paper. Cellulose paper was
chosen as it can support large area uniform deposition and is
biocompatible. Our group has recently demonstrated the large area
deposition of NiS on cellulose paper using the vacuum filtration
method. Further, cellulose paper has good mechanical strength and
is low-cost, and most importantly it is bio-compatible, which is the
requirement for the intended application.46 In brief, an array
consists of a total of 25 devices with 10 mm  10 mm inscribed
on the Cu tape affixed 60 mm  60 mm cellulose paper and later Cu
tapes were used to cover the surface of each device. The connections
are given by incorporating Cu wires into each device, wherein
Cu tape placed below the device to cover was considered as a
common connection. The detailed schematic for the fabrication
of the 5  5 sensor array matrix is depicted in Fig. 8. The main
objective of the array fabrication was to identify the position
and shape of unknown objects placed on the array. The
pressure spatial mapping for each pixel of the array is depicted
in Fig. 9a, which helps to identify the shape and position of an
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Fig. 8 A schematic for the fabrication of a 5  5 sensor array matrix, which was utilized as a multifunctional sensor.

Fig. 9 (a) The 5  5 Ti3C2Tx based sensor array identifying the location and positions of an unknown object and equivalent pressure distribution, (b) the
various hand trace patterns sensing and equivalent pressure distribution, and (c) the sensor array instantaneously pressed by two fingers and the
equivalent pressure distribution map.

unknown object. The accuracy of detection of the trace will be applications (i.e., in regularly used cellular phones, bank lockers,
further enhanced by increasing the size of the array. Fig. 9b etc.), wherein the exact trace path of the device was identified.
demonstrates the numerous hand trace patterns in security Furthermore, to verify the operating tangible sensor array,

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Paper
two pixels (‘‘5’’, ‘‘21’’) were instantaneously pressed (lightly)
utilizing the fingers, as indicated in Fig. 9c. The pressure response
of the sensor array was mapped utilizing a 2-dimensional color-
coding graph. It is apparent that the exact location of the finger
touch i.e., an arbitrary point of contact with superior reliability, was
validated by displaying outstanding artificial e-skin performance.
Furthermore, to check the more real-time application of the
fabricated sensor for identifying the pressure spatial distribution
at different weights, the resistance pattern of the BITSH (i.e., Birla
Institute of Technology and Science Hyderabad) was noted where
these 5 letters are observed by using a 5  5 sensor array as
explained above, which is shown in Fig. 10a below. This helps to
find potential applications in the field education sector etc. The
other side of the cellulose paper (i.e., the backside of the 5 
5 sensor array) was deposited with a Ti3C2Tx thin film employing
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the vacuum filtration technique. Fig. 10b depicts the digital
Fig. 10 (a) An illustration of the 5  5 sensor array for identifying the pressure spatial distribution at different weights, (b) a digital photograph of the
Ti3C2Tx thin film deposited on decomposable cellulose paper, (c) a graph of resistance vs. temperature, and (d) the Arrhenius plot.
4532 | J. Mater. Chem. B, 2021, 9, 4523–4534
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Journal of Materials Chemistry B
photograph of the Ti3C2Tx film deposited on cellulose paper,
which was later utilized as a temperature sensor by connecting the
top and bottom ends of the device with Cu contacts. Further,
measurements are noted by placing the device in closer proximity
to a hot plate (i.e., B3–4 mm distance) by increasing the temperature
to 140 1C from 27 1C for demonstrating the real-time application.
From Fig. 10c, it is evident that by increasing the temperature (i.e.,
the range in between 27–140 1C), a corresponding decrease in the
value resistance was observed, i.e., a negative temperature coefficient
of resistance (TCR) of the device was demonstrated. Preceding each
measurement, a stop time of B10 seconds was fixed for maintaining
the temperature stabilization. In particular, the device has shown
excellent detection capabilities i.e., an increase in the temperature
value by 1 1C has shown a marginal decrease in the resistance of
the device. The fabricated sensor has displayed a TCR value of
B2.22  103 1C1 defined by a = 1/R0  (dR/dT), wherein R0 is the
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Table 1 A performance comparison of the present piezoresistive based sensor with the reported literature

Gauge
Material Substrate Deposition method Range of detection Pressure sensitivity factor Ref.
1
MoS2 Si/SiO2 Metal oxide CVD 1 to 120 kPa 0.011 kPa — 50
Ti3C2Tx nanosheets Tissue paper Dip coating, screen printing 10.2 Pa to 30 kPa 3.81 kPa1 at 980 Pa — 49
to 10.2 kPa
Ti3C2Tx Polyimide Ink-jet printing, magnetron e = 1% — 180 51
sputtering
MWCNT Ecoflex Spray coating e = 0–100% — 30 48
Graphene PU sponge Dip coating 13–260 Pa 1.04 kPa1 — 52
Ti3C2Tx@chitosan PU sponge Dip coating 6.5 to 85.1 kPa, e = 0–85% 0.015 kPa1 3 53
MWCNT–rGO PU foam Dip coating e = 50–80% — 2.3 54
WSe2 nanosheets Filter paper Dip coating, exfoliation 2–200 kPa 6.54 kPa1, 0.81 kPa1 at — 55
2–25 kPa, 30–100 kPa
Ti3C2Tx/rGO aerogel Polyimide Encapsulation 115 Pa to 570 Pa 22.56 kPa1 — 56
Ti3C2Tx nanosheets PU foam Dip coating 1.477 kPa to 34.48 kPa1 323.59 This
3.185 kPa/e = 5–20% work
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initial resistance of the device. The measured temperature coefficient
of the resistance value was observed to be greater than the com-
mercially existing platinum-based temperature sensors. An elevation
in the value of TCR indicates that the sensor is more sensitive to
temperature variations. The activation energy of the Ti3C2Tx/PU foam
sensor was measured to be 29.43 meV by plotting ln(R) which was
linearly fitted against the reciprocal of temperature, as displayed in
Fig. 10d. The greater the value of the activation energy implies the
sensor is more sensitive to temperature changes.47 The Ti3C2Tx/
PU-foam device based on temperature sensing capabilities found
prominent applications in wearable electronics to determine the
temperature changes of the human body.
State of the art
In the past decade, significant research has been carried out on
2D materials based piezoresistive sensors (Table 1), which find
prominent applications in human gesture detection, flexible
touch displays, educational sector, health care, etc. Ahn et al.
fabricated ultrathin flexible MoS2 based tactile sensors that
were used as a piezoresistive pressure sensor and the observed
sensitivity was 0.011 kPa1 in the 1–120 kPa detection range.
A multiwalled CNT eco flex substrate based strain sensor
was demonstrated for several real-time positions and motion
monitoring which displayed a gauge factor of 30.48 The high
price and inadequate production of CNTs make it challenging
for large-scale development. Recently, a new class of 2D materi-
als named MXenes has gained a wide range of scope for
physical sensing applications. Lately, Yu et al. fabricated a
flexible wearable MXene (Ti3C2Tx) paper based transient pres-
sure sensor by the dip-coating technique, which exhibited a
sensitivity of 3.81 kPa1 between 980 Pa to 10.2 kPa pressure
range.49 Further, Gao et al. demonstrated a highly flexible, sensitive
MXene based piezoresistive sensor with significantly altered inter-
layer distances by utilizing the magnetron sputtering method, which
displayed a gauge factor of 180 for the detection range under 1%.
In the present study, we demonstrated a flexible and wearable
MXene (Ti3C2Tx/PU foam) based device by employing a dip-
coating method, which exhibited a remarkable sensitivity
of B34.24 kPa1 and an elevated gauge factor value of B323.59,
and was utilized in detecting various human motions and locating
the positions of unknown objects, which further finds exciting
applications in the field of flexible and wearable electronics.
Conclusions
In conclusion, an as synthesized pristine Ti3C2Tx colloidal
solution was utilized to deposit a uniform thin film on flexible
PU foam which is a porous 3-dimensional structure, by utilizing
a dip-coating method. Moreover, an ultra-high sensitivity of
B34.24 kPa1, improved gauge factor of B323.59, and excellent
stability after 2500 cycles were achieved which implies the
robustness of the device. Besides, the fabricated Ti3C2Tx flexible
wearable device was utilized as a temperature sensor and also
for detecting an unknown position of an object and human
gestures. The detailed sensing mechanism is explained in terms
of the effective resistance of the parallel branches of the PU foam.
The successful demonstration of a low-cost, flexible Ti3C2Tx
based piezoresistive sensor has shown innovative applications
in the field of flexible and wearable electronics.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgements
PS acknowledges funding from SERB (SRG/2020/000098). PS
acknowledges the Birla Institute of Technology and Science
Pilani, Hyderabad Campus for ACRG funding. The authors are
grateful to the Central Analytical Laboratory, BITS Pilani Hyder-
abad Campus for the assistance in material characterization.
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