GENERAL

PHYSICS 2
Quarter 4 - Module 1 - 4 : Week 1 - 8

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LESSON 1: Magnetic Induction and Faraday’s Law
Direction: Write the letter of the term or phrase that best completes the statement or answers the question.
1. Electromagnetic induction is change in ___________________.
A. surface area B. magnetic flux C. magnetic poles D. electric field
2. What would happen if I move a bar magnet in and out of a coil of copper wire?
A. Electric current would disappear B. It would produce a gravitational field
C. Electric current will flow through the wire D. The magnet would explode
3. ___________ law says that the Induced current is proportional to the change of magnetic flux.
A. Lenz's B. Ampere's C. Biot-Savart’s D. Faraday's
4. Where is the strongest attraction force of the magnet?
A. at the poles B. above the magnet C. in the middle D. below the magnet
5. What type of current is produced by a battery?
A. parallel current B. direct current C. alternating current D. potential current
6. What creates a magnetic field?
A. charged particles that do not move B. gravity
C. moving electric charges D. an isolated magnetic pole
7. Voltage can be induced in a wire by _______________.
A. moving the wire near a magnet B. moving a magnet near the wire
C. changing the current in a nearby wire D. all of these
8. A magnet can move in a coil of wire to produce electricity in which system?
A. Generator B. Magnet C. Motor D. Transformer
9. Magnetic Field lines around a bar magnet ____________.
A. are perpendicular the magnet B. cross back and forth over each other
C. spread out from north pole and curve to south D. are perfectly straight
10. How do Maglev trains go up to 311 MPH?
A. a train is pulled by a big magnet at the end of the tracks
B. magnetized coils repel magnets on the train which moves it
C. electric motors push the train and cause it to levitate
D. a generator creates electricity which fuels the train

In the previous lesson we almost always took the source of emf to be a battery. But for the vast majority of
electric devices that are used in industry and in the home (including any device that you plug into a wall
socket), the source of emf is not a battery but an electric generating station. Such a station produces electric
energy by converting other forms of energy: gravitational potential energy at a hydroelectric plant, chemical
energy in a coal- or oil-fired plant, nuclear energy at a nuclear plant. But how is this energy conversion done?
The answer is a phenomenon known as electromagnetic induction: If the magnetic flux through a circuit
changes, an emf and a current are induced in the circuit. In a power-generating station, magnets move relative
to coils of wire to produce a changing magnetic flux in the coils and hence an emf. Other key components of
electric power systems, such as transformers, also depend on magnetically induced emfs.
The central principle of electromagnetic induction, and the keystone of this chapter, is Faraday’s law. This law
relates induced emf to changing magnetic flux in any loop, including a closed circuit.
Induction Experiments
During the 1830s, several pioneering experiments with magnetically induced emf were carried out in England
by Michael Faraday and in the United
States by Joseph Henry (1797–1878), later the first director of the Smithsonian
Institution. Figure 1 shows several examples. In Fig.1a, a coil of wire is connected to a galvanometer. When
the nearby magnet is stationary, the meter shows no current. This isn’t surprising; there is no source of emf in
the circuit. But when we move the magnet either toward or away from the coil, the meter shows current in the
circuit, but only while the magnet is moving (Fig.1b). If we keep the magnet stationary and move the coil, we
again detect a current during the motion. We call this an induced current, and the corresponding emf required
to cause this current is called an induced emf.
In Fig.1c we replace the magnet with a second coil connected to a battery.
When the second coil is stationary, there is no current in the first coil. However, when we move the second coil
toward or away from the first or move the first toward or away from the second, there is current in the first coil,
but again only while one coil is moving relative to the other.
Finally, using the two-coil setup in Fig.1d, we keep both coils stationary and vary the current in the second coil,
either by opening and closing the switch or by changing the resistance of the second coil with the switch closed
(perhaps by changing the second coil’s temperature). We find that as we open or close the switch, there is a
momentary current pulse in the first circuit. When we vary the resistance (and thus the current) in the second
coil, there is an induced current in the first circuit,
but only while the current in the second circuit is
changing.

Figure 1. Demonstrating the phenomenon of

induced current.
Photo credit: University Physics with Modern
Physics 13th Edition

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The common element in all these experiments is changing magnetic flux 𝚽𝑩 through the coil connected to
the galvanometer. In each case the flux changes either because the magnetic field changes with time or
because the coil is moving through a nonuniform magnetic field. Faraday’s law of induction, the subject of the
next section, states that in all of these situations the induced emf is proportional to the rate of change of
magnetic flux Φ𝐵 through the coil. The direction of the induced emf depends on whether the flux is increasing
or decreasing. If the flux is constant, there is no induced emf.
Induced emfs are not mere laboratory curiosities but have a tremendous number of practical applications. If
you are reading these words indoors, you are making use of induced emfs right now! At the power plant that
supplies your neighborhood, an electric generator produces an emf by varying the magnetic flux through coils
of wire. This emf supplies the voltage between the terminals of the wall sockets in your home, and this voltage
supplies the power to your reading lamp. Indeed, any appliance that you plug into a wall socket makes use of
induced emfs.
Magnetic Flux
The magnetic flux (often denoted Φ or ΦB) through a surface is the component of the magnetic field passing
through that surface. The magnetic flux through some surface is proportional to the number of field lines
passing through that surface. The magnetic flux passing through a surface of vector area A is
Φ𝐵 = 𝐵 ⃗ • 𝐴 = 𝐵 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 where B is the magnitude of the magnetic field (having the unit of Tesla, T), A is the
area of the surface, and θ is the angle between the magnetic field lines and the normal (perpendicular) to A.
From the definition of magnetic flux, we see that its SI unit is the tesla– square meter (𝑇 ∙ 𝑚2), which is called
the weber (abbreviated Wb):
1 𝑤𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟 = 1 𝑊𝑏 = 1 𝑇 ∙ 𝑚2.
Figure 1. Demonstrating the phenomenon of induced current.
Photo credit: University Physics with Modern Physics 13th Edition
Faraday’s Law
The common element in all induction effects is changing magnetic flux through a circuit. Before stating the
simple physical law that summarizes all of the kinds of experiments described in Induction Experiments part,
let’s first review the concept of magnetic flux Φ𝐵. For an infinitesimal area element 𝑑𝐴 in a magnetic field 𝐵 ⃗
(Fig. 2), the magnetic flux 𝑑Φ𝐵 through the area is
𝑑Φ𝐵 = 𝐵 ⃗ • 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐵⊥ 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐵 𝑑𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1
Figure 2. Calculating the magnetic flux through an area element.
Photo credit: University Physics with Modern Physics (13th Edition)
Where 𝐵⊥ is the component of 𝐵 ⃗ perpendicular to the surface of the area
element and 𝜃 is the angle between 𝐵 ⃗ and .

