CHAPTER 1

Basics of ferrites
Shyam K. Gore, Santosh S. Jadhav
D. S. M’s Arts, Commerce and Science College, Jintur, Maharashtra, India

1.1 Introduction
Energy plays a crucial role in human life and environment protection. The economy of
the whole word depends on the generation, storage, harvesting, and transportation pol-
icies of energy. Today, energy production mainly depends on fossil fuels, which severely
affects world’s ecology. Therefore, use of high-performance and eco-friendly renewable
energy devices is on high demand [1]. The market of energy storage devices increases and
is expected to grow at 19.8% compound annual growth rate during the period of
2019e24. The Mackenzie power and renewable report energy storage requirement
will be about 158 GWh at 2024. The above demand is equal to $71 billion investment
into storage devices. Mostly, this growth is concern with the United States and China,
which is about 54% of global deployment in year 2024. The most challenging issue is
the energy scarcity and security, climate change, and rise in oil prices. Exhaustion of fossil
fuel, climate change, increase of population, and pollution are serious issues in upcoming
years for maintaining clean eco-system, thereby sustainable, efficient, and hygienic en-
ergy sources, in addition to new efficient technologies, for energy conservation and stor-
age are of high essence. All the above issues can be fulfilled by fuel cells, batteries, and
supercapacitors that basically are considered as energy storage systems [2,3]. These tech-
nologies obey different principles but are employed to store energy for different applica-
tions. Electrochemical supercapacitor (ES) is one of the energy storage technologies
which has the capability of handling a high power and energy due to surface storing
mechanism [4]. The basic aim of ES devices is to provide a high power density, longer
cycle life than batteries, and high power density than dielectric capacitors, which have
made them potential entity in digital cameras, hybrid electrical vehicles, industrial equip-
ment and electronic items including toys, motors, and small-scale machineries [5]. Ac-
cording to storage criteria, ESs are classified as: electric double layer supercapacitors
(EDLSs), pseudocapacitors and hybrid capacitors (combination of ELDCs & pseudo-ca-
pacitors). The operation of ESs is different than batteries but they are complementary for
storage of energy and specific power. The ES devices with high specific energy, power,
and suitable cell design can store a large amount of energy; therefore, they obtained a
place between batteries and conventional capacitors. As electrodes are merged within
electrolytic solution on avoiding electrolytic ions diffusion, ESs are free from the short
circuiting or direct contacting. On the other hand, conventional capacitors consist of

Spinel Ferrite Nanostructures for Energy Storage Devices © 2020 Elsevier Inc.
ISBN 978-0-12-819237-5, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819237-5.00001-8 All rights reserved. 1
2 Spinel Ferrite Nanostructures for Energy Storage Devices

dielectric materials and metal plates for electrostatic charge storage kinetics. In the
rechargeable batteries, power density or charging and discharging rate depends on inter-
calation and deintercalation of cations [6]. The hybrid supercapacitors have capability to
store a large amount of charges in comparison to rechargeable batteries [7]. The hybrid
supercapacitors are promising devices for fast operation with high power energy output.
The developments of hybrid supercapacitor are shifting to achieve high energy density,
extensive cycle life, and adequate speed kinetics with enhanced security.

1.1.1 Classification of energy storage devices

Basically, the types of energy storage devices include batteries, fuel cells and supercapa-
citors. The difference between them resides in a fact that a fuel cell converts available fuel
to energy, while battery and supercapacitor store energy within themselves. Fuel cell can
use battery or supercapacitor for storing energy generated by it. Batteries and super-
capacitors are basically composed of two electrodes, with separator in between them,
which are surrounded by an electrolyte solution.

1.1.2 Fuel cells

A fuel cell is an energy device that converts chemical energy into electric energy [8]. The
fuel cell uses hydrogen H2 and oxygen O2 as fuel. It consists of cathode and anode with
electrolyte membrane. The reaction between electrodes is to transfer charges from cath-
ode to anode and produces electricity. Hydrogen and oxygen act as fuels in a fuel cell.
The reaction between hydrogen and oxygen from air produces water as by-product
with generation of heat and electricity [9]. The fuel cells are classified on the basis of elec-
trolyte used. In the fuel cell, hydrogen reacts with the anode and causes oxidation reac-
tion to generate positively charged ions and electrons. Fuel cell requires continuous fuel
as well as oxygen from air for its operation, which is quite different than conventional
battery operation. The potential produced by fuel cell is very less, i.e., close to 0.7 V.
The requirement of more voltage can be fulfilled by connecting few fuel cells in series
for desired applications. Fuel cells are commercially used in buses, motorcycles, boats,
and various vehicles which are classified according to type of electrolyte used, such as
solid state fuel cell, proton exchange membrane fuel cell, alkaline fuel cell, phosphoric
acid fuel cell and high-temperature fuel cell, etc.

1.1.3 Batteries
Battery is a device which provides constant voltage with two terminals known as anode
of positive polarity and cathode of negative polarity as the external terminals for devices
to be connected. The current flows from positive terminal to negative terminal on con-
necting to the load. The electrical energy is produced in the battery by a chemical reac-
tion taking place between the cathode and anode in presence of electrolytic solution.
 Basics of ferrites 3

Batteries are classified into two categories: primary and secondary. The batteries which do
not recharge are known as primary and the batteries which can be charged several times
are the secondary batteries [10]. In primary battery, continuous reaction takes place,
which cannot be reversed where active carbonaceous materials are generally used, which
once reacted do not go back to their original form. Primary batteries are compact and
portable. Zinc-carbon alkaline primary batteries are used for several applications. In sec-
ondary batteries, original form of materials can be maintained by reversing the reactions.
The most popular batteries are lead acid which are used in vehicles and other applications.
Another type, i.e., dry batteries, is used in mobile devices such as cell phones, laptops, and
cameras. These are lithium ion (Li-ion), nickel cadmium (Ni-Cd), and nickel metal hy-
droxide (NiMH) batteries where the charging and discharging processes are very slow;
therefore, continuous reaction, inside the battery, degrades the electrode material. As a
result, both life and power density are mitigating with time.

1.1.4 Electrochemical supercapacitors

ESs are charge storage devices like batteries. They also called as ultracapacitors or hybrid
capacitors and consist of cathode, anode, electrolyte, and separator. The electrolytes are
of different types like liquid, solid, and gel which play an important role for redox reac-
tion in supercapacitor. Two types of ESs exist, namely EDLS and faradaic supercapacitor
(FS). EDLSs have inactive electrochemical material such as carbon particles. During
charging/discharging process, chemical reaction takes place at the electrode material
[11]. FSs are consisting of electrochemically active materials which store charges directly
during charging/discharging process [12]. The ESs endow several advantages over batte-
ries and fuel cells that include a long charging/discharging cycle, high power density,
long shelf life, high efficiency, a wide range of operating temperatures, and economic
and eco-friendly character [2]. Due to increasing demand of energy, ESs got a niche place
in market where high power density, long cycling life, and high energy are essential
criteria where, the use of abundant, cost-effective, and novel electrode materials rather
than routinely used expensive and limited rare earth electrode materials is inevitable.

1.1.5 Ferrites
The development of magnetism begins with Greek philosopher Thales in sixth century
recognized magnet as an attracting (magic) object. The naturally found ferrous oxide
(Fe3O4) rock named magnetite is an attracting iron. The rocks showing mutual attracting
properties were named magnesia in Asia Minor. The first metallic magnet was introduced
by William Gilbert in CE 1600 for compass as iron needle [13]. The actual use of ferrites
began from 1930 and its structural, electrical, and magnetic properties are extensively
studied by many researchers including Snoek [14]. The ferrites being insulating materials
of a very high electrical resistivity, low eddy current, high magnetic permeability,
4 Spinel Ferrite Nanostructures for Energy Storage Devices

moderate permittivity, and low dielectric losses [15,16]. Ferrites are the only materials
that are showing these wide range of properties and therefore are suitable to use in
many fields for various applications. Ferrites are very sensitive to preparative methods,
amount of constitute metal oxides, type and amount of dopants and sintering tempera-
tures, etc. [17,18].
Ferrites are strongly depending on the way that they formed, i.e., spinel, garnet, and
hexa-ferrites, which are discussed elsewhere of this book. Every ferrite is unique with its
own identity and properties which is useful for technological applications. The spinel fer-
rites have general formula A2þ B3þ2 O4 where A is the divalent transition element like Fe,
Co, Ni, Zn, etc., and B is the trivalent iron [19]. The hexagonal ferrites avail general for-
mula A2þFe12O19 where, A2þ ¼ Ba, Ca, and Sr are transition elements. Garnet has for-
mula R3þFe5O12 where R ¼ Sm, Y, Eu, Gd, and Tb are rare earth elements. Spinel
ferrites demonstrate the MFe2O4 chemical formula where, M ¼ Ni, Co, Mn, Zn, and
Mg are divalent transition elements. The spinel ferrites exhibit a close-packed cubic crys-
tal structure with oxygen and metal ions. The crystal of the spinel is divided into two lat-
tice sites namely tetrahedral (A) and octahedral (B) where, cations of different valencies
can be incorporated.

1.1.6 Magnetism in ferrites

The magnetism in ferrite materials is a result of spin of an electron about its own axis.
Electromagnet can be produced by conductor wound on the base, and magnetic field
is produced in the coil during flow of electricity through coil. Electricity is due to move-
ment of electrons, so each electron works as nanoelectromagnet. The circulating electron
thus produces its own orbital magnetic moment and spin magnetic moment (Fig. 1.1)
measured as Bohr magneton (mB).
The magnetic moment is produced by electron because it has electric charge, and the
spinning of electron creates movement of charge or electric current. The magnetic
moment of atoms is the vector sum of orbital and spin moments of the electron in its
outer shell. The fundamental unit of magnetic moment is Bohr magneton. One Bohr
magneton (1 mB) is equal to the sum of orbital and spin movements of the electron.

Figure 1.1 Orbital and spinning moments of electron around the nucleus.
 Basics of ferrites 5

The spinning of electron is of two ways: clockwise and counterclockwise, which decides
the direction of magnetic moment. The clockwise spinning of electron produces mag-
netic moment in downward direction. The counterclockwise rotation results in upward
magnetic moment. If a pair of electrons in an atom shows clockwise and counterclock-
wise spins, the net magnetic moment is zero. The net magnetic moment in an atom is
due to unpaired electrons only. The ferrous ion Fe2þ has four unpaired electrons as
two electrons are removed from 4s, and ferric ion Fe3þ has five unpaired electrons as
two electrons are removed from 4s and one electron from 3d. These unpaired electrons
contribute to the net magnetic moment.

1.2 Magnetic materials

When a material responds to applied magnetic field by producing magnetization in it, it is
called magnetic material. The magnetization (M) produced in the material is a measure of
magnetic moment per unit volume. The applied field (H) produces magnetic induction
(B), which is the total number of magnetic field lines passing through unit area of the
material. The magnetization “M,” applied field “H,” and magnetic induction “B” are
related to one another through
B ¼ 4pM þ H (1.1)
B ¼ m0 ðM þ HÞ (1.2)
where, m0 is the permeability of free space.
Magnetic susceptibility is the parameter that tells how a material responds to applied
magnetic field. The relation between magnetization M and the intensity of applied field
H is as follows.
c ¼ M=H (1.3)
The permeability is another parameter that discovers the ability of a material to allow
magnetic field to develop in it. It is also defined as the depth of magnetization in response
to an applied field intensity.
m ¼ B=H (1.4)
The units of magnetization are given in Table 1.1.

1.3 Types of magnetic materials

The magnetic materials are classified, according to their magnetic behavior, into five
types by measuring their magnetic susceptibility. The most common forms of magnetic
materials include diamagnetic, paramagnetic, ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic, and
ferrimagnetic.
6 Spinel Ferrite Nanostructures for Energy Storage Devices

Table 1.1 Magnetic parameters and relation between CGS and SI unit.(G ¼ Gauss, Oe ¼ Oersted,
T ¼ Tesla).
CGS unit
Gaussian SI unit CGS to SI
1
Magnetization (M) e Am 103(4p)1
Magnetic induction (B) G T 104
Applied field (H) Oe A m1 103
Magnetization (4pM) G e 103
Permeability (m) Dimensionless H m1 4p107
Susceptibility (c) Emu cm3Oe1 Dimensionless e

1.3.1 Diamagnetic
The diamagnetic materials do not have magnetic moment in absence of applied field.
When magnetic field is applied, electron spinning produces a magnetization (M) in a di-
rection opposite to applied field. Materials showing diamagnetic effect are a very small
number. Magnetic susceptibility is small and negative. The susceptibility value is inde-
pendent of temperature.

1.3.2 Paramagnetic
The magnetic moments of atoms are randomly orientated due to thermal agitation.
When magnetic field is applied, a few aligned magnetic moments produce a low magne-
tization in the direction of the field applied. Susceptibility of paramagnetic material is
small and positive.

1.3.3 Ferromagnetic
The magnetic moments of all atoms in the lattice are in parallel to each other and such
material are known as ferromagnetic. The theory of ferromagnetism is proposed by Weiss
with the help of magnetic domains. The magnetic domain in the material is the area
where magnetic moments are aligned in a single direction. The domains in the material
determine the magnetization of material with application of magnetic field. The align-
ments of magnetic moments in ferromagnetic material decrease with temperature. The
temperature at which thermal agitation increases leads to decrease of alignment of mag-
netic moments and then material becomes paramagnetic, is called Curie temperature
(Tc). Few elements such as Fe, Co, and Ni confirm ferromagnetic behavior. The suscep-
tibility is large in ferromagnetic materials.

1.3.4 Antiferromagnetic
In the antiferromagnetic materials, magnetic exchange interaction occurs between neigh-
boring atoms, which results in antiparallel alignment of magnetic moments. The
 Basics of ferrites 7

magnetic fields of spins in the antiparallel alignment cancel out to each other and the net
magnetic moment is very low like paramagnetic material. The susceptibility is low and
positive for antiferromagnetic materials.

1.3.5 Ferrimagnetic
Ferrimagnetism is not observed in pure elements. It is observed in the compound which
has a complex crystal structure. Such crystal structure can have parallel alignment of mag-
netic moments in one side and antiparallel alignment on the other side. The magnetic
domains break the material into parts like ferromagnetic material. Saturation magnetiza-
tion in ferrimagnetic material is less than ferromagnetic.

1.4 Properties of magnetic materials

The magnetic materials have intrinsic properties which depend on the material charac-
teristics. These are saturation magnetization and magnetocrystalline anisotropy.

1.4.1 Saturation magnetization

The highest amount of magnetic field energy developed by the material is called satura-
tion magnetization (Ms). The magnetic materials have a number of domains. When
external field is applied to material domain, walls rotate and reframe as a single domain
material. At the saturation magnetization, direction of applied field and easy magnetiza-
tion axis match. It depends on the magnetic moments in atoms which can be affected by
electronic structure in compound and nature of atoms. The crystal structure and the pres-
ence of nonmagnetic elements determine the density of the magnetic moments of atoms
within the crystal. The saturation magnetization depends on the alignment of magnetic
moments and surrounding temperature. As thermal vibration increases the misalignment
reduces Ms.

1.5 Spinel ferrites

The spinel phase and cubic crystal structure of ferrite is noted in magnesium aluminum
oxide (MgAl2O4). The spinel structure has many commercial applications, which is one
of the the most important oldest magnetic materials. Magnetite, Fe3O4, a natural spinel
oxide, is abundant, chemically stable, and environmentally robust. Spinels have close-
packed crystal structure where transition element cations occupy sites influenced by
several factors such as crystal field energy and covalent bonding effect of metal cations
[20]. The ideal structure of spinel is close-packed cubic array of oxygen atoms with
one-eighth of a tetrahedral sites and one-half of octahedral sites occupied by the cations
[21]. The tetrahedral sites are called as A-sites and octahedral sites are B-sites. The smallest
8 Spinel Ferrite Nanostructures for Energy Storage Devices

unit of the crystal is called as unit cell, which contains eight tetrahedral A-sites and sixteen
octahedral B-sites with thirty-two oxygen ions. The position of oxygen atom in the
spinel lattice is not at the exact position in the structure, but it is determined by the ox-
ygen parameter ‘u’ value. The ideal value of oxygen parameter for close-packed arrange-
ment of oxygen is 0.375 in unit cell [22]. The ideal situation never meets and mostly the
value of ‘u’ varies from 0.375 to 0.385. The ratio of cations at tetrahedral and octahedral
sites determines this value. The average value of cation radii determines the cell parameter
value “a.” The lattice parameter can be expressed by considering average projections of
tetrahedral and octahedral bond lengths in the unit cell as follows.
8ðTetra bond lengthÞ 8ðocta bond lengthÞ
a¼ pffiffiffi þ (1.5)
3 3 3
Site radii and interatomic distances in spinel structure as a function of unit cell edge
“a” and oxygen parameter value “u” are given as follows.
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
A  O separation ðTetrahedral  OÞ ¼ a 3ðu  0:25Þ (1.6)
 
43 1=2
B  O separation ðOctahedral  OÞ ¼ a 3u  2:75u þ 2
(1.7)
64
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Tetrahedral site radius ¼ a 3ðu  0:25Þ  Ro (1.8)
 
43 1=2
Octahedral site radius ¼ a 3u  2:75u þ
2
 Ro (1.9)
64
rffiffiffi
3
A  A separation ðtetra  tetraÞ ¼ a (1.10)
4
rffiffiffi
2
B  B separation ðocta  octaÞ ¼ a (1.11)
4
rffiffiffiffiffi
11
A  B separation ðtetra  octaÞ ¼ a (1.12)
8

1.6 Classification of spinel ferrites

The spinel ferrites are classified into three types depending on distributions of the cations
into the tetrahedral and octahedral sublattices during structural formation of spinel ferrite
namely normal spinel, inverse spinel, and mixed spinel.
 Basics of ferrites 9

1.6.1 Normal spinel

The spinel structure in which divalent cations accommodate tetrahedral site only and
trivalent Fe3þcations accommodate octahedral site is a normal spinel structure. The struc-
tural formula is
[M2þ]Tetra [Fe3þ] Octra O4
where, M is the divalent cations and tetra, octra indicate tetrahedral and octahedral sites,
respectively, accommodated by cations. Here, each site is accommodated by only one
type of cation. Example of normal spinel is ZnFe2O4 where, the divalent Zn2þ
accommodates tetrahedral site and Fe3þ accommodates octahedral site [23].

1.6.2 Inverse spinel

The spinel structure in which divalent cations accommodate the octahedral site and triva-
lent Fe3þ cations accommodate tetrahedral as well as octahedral sites is an inverse spinel
structure. The structural formula for inverse spinel is
[Fe3þ]Tetra [M2þ Fe3þ] Octra O4
where, M is divalent cations and tetra, octra indicate tetrahedral and octahedral sites,
respectively, accommodated by cations. Here, octahedral site is accommodated by two
cations, i.e., divalent and trivalent Fe3þ cations [24]. The naturally occurred spinel
structure mineral Fe3O4 is an example of inverse spinel structure, i.e., FeFe2O4, where
divalent Fe2þ accommodates octahedral site and trivalent Fe3þ accommodates both
tetrahedral and octahedral sites.

1.6.3 Mixed spinel

The mixed spinel structure is formed by partially accommodating divalent and trivalent
cations on tetrahedral and octahedral sites [25,26]. The divalent and trivalent Fe3þ cations
occupy both tetrahedral and octahedral sites in a mixed spinel structure. The general for-
mula of mixed spinel structure is
[M2þ1-dFe3þ]Tetra [M2þdFe3þ2d] Octra O4
where, d is the degree of inversion.

1.7 Conclusions
Ferrites have been extensively studied and are reflected as well-known materials in elec-
tronic industry. However, the developments in applications and fabrication in ferrite
technologies are impressive. Ferrite nanostructures are active materials for different kinds
of applications in wider fields as they successfully have applied in realizing different kinds
of electronics devices. Various forms, types and properties of ferrite materials should be
known before envisaging them in various applications viz., in electronic industry, data
storage and energy storage devices.
10 Spinel Ferrite Nanostructures for Energy Storage Devices

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