Figure 3. Calculating the flux of a uniform magnetic field through a flat area.
Photo credit: University Physics with Modern Physics (13th Edition)
The total magnetic flux Φ𝐵 through a finite area is the integral of this expression over the area:
Φ𝐵 = 𝐵 ⃗ • 𝐴 = 𝐵𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝐸𝑞. 2
Faraday’s law of induction states:
The induced emf in a closed loop equals the negative of the time rate of change of magnetic flux
through the loop.
In symbols, Faraday’s law is
𝜺 = 𝒅𝚽𝑩
𝒅𝒕 (𝐹𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑎𝑦′𝑠 𝐿𝑎𝑤 𝑜𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛) 𝐸𝑞. 3
(We can use this formula from other books and references: 𝜀 = − ΔΦ𝐵 Δ𝑡)
As you will see the formula, the induced emf tends to oppose the flux change, so
Faraday’s law is formally written as seen above with the minus sign indicating that opposition. We often neglect
the minus sign, seeking only the magnitude of the induced emf.
(The minus sign is there to remind us in which direction the induced emf acts. Experiments shows that a
current produced by an induced emf moves in a direction so that its magnetic field opposes the
original change in flux. This is known as Lenz’s Law.)
If we change the magnetic flux through a coil of N turns, an induced emf appears in every turn and the total
emf induced in the coil is the sum of these individual induced emfs. If the coil is tightly wound (closely packed),
so that the same magnetic flux passes through all the turns, the total emf induced in the coil is
𝜀 = 𝑁 𝑑Φ𝐵
𝑑𝑡 (𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑁 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠) 𝐸𝑞. 4
Here are the general means by which we can change the magnetic flux through a coil:
1. Change the magnitude B of the magnetic field within the coil.
2. Change either the total area of the coil or the portion of that area that lies within the magnetic field (for
example, by expanding the coil or sliding it into or out of the field).

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3. Change the angle between the direction of the magnetic field 𝐵 ⃗ and the plane of the coil (for example, by
rotating the coil so that field 𝐵 ⃗ is first perpendicular to the plane of the coil and then is along that plane).
Example 1: Emf and current induced in a loop
The magnetic field between the poles of the electromagnet in Fig. 4 is uniform at any
time, but its magnitude is increasing at the rate of 0.020 T/s. The area of the
conducting loop in the field is 120 cm2, and the total circuit resistance, including the
meter, is 5.0 Ω.
Figure 4. A stationary conducting loop in an increasing magnetic field.
Photo credit: University Physics with Modern
Physics (13th Edition)
(a) Find the induced emf and the induced current in the circuit.
(b) If the loop is replaced by one made of an insulator, what effect does this have on the induced emf and
induced current?
Solution
IDENTIFY and SET UP: The magnetic flux Φ𝐵 through the loop changes as the magnetic field changes. Hence
there will be an induced emf 𝜀 and an induced current I in the loop. We calculate Φ𝐵 using Eq.
(Φ𝐵 = 𝐵 ⃗ • 𝐴 = 𝐵𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃), then find 𝜀 using Faraday’s law. Finally, we calculate I using
𝜀 = 𝐼𝑅 where R is the total resistance of the circuit that includes the loop.
EXECUTE: (a) The area 𝐴 vector for the loop is perpendicular to the plane of the loop; we take 𝐴 to be
vertically upward. Then 𝐴 and 𝐵 ⃗ are parallel, and because
𝐵 ⃗ is uniform the magnetic flux through the loop is Φ𝐵 = 𝐵 ⃗ • 𝐴 = 𝐵𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐵𝐴. The area 𝐴 = 0.012𝑚2 is
constant, so the rate of change of magnetic flux is
𝑑Φ𝐵 = (𝐵𝐴) = 𝐴 = (0.020 T) (0.012𝑚2)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 dt S
= 2.4 𝑥 10−4 𝑉 = 0.24 𝑚𝑉
Direction of Induced emf
We can find the direction of an induced emf or current by using Eq. (𝜀 = − 𝑑Φ𝐵) together with some simple sign
rules. Here’s the procedure: dt
1. Define a positive direction for the vector area .
2. From the directions of 𝐴 and the magnetic field 𝐵 ⃗ , determine the sign of the magnetic flux Φ𝐵 and its rate
of change 𝑑Φ𝐵
𝑑𝑡
3. Determine the sign of the induced emf or current. If the flux is increasing, so 𝑑Φ𝐵 is positive, then the
induced emf or current is negative; if the flux is decreasing 𝑑Φ is negative and the induced emf or current is
positive. dt
4. Finally, determine the direction of the induced emf or current using your right hand. Curl the fingers of your
right hand around the vector , with your right thumb in the direction of 𝐴 . If the induced emf or current in the
circuit is positive, it is in the same direction as your curled fingers; if the induced emf or current is negative, it is
in the opposite direction.
In Example 1, in which 𝐴 is upward, a positive 𝜀 would be directed counterclockwise around the loop, as seen
from the example. Both 𝐴 and 𝐵 ⃗ are upward in this example, so Φ𝐵 is positive; the magnitude B is increasing,
so 𝑑Φ𝐵
𝑑𝑡 is positive.
Hence by Eq. (3), in Example 1 is negative. Its actual direction is thus clockwise around the loop, as seen from
above.
If the loop in Fig. 4 is a conductor, an induced current results from this emf; this current is also clockwise, as
Fig. 4 shows. This induced current produces an additional magnetic field through the loop, and the right-hand
rule shows that this field is opposite in direction to the increasing field produced by the electromagnet.
This is an example of a general rule called Lenz’s law, which says that any induction effect tends to oppose the
change that caused it; in this case the change is the increase in the flux of the electromagnet’s field through
the loop.

Figure 5. The magnetic flux is becoming (a) more positive, (b) less positive, (c) more negative, and (d) less
negative. Therefore Φ𝐵 is increasing in (a) and (d) and decreasing in (b) and (c). In (a) and (d) the emfs are
negative (they are opposite to the direction of the curled fingers of your right hand when your right thumb
points along ). In (b) and (c) the emfs are positive (in the same direction as the curled fingers).
Photo credit: University Physics with Modern Physics (13th Edition)

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Lenz’s Law
The minus sign in Faraday’s law of induction is very important. The minus means that the EMF creates a
current I and magnetic field B that oppose the change in flux ΔΦ this is known as Lenz’ law. The direction
(given by the minus sign) of the EMF is so important that it is called Lenz’ law after the Russian
Heinrich Lenz (1804–1865), who, like Faraday and Henry, independently investigated aspects of induction.
Faraday was aware of the direction, but Lenz stated it, so he is credited for its discovery.

Figure 6. Magnet subjected to motion into a coil

Photo credit: Lumen Learning
Lenz’s Law: (a) when this bar magnet is thrust into the coil, the strength of the magnetic field increases in the
coil. The current induced in the coil creates another field, in the opposite direction of the bar magnets to
oppose the increase.
This is one aspect of Lenz’s law – induction opposes any change in flux. (b) and (c) are two other situations.
Verify for yourself that the direction of the induced B coil shown indeed opposes the change in flux and that the
current direction shown is consistent with the right-hand rule.
Energy Conservation
Lenz’ law is a manifestation of the conservation of energy. The induced EMF produces a current that opposes
the change in flux, because a change in flux means a change in energy. Energy can enter or leave, but not
instantaneously. Lenz’ law is a consequence. As the change begins, the law says induction opposes and, thus,
slows the change. In fact, if the induced EMF were in the same direction as the change in flux, there would be
a positive feedback that would give us free energy from no apparent source—conservation of energy would be
violated. With so much things to consider in this lesson, here are the important things to consider, or in other
words, Electromagnetic Induction is the process of using magnetic fields to produce voltage, and in a closed
circuit, a current. So how much voltage (emf) can be induced into the coil using just magnetism? Well, this is
determined by the following 3 different factors.
1) Increasing the number of turns of wire in the coil – By increasing the amount of individual conductors cutting
through the magnetic field, the amount of induced emf produced will be the sum of all the individual loops of
the coil, so if there are 20 turns in the coil there will be 20 times more induced emf than in one piece of wire.
2) Increasing the speed of the relative motion between the coil and the magnet
– If the same coil of wire passed through the same magnetic field but its speed or velocity is increased, the
wire will cut the lines of flux at a faster rate so more induced emf would be produced.
3) Increasing the strength of the magnetic field – If the same coil of wire is moved at the same speed through a
stronger magnetic field, there will be more emf produced because there are more lines of force to cut.
Applications of Faraday’s Law
Following are the fields where Faraday’s law finds applications:
1. Electrical equipment like transformers works on the basis of Faraday’s law.
2. Induction cooker works on the basis of mutual induction which is the principle of Faraday’s law.
3. By inducing an electromotive force into an electromagnetic flowmeter, the velocity of the fluids is recorded.
4. Electric guitar and electric violin are the musical instruments that find an application of Faraday’s law.
5. Maxwell’s equation is based on the converse of Faraday’s laws which states that change in the magnetic
field brings a change in the electric field.

Direction: Read and analyze the following problems. Answer them properly.
Problem 1. Calculate the flux
A square loop of wire 10.0 cm on a side is in a 1.25 T magnetic field B. What are the maximum and minimum
values of flux that can pass through the loop?
Approach
The flux is given by Eq. 2 (Φ𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜃). It is a maximum for 𝜃 = 0°, which occurs when the plane of the loop
is perpendicular to 𝐵 ⃗ . The minimum value occurs when 𝜃 = 90° and the plane of the loop is aligned with 𝐵 ⃗ .
Problem 2. Change in flux and induced emf
A coil of wire is situated in a 0.5 T uniform magnetic field. The area of the coil is
2.0 m2. (a) What is the magnetic flux if the angle between the magnetic field and the normal to the surface of
the coil is 60°? (b) After 5 s, the magnetic field is now parallel to the normal to the surface. What is the induced
emf?
Approach
(a) The angle between the magnetic field and the normal to the surface of the coil is 60°
(b) The angle between the magnetic field and the normal to the surface of the coil is 0°, because the magnetic
field is now parallel to the normal surface (see Fig. 3).

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Direction: Read and analyze the following problems. Answer them properly.
Activity: Calculating EMF: How great is the induced EMF?
Problem 1
A uniform magnetic field is directed at an angle of 30° with the plane of a circular coil of radius 2 cm and 2000
turns. If the magnetic field changes atn a rate of 4T per second, calculate the induced emf.

Approach
We are given the angle 30°, but note that this is the angle of B with respect to the plane of the coil. Thus, the
angle with respect to the area vector is 60°.
We also know the radius of the coil. Thus, we can calculate its area:
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟2 = (0.02𝑚)2 = 1.26𝑥10−3𝑚2
The emf is induced because the flux is changing. In this case, the reason for the change in flux is the
increasing magnetic field (we know this because the rate of change given is positive) at
𝑑𝐵 = 4 T We can write this into the law of induction.
𝑑𝑡 S
𝜀 = −𝑁 𝑑Φ𝐵 = N 𝑑 (𝐵𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠60°)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
The factor A cos 60° is not part of the change so we can take it out of the parentheses.
𝜀 = −𝑁𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠60 ° 𝑑𝐵
dt
At this point, we are ready to substitute the given.
Problem 2
Calculate the magnitude of the induced emf when the magnet is thrust into the coil, given the following
information: the single loop coil has a radius of 6.00 cm and the average value of B cos θ (this is given, since
the bar magnet’s field is complex) increases from 0.0500 T to 0.250 T in 0.100s.
Strategy to find the magnitude of emf, we use Faraday’s law of induction as stated by
𝜀 = − ΔΦ𝐵
Δ𝑡
But without minus sign indicates direction:
𝜀 = ΔΦ𝐵
Δ𝑡
We are given that N=1 and Δt=0.100s, but we must determine the change in flux
ΔΦ before we can find emf. Since the area of the loop is fixed, we see that
ΔΦ𝐵 = Δ(𝐵𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) = 𝐴 Δ(𝐵 cos 𝜃).
Now Δ(𝐵 cos 𝜃) = 0.200 𝑇, since it was given that 𝐵 cos 𝜃 changes from 0.500 to 0.250
T. The area of the loop is 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟2 = (0.060𝑚)2 = 1.13𝑥10−2𝑚2. Thus,
ΔΦ = (1.13𝑥10−2𝑚2)(0.200 𝑇)

ASSESSMENT
Directions: Read carefully each item. Write only the letter of the best answer before the number.
1. A vector quantity which defined as the dot product of the magnetic field and the area vector.
A. Electric Field B. Magnetic Flux C. Induction D. Induced EMF
2. From the definition of magnetic flux, which of the following is the SI unit for magnetic flux?
A. V B. T C. Wb D. J
3. If the magnetic flux through an area bounded by a closed conducting loop changes with time, a current and an emf are
produced in the loop, what do you call this process?
A. Induction B. Intensity C. Current D. EMF
4. What device was used in conducting various experiments such as with magnetically induced emf by Faraday?
A. Voltmeter B. Ohmmeter C. Ammeter D. Galvanometer
5. “Moving the magnet toward or away from the coil.” “Moving a current carrying coil toward or away from the coil.” Based
from these actions, what do they have in common?
A. All these actions do induce a current in a coil
B. All these actions were supported by stationary motion
C. All these actions are in a closed circuit
D. All these actions used magnets to move the galvanometer to another place.
6. Faraday’s law of induction, the induced emf is proportional to the ___________of magnetic flux through the coil.
A. Type of metal coil B. Color of the coil
C. Quantity of magnets D. Rate of change
7. Which of the following statements can describe the process of the law of induction?
A. Increase in the number of coils decreases the magnetic flux
B. Increase in the number of turns in the coil increases the induced emf
C. Decrease in magnetic field decreases the induced current
D. Decrease in the speed of relative motion between coil and magnet will result in increased flux

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8. The minus sign in Faraday’s law of induction is very important. The minusm means that the EMF creates a current I
and magnetic field B that oppose the change in flux ΔΦ this is known as ________________.
A. Ampere’s Law B. Lenz’ law
C. Magnetic flux density D. Induced electric field

Gauge
9. What would be the implication if your curled fingers have the same direction with the induced current or emf in the
circuit?
A. Positive I and EMF B. No implication was given
C. Negative I and EMF D. Both A and B
10. Based on the following statements, which is incorrect about the sign of the induced emf or current?
I. If the flux is increasing, so 𝑑Φ𝐵 is positive, then the induced emf or current is negative
dt
II. If the flux is decreasing, 𝑑Φ𝐵 is negative and the induced emf or current is positive
𝑑𝑡
III. If the flux is increasing, 𝑑Φ is negative and the induced emf or current is negatives
𝑑𝑡
A. I B. II C. III D. I and II

LESSON 2: Len’z Law, Alternating and Direct Current, and LC Circuit

Activity 1: What is Lenz's law?

Direction: Write the answer that best corresponds to the blank in the sentence.
Copy and answer in a separate sheet of paper.
Lenz's law is associated with the electromagnetic area, since its approach is based on the relation of changes
or tensions produced by variations in magnetic flux property from which these variations are presented in a
______ to the ____ that produces them. In honor of its creator, Lenz's law bears his surname. The physicist
________ formulated it at the beginning of the _____century with the aim of ___________.

Activity 2: Story board (Milestone n the history of electricity)

Electricity Milestone
1.______ found that if Amber was rubbed with animal fur, it could attract light objects such as feather or seeds.

601 BCE
2.______ discovered that lightning and electricity were the same using a kite, a key, and a lay den jar.

1751 CE

3.______ found that he could make frogs legs move when they were connected to different types of metals.

1779 CE
4.______ created the first battery. The voltaic pile produced a current.

1779 CE

5.______ discovered electromagnetic induction by passing a magnet through a coil of wire

1830 CE
6.______ was the first town in the world to have a public electricity supply. A generator was connected to a
wire.

1880 CE

Source:https://www.electrical4u.com/lenz-law-of-electromagnetic-induction/
Direct Current
When current flows in just one direction, it is called direct current (DC).

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The diagram below shows how direct current flows through a simple circuit. An example of direct current is the
current that flows through a battery-powered flashlight. In addition to batteries, solar cells and fuel cells can
also provide direct current.

Alternating Current
When current keeps reversing direction, it is called alternating current (AC).
You can see how it works in the two diagrams below. The current that comes from a power plant and supplies
electricity to homes and businesses is alternating current.
The current changes direction 60 times per second. It happens so quickly that the light bulb doesn’t have a
chance to stop glowing when the reversals occur.
LC Circuit
An LC circuit (also known as an LC filter or LC network) is defined as an electrical circuit consisting of the
passive circuit elements an inductor (L) and a capacitor (C) connected together. It is also called a resonant
circuit, tank circuit, or tuned circuit.
The capacitor C stores energy in its electric field E and the inductor L stores energy in its magnetic field B .It
further shows the circuit at progressive points in the oscillation. The oscillations are slowed down; in an actual
tuned circuit the charge may oscillate back and forth thousands to billions of times per second.
An LC circuit, oscillating at its natural resonant frequency, can store electrical energy. A capacitor stores
energy in the electric field (E) between its plates, depending on the voltage across it, and an inductor stores
energy in its magnetic field (B), depending on the current through it.
How does an LC circuit work?

If an inductor is connected across a charged capacitor, the voltage across the capacitor will drive a current
through the inductor, building up a magnetic field around it. The voltage across the capacitor falls to zero as
the charge is used up by the current flow. At this point, the energy stored in the coil's magnetic field induces a
voltage across the coil, because inductors oppose changes in current. This induced voltage causes a current
to begin to recharge the capacitor with a voltage of opposite polarity to its original charge.
Due to Faraday's law, the EMF which drives the current is caused by a decrease in the magnetic field, thus the
energy required to charge the capacitor is extracted from the magnetic field. When the magnetic field is
completely dissipated the current will stop and the charge will again be stored in the capacitor, with the
opposite polarity as before. Then the cycle will begin again, with the current flowing in the opposite direction
through the inductor.
What is the cyclic pattern?
Explanation 1: The charge flows back and forth between the plates of the capacitor, through the inductor. The
energy oscillates back and forth between the capacitor and the inductor until (if not replenished from an
external circuit) internal resistance makes the oscillations die out. The tuned circuit's action, known as a
harmonic oscillator, is similar to a pendulum swinging back and forth, or water sloshing back and forth in a
tank; for this reason the circuit is also called a tank circuit.
Explanation 2: Initially the charges on the positive capacitor plate (conventional current) will begin circulating
counter-clockwise. As the current from the capacitor dies out, the inductor reverses its emf to keep the charges
flowing until the bottom plate of the capacitor becomes positively charged and the top plate holds all of the
negative charge. Then the process reverses and the current flows clockwise until the capacitor's top plate is
once again positively charged and its bottom plate negatively charged. This process of "filling and emptying"
the capacitor's plates, and its subsequent electric field, continues at a specific frequency.
Explanation 1 and 2 result in a charging and discharging process. This means that charging and discharging of
the LC circuit can be in a cyclic manner and energy oscillates back and forth between the capacitor and the
inductor until the internal resistance makes the oscillations die out. In an oscillating LC circuit, the energy is
shared between the amount stored in the electric field of the capacitor and the amount storied in the magnetic
field of the inductor. This charging and discharging process will begin again,
with the current flowing in the opposite direction through the inductor as
before. The figure shows the charging and discharging voltage and current
waveform.

In most applications the tuned circuit is part of a larger circuit which applies alternating current to it, driving
continuous oscillations. If the frequency of the applied current is the circuit's natural resonant frequency,

8
resonance will occur, and a small driving current can excite large amplitude oscillating voltages and currents.
In typical tuned circuits in electronic equipment the oscillations are very fast, from thousands to billions of times
per second.

Self-Practice 1: Predict me!

Direction: Based from the sketch below, answer the given questions.

1. Will a current be induced in the coil on the right when the magnet passes through?
A. Yes
B. No
2. Will a current be induced in the coil on the left when the magnet passes through?
A. Yes
B. No
3. If a current is induced in the coil when the magnet passes through, which way will the current flow?
A. Clockwise
B. Counterclockwise
Self- Practice 2: AC vs DC
What is the difference between DC and AC electricity? Identify some common sources of each type of
electricity
Self- Practice 3: Go round and round!
Direction: Fill in the missing blanks
LC Circuit cyclic pattern
An ______, also called as _______, is an electric circuit consisting of an _____ and a ______, connected
together. If an inductor is connected across a charged capacitor, the voltage across the capacitor will drive a
_____through the inductor, building up a
______around it. The voltage across the capacitor falls to zero as the charge is used up by the current flow.
At this stage, the stored energy in the coil's magnetic field induces a ____across the coil, because inductors
____changes in current. This induced voltage causes a current to begin to _____the capacitor with a voltage of
opposite _____to its original charge. When the magnetic field is completely dissipated the current will stop and
the charge will again be stored in the capacitor, with the opposite polarity as before.

ASSESSMENT
Directions: Read carefully each item. Use a separate sheet for your answers. Write only the letter of the best
answer for each test item.
1. What does Lenz devise? A rule to find out the direction of _________
A. current induced in a circuit. B. electromagnetic difference.
C. potential difference. D. flow of power in fuse.
2. In Lenz’ law, what is the direction of induced current? It always______
A. opposes the cause. B. remains same as that of cause.
C. equal to cause that produces it. D. directs the cause.
3. If the N pole of a bar magnet is quickly thrust into the opening of the large coil that faces you, how will the
galvanometer deflect while the magnet is moving into the coil?
A. positive deflection B. negative deflection
C. no deflection D. undetermined deflection
4. If the N pole of a bar magnet is held motionless inside the large coil, how will the galvanometer deflect?
A. positive deflection B. negative deflection C. no deflection D. undetermined deflection
5. What are the two main applications for ac?
A. direct, pulsating B. electric, magnetic C. power, information D. static, dynamic
6. The distance that a signal's energy can travel in the time it takes for one cycle to occur is called the signal's:
A. amplitude B. frequency C. wavelength D. period
7. The current that flows through a battery-powered flashlight, solar cells and fuel cells is called:
A. AC B. DC C. RC D. LC
8. If current varies periodically, from zero to a maximum, back to zero, and then repeats, the signal is:
A. direct B. alternating C. pulsating D. repetitive
9. The voltage across the capacitor falls to zero as the charge is used up by the current flow. At this point, the
energy stored in the coil's magnetic field. What is induced during this stage?
A. Voltage B. Current C. Resistance D. Charge
10. If a voltage is induced it will create a current. What is the use of this current that was produced? begin to
________
A. recharge the inductor B. discharge the inductor
C. recharge the capacitor D. Discharge the capacitor.

LESSON 3: Total Internal Reflection

Directions: Read carefully each item. Write only the letter of the best

9
Answer in a separate sheet of paper.
______1. Which light bends most when white light passes through a prism?
A. red B. blue C. green D. violet
______2. Which of the following color has the longest wavelength?
A. yellow B. red C. blue D. green
______3. What do you call the bending of light rays as they pass obliquely from one medium to another
medium?
A. reflection B. refraction C. dispersion D. diffraction
______4. What type of reflection does fiber optic technology rely upon?
A. Regular reflection B. Diffuse reflection C. Retro reflection D. Total internal reflection
______5. What will be the arrangement of electromagnetic waves if we will arrange them according to
decreasing energy?
A. Gamma, radio, microwave B. X-ray, gamma, ultraviolet
C. X-ray, light, radio D. Gamma, ultraviolet, X-ray

Refraction of Light
A rock falls at different speeds through different liquids such as water, oil, milk, and syrup. The speed of the
falling marble depends on the density and viscosity of the liquid.
Light also travels at different speeds through different media such as air, glass, and water. The speed of light
depends on the optical density of the medium. The optical density of a material is a property related to the
speed of light through it. The greater the optical density of the material, the slower is the speed of light traveling
through it.
When light crosses over from one medium to another, it changes not only its speed but also its direction. When
a light ray enters a glass cube, it bends instead of traveling along its original straight line path. The bending of
light as it crosses over from one medium to another is called refraction.
The Dutch scientist Willebrand Snell performed several experiments to investigate the refraction of light. His
findings can be summed up in a principle known as Snell’s law, which states that the ratio of the sine of the
angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant. This ratio or constant, known as the
refractive index (n), expressed mathematically as
n = sin i
sin r or n1θ i= n2θr
where i is the angle of incidence in the first medium and r is the angle of refraction in the second
medium; (n1) is the index of refraction of the first medium and (n2) is the index of refraction of the second
medium.

Speed and index of refraction of various materials

Material Speed (m/s) Index of refraction (n)
Vacuum 3x108 1.00
Air 3x108 1.0003
Ice 2.29x108
Glass 1.97x108 1.61
Water 1.33
Diamond 2.42
Total Internal Reflection
Consider the following situation. A ray of light passes from a medium of water to that of air. Light ray will be
refracted at the junction separating the two media. Since it passes from a medium of a higher refractive index
to that having a lower refractive index, the refracted light ray bends away from the normal.
At a specific angle of incidence, the incident ray of light is refracted in such a way that it passes along the
surface of the water. This particular angle of incidence is called the critical angle. Here the angle of refraction is
90 degrees. When the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, the incident ray is reflected back to
the medium. We call this phenomenon total internal reflection.
Conditions of total internal reflection:
1) The light ray moves from a more optically dense medium approaches a less optically dense medium (e.g.,
water-air).
2) The angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle.
Dispersion of Light
When light passes through a prism, it breaks up into an array of several different colors called a spectrum. This
breaking up and spreading out of the beam of light is called dispersion or chromatic dispersion.
Examine closely the light rays going through the prism and you will see how each color refracts by varying
degrees. Red light is bent least from the original straight line path of white light while violet light is bent the
most.
Dispersion occurs in nature through the interaction of sunlight and water droplets. Sunlight goes in and out of
the suspended water droplets in the air. They act as prisms and refract sunlight into several different colors.
The result is one of the most beautiful sights in nature – a rainbow.
Note: Any light that gives a spectrum similar to that of sunlight is often referred to as white light.

Polarization of Light

10
Light is the interaction of electric and magnetic fields travelling through space. The electric and magnetic
vibrations of a light wave occur perpendicularly to each other. The electric field moves in one direction and
magnetic in another though always perpendicularly. So, we have one plane occupied by an electric field, the
magnetic field perpendicular to it, and the direction of travel which is perpendicular to both. These electric and
magnetic vibrations can occur in numerous planes. A light wave that is vibrating in more than one plane is
known as unpolarized light. The light emitted by the sun, by a lamp or a tube light are all unpolarized light
sources. As you can see in the image above, the direction of propagation is constant, but the plane on which
the amplitude occurs is changing.
The other kind of wave is a polarized wave. Polarized waves are lightV waves in which the vibrations occur in
a single plane. Plane polarized light consists of waves in which the direction of vibration is the same for all
waves. In the image above, you can see that a plane polarized light vibrates on only one plane. The process of
transforming unpolarized light into the polarized light is known as polarization. The devices like the purple
blocks (polaroids) you see are used for the polarization of light.
Polarization Applications
Following are the applications of polarization:
• Polarization is used in sunglasses to reduce the glare.
• Polaroid filters are used in plastic industries for performing stress analysis tests.

ASSESSMENT
Directions: Read carefully each item. Write only the letter of the best answer. Use a separate sheet of paper
for your answers.
A. Multiple Choices Test (5 points)
______1. Which of the following color has the longest wavelength?
A. yellow B. red C. blue D. green
______2. What will be the arrangement of electromagnetic waves if we will arrange them according to
decreasing energy?
A. Gamma, radio, microwave B. X-ray, gamma, ultraviolet
C. X-ray, light, radio D. Gamma, ultraviolet, X-ray
______3. What do you call the bending of light rays as they pass obliquely from one medium to another
medium?
A. reflection B. refraction C. dispersion D. diffraction
______4. What type of reflection does fiber optic technology rely upon?
A. Regular reflection B. Diffuse reflection
C. Retro reflection D. Total internal reflection
______5. Which light bends most when white light passes through a prism?
A. red B. blue C. green D. violet

B. On the space provided before each number, write A if the first statement is true and the second statement is
false; B if the first statement is false and the second statement is true; C if both statements are true; or D if
both statements are false. (2 points each number)
______1. The bouncing of a light ray from a surface is called reflection of light.
Refraction of light happens whenever light strikes a mirror.
______2. The limiting of the planes where light waves propagate is the polarization of light. Polarized glasses
counter the glare from metallic surfaces by not allowing light of a particular orientation to pass through.
______3. Total internal reflection always happens whenever the light rays passes from a medium of optically
less dense to a more optically dense medium.
Total internal reflection will happen as the light ray goes from inside a diamond to the air outside, but not when
the light ray goes from the air to the diamond.
______4. The critical angle for material C is 570. If an incident ray approaches the boundary between material
C and the air at 590, the light ray will be bent back and total internal reflection happens.
The critical angle for material C is 570. If an incident ray approaches the boundary between material C and the
air at 590, the refracted ray will lie along the boundary between the materials.
______5. The result of dispersion is the use of fiber optics
The result of total internal reflection is the formation of rainbow.

Week 5 - 8

LESSON 1: PROPERTIES OF LIGHT

When light is incident on a surface, it may be reflected, transmitted, refracted, scattered or absorbed. A
transparent body allows light to pass through it. A translucent body scatters the light passing through it so that
objects behind it are not clearly seen. An opaque body does not transmit light at all. Clear water, air, and a
clear glass are transparent. Frosted glass is translucent, the human body, stones, and wood are opaque.

REFLECTION AND REFRACTION

Reflection
Reflection is the bouncing back of light when it strikes a reflecting surface.

11
The ray that strikes the surface is called the incident ray. The ray that rebounds from the surface is called the
reflected ray. A line perpendicular to the surface at the point of incidence is called the normal. The angle
between the incident ray and the normal is called the angle of incidence, this is represented as θi. The angle
between the reflected ray and the normal is called the angle of reflection, represented as θr.

The law of reflection states that the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence. The angles are measured
relative to the normal that is an imaginary line that is perpendicular to the surface at the point where the ray
strikes the surface.

Mirrors
A mirror is not necessarily a silvered plate of glass. It is any surface that is smooth enough to produce regular
reflection of light incident upon it. There are two types of mirror: plane mirror and spherical mirror. A plane
mirror is one with flat surface. A spherical mirror is a mirror whose reflecting surface is taken from the surface
of a sphere. A spherical mirror maybe concave or convex.

(a) When a sheet of paper is illuminated with many parallel incident rays, it can be seen at many different
angles, because its surface is rough and diffuses the light. (b)
A mirror illuminated by many parallel rays reflects them in only one direction, because its surface is very
smooth. Only the observer at a particular angle sees the reflected light. (c) Moonlight is spread out when it is
reflected by the lake, because the surface is shiny but uneven. (credits: modification of work by Diego Torres
Silvestre)

Real and Virtual Images

A real image has the following properties:
1. It is formed by actual intersection of light rays after encountering a mirror. A real image is formed in front of
the mirror.
2. It can be projected on a screen.
3. It is always inverted.
A virtual image has the following properties:
1. No light passes at the apparent location of the image. The apparent location of the image is found by
extending the reflected rays until they intersect. A
Virtual image is formed at the back of the mirror.
2. It cannot be focused on a screen.
3. It is always upright.
When you see yourself in a mirror it appears that the image is behind the mirror. We see the light coming from
a direction determined by the law of reflection.
The angles are such that the image is the same distance behind the mirror as you stand in front of the mirror. If
the mirror is on the wall of a room, the images in it are all behind the mirror, which can make the room seem
bigger. Although these mirror images make objects appear to be where they cannot be (like behind a solid
wall), the images are not figments of your imagination. Mirror images can be photographed and videotaped by
instruments and look just as they do with our eyes. The precise way images are formed by mirrors and lenses
is discussed in an upcoming chapter on Geometric Optics and Image Formation.

Your image in a mirror is behind the mirror. The two rays shown are those that strike the mirror at just the
correct angles to be reflected into the eyes of the person. The image appears to be behind the mirror at the
same distance away as (b) if you were looking at your twin directly, with no mirror.

Refraction
Refraction is the change in the direction of light when it passes from one medium to another of different optical
density. Optical density should not be confused with the mass density. Optical density has something to do
with the transparency of a substance to light. Light travels slowly in an optically dense substance.

12
The change in direction of a light ray depends on how the index of refraction changes when it crosses from one
medium to another. In the situations shown here, the index of refraction is greater in medium 2 than in medium
1. (a) A ray of light moves closer to the perpendicular when entering a medium with a higher index of
refraction. (b) A ray of light moves away from the perpendicular when entering a medium with a lower index of
refraction.
Image Formation by Spherical Lenses
Concave Lenses
For any distance from the lens, the image formed by a concave lens is virtual, upright, smaller than the object,
and located on the same side of the lens as the object.
Convex Lenses

Photo credits to www.quora.com/What-are-the-properties-of-an-image-formed-by-a-convexlens

It should be noted that concave lenses form the same kind of image as convex mirrors. On the other hand,
convex lenses form the same kinds of image as concave mirrors.

DISPERSION AND POLARIZATION

We see about six colors in a rainbow—red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet; sometimes indigo is listed,
too. These colors are associated with different wavelengths of light. When our eye receives pure-wavelength
light, we tend to see only one of the six colors, depending on wavelength. The thousands of other hues we can
sense in other situations are our eye’s response to various mixtures of wavelengths.

White light is a uniform mixture of all visible wavelengths. Sunlight, considered to be white, appears to be a bit
yellow, because of its mixture of wavelengths, but it does contain all visible wavelengths. This implies that
white light is spread out in a rainbow according to wavelength. Dispersion is defined as the spreading of white
light into its full spectrum of wavelengths. More technically, dispersion occurs whenever the propagation of light
depends on wavelength. Refraction is responsible for dispersion in rainbows and many other situations. The
angle of refraction depends on the index of refraction, as we know from Snell’s law. We know that the index of
refraction n depends on the medium.
But for a given medium, n also depends on wavelength. Note that for a given medium, n increases as
wavelength decreases and is greatest for violet light. Thus, violet light is bent more than red light. White light is
dispersed into the same sequence of wavelengths.

13
(a) A pure wavelength of light falls onto a prism and is refracted at both surfaces. (b)
White light is dispersed by the prism (shown exaggerated). Since the index of refraction varies with wavelength, the
angles of refraction vary with wavelength. A sequence of red to violet is produced, because the index of refraction
increases steadily with decreasing wavelength.
Sample Problem
Dispersion of White Light by Crown Glass
A beam of white light goes from air into crown glass at an incidence angle of
43.2°. What is the angle between the red (660 nm) and violet (410 nm) parts of the refracted light?

Although 0.6° may seem like a negligibly small angle, if this beam can propagate a long enough distance, the
dispersion of colors becomes quite noticeable.
Color Addition for Lights
Color addition is the process of producing other colors by mixing suitable portions of the primary colors of light.
The primary colors of light are red, blue, and green.
Red + Blue + Green = White
All other colors produced by mixing suitable portions of primary colors are called secondary. For example,
Red + Blue = Magenta
Red + Green = Yellow
Blue + Green = Cyan
A color triangle is a triangular arrangement of primary and secondary colors.
The primary colors are at the corners, while the secondary colors are at the sides. All in our discussion of
colors, we will be using the following representation:
R – Red G – Green B – Blue W- White
Y – Yellow C – Cyan M – Magenta
The two primary colors at the corners, when added, give the secondary color at the side. Colors opposite each
other are complementary. Complementary colors, when added, produce white. Magenta and green, blue, and
yellow, and cyan and red are complementary colors. Using color addition,
M + G = (B + R) + G = W
B + Y = B + (R + G) = W
C + R = (B + G) + R = W
Color addition has important applications in color television and colored computer monitors and stage lighting
of theaters.
Polarization
The property of wave that distinguishes transverse waves from longitudinal waves is Polarization. Only
transverse waves can be polarized, it is said that transverse wave can be plane polarized if its vibrations are
confined to one direction. This direction is known as vibration direction.

Credits to Department of Education

An EM wave, such as light, is a transverse wave. The electric (E⃗)(E→) and magnetic (B⃗)(B→) fields are
perpendicular to the direction of propagation. The direction of polarization of the wave is the direction of the
electric field.
The concept of polarization may be better understood by using a rope analogy.
Consider a rope one end of a rope tied on a wall and the other end held by the hand.
Shaking the rope up and down will generate transverse waves along the rope, causing the rope to vibrate in a
vertical direction. The waves generated are said to be vertically planes- polarized. Shaking the rope sideways
generates horizontally plane-polarized waves.

14
The transverse oscillations in one rope (a) are in a vertical plane, and those in the other rope (b) are in a
horizontal plane. The first is said to be vertically polarized, and the other is said to be horizontally polarized.
Vertical slits pass vertically polarized waves and block horizontally polarized waves.
Sunlight and other forms of natural and artificial illumination produce unpolarized light. However, light is an
electromagnetic wave. All electromagnetic waves are transverse waves. Therefore, light can be polarized.
There are several ways to produce polarized light such as polarization by reflection, double refraction, selective
absorption and scattering.

Polarization by Reflection
Unpolarized light has equal amounts of vertical and horizontal polarization.
After interaction with a surface, the vertical components are preferentially absorbed or refracted, leaving the
reflected light more horizontally polarized. This is akin to arrows striking on their sides and bouncing off,
whereas arrows striking on their tips go into the surface.
Since the part of the light that is not reflected is refracted, the amount of polarization depends on the indices of
refraction of the media involved. It can be shown that reflected light is completely polarized at an angle of
reflection θb given by

where n1 is the medium in which the incident and reflected light travel and n2 is the index of refraction of the
medium that forms the interface that reflects the light. This equation is known as Brewster’s law and θb is
known as Brewster’s angle, named after the nineteenth-century Scottish physicist who discovered them.
Sample Problem
(a) At what angle will light traveling in air be completely polarized horizontally when reflected from water?
(b) From glass?

Completing the Table

Direction: Supply the table below with the needed information to complete the table.
Use a separate sheet of paper for your answers.
Object Position Image Position Type of Image
At Infinity At F 1.
2. Between F and 2F Real, inverted, and Smaller
3. At 2F 4.
Between F and 2F 5. 6.
At F At Infinity 7.
8. In front of lens Virtual, upright, bigger

15
LESSON 2: MIRRORS AND LENSES
IMAGES FORMED BY REFLECTION OF LIGHT
Plane mirrors are used at home and produce images appear to be as far behind the
mirror as the image is in front. Its only defect is the reversal effect, the right side of
the object appears as the left side appears as the right –the image is flipped from
left to right. It is said to show the so called right-left reversal relative to the object.
The letters from the word AMBULANCE were printed backwards and are reversed in
sequence so that they appear in the proper orientation and order when seen in a
rearview mirror.
Size and Position of the Image Formed in a Plane Mirror
Using ray diagrams, the size and the position of the virtual image formed by a plane mirror can be determined.

Image taken from https://www.toppr.com/ask/content/concept/nature-of-imageformed- by-plane-mirror-210172/

An image is formed by reflection when two or more reflected rays of a point meet at a single point. The image
is formed at the point of intersection of the reflected rays. Image formed by a plane mirror is virtual, erect,
same size as of object and laterally inverted. Also, image distance (distance between image and mirror) equals
the object distance (distance between object and mirror) for a plane mirror.
Curved mirrors are commonly spherical mirrors. The reflecting surface of a spherical mirror is part of a large
sphere. A concave mirror curves inward like a cave. A convex mirror curves outward.

A curved mirror has a vertex, V, a center of curvature, C, and a principal focus, F. The center of curvature
is the center of the sphere from which the mirror is formed. The distance from V to C is the radius of the
curvature, R. The distance from V to F is called the focal length, f. The line passing through the center of
curvature and perpendicular to line AB is the principal axis. Line B is tangent to the curve at the vertex.

Images Formed by a Concave Mirror

Concave Mirror, also known as converging mirror, with a surface that curved inward like the inside of a bowl.
A concave mirror turns parallel rays into convergent rays. These mirrors are used as magnifying mirrors for
shaving and applying makeup, and are also found in reflecting telescopes. They are also used to make the
beam of light in flashlights and car headlights.
The type of image formed by a concave mirror depends on the position of the object in relation to the focal
point. The image formed can be found by drawing ray diagrams using the following construction rules for
concave mirrors.

Rules for Concave mirror

1. Draw a horizontal line to represent the principal axis and a short vertical line with curved ends to represent
the mirror.
2. Mark the positions of F and C on the principal axis. Remember that 2f = R.
3. Draw the object, for example, an arrow, standing upright at the given position.
The distance between the object and the mirror is called the object distance (do).
4. Draw rays with arrows to indicate direction from tip of the object as shown below.

16
Concave Mirror Ray Diagram

Ray 1 – travels parallel to the principal axis and reflects through the focal point.
Ray 2 – travels through the focal point and reflects parallel to the principal axis.
The point where the two reflected rays converge will be the location of the image.
5. Draw the image of the arrow with its tail on the principal axis. The distance between the image and the
mirror is called image distance (di).
Table 1 below shows the different images formed by a concave mirror. It shows ray diagrams for the different
positions of pencil and the images formed by a concave mirror.

Images Formed by a Convex Mirror

A mirror with a surface that curves outward is known as convex mirror or diverging mirror. A convex mirror can
reflect parallel rays of light so that they apparently meet at a point. When parallel rays of light hit a convex
mirror, the rays are reflected outwards. The reflected rays appear to spread out from a point, the principal
focus, behind the mirror. Therefore, a convex mirror is a diverging mirror.
You can use the following construction rules to trace the image formed by a convex mirror.
1. Draw a horizontal line to represent the principal axis and a short vertical line with curved ends to represent
the mirror.
2. Mark the positions of F and C on the principal axis. Remember that 2f = R.
3. Draw the object, for example, an arrow, standing upright at the given bposition. The distance between the
object and the mirror is called the object distance (do).
4. Draw rays with arrows to indicate direction from tip of the object using the following
a. A ray parallel to the principal axis is reflected so that it appears to come from the principal focus.
b. A ray is reflected parallel to the principal axis.
c. A ray directed toward the center of curvature is reflected back along its own path.
5. Draw the image of the arrow with its tail on the principal axis. The distance between the image and the
mirror is the image distance (di).
The figure below shows the ray diagram for pencil and the image formed by a convex mirror, since the rays do
not meet, images formed by convex mirrors are always virtual, upright and smaller than the object.

17
Convex mirrors are used in cars as passenger-side rearview mirrors.
Because convex mirrors spread out rays of light, you can see larger reflection area and you can see more in
mirror although the images appear smaller and farther away that the objects really are.
Mirror Equation
Ray diagrams can be used to determine the image location, size, orientation and type of image formed of
objects when placed at a given location in front of a concave mirror. The use of these diagrams was
demonstrated earlier.
Ray diagrams provide useful information about object-image relationships, yet fail to provide the information in
a quantitative form. While a ray diagram may help one determine the approximate location and size of the
image, it will not provide numerical information about image distance and object size.
To obtain this type of numerical information, it is necessary to use the Mirror
Equation and the Magnification Equation. The mirror equation expresses the quantitative relationship between
the object distance (do), the image distance (di), and the focal length (f). The equation is stated as follows:

The magnification equation relates the ratio of the image distance and object distance to the ratio of the image
height (hi) and object height (ho). The magnification equation is stated as follows:

These two equations can be combined to yield information about the image distance and image height if the
object distance, object height, and focal length are known.
As a demonstration of the effectiveness of the mirror equation and magnification equation, consider the
following example problem and its solution.
1. A 4.00-cm tall light bulb is placed a distance of 45.7 cm from a concave mirror having a focal length of 15.2
cm. Determine the image distance and the image size.
Solution:
Like all problems in physics, begin by the identification of the known information.
ho = 4.0 cm do = 45.7 cm f = 15.2 cm
Next identify the unknown quantities that you wish to solve for.
di = ??? hi = ???
To determine the image distance, the mirror equation must be used. The following lines represent the solution
to the image distance; substitutions and algebraic steps are shown.
1/f = 1/do + 1/di
1/(15.2 cm) = 1/(45.7 cm) + 1/di
0.0658 cm-1 = 0.0219 cm-1 + 1/di
0.0439 cm-1 = 1/di
di = 22.8 cm
The numerical values in the solution above were rounded when written down, yet un-rounded numbers were
used in all calculations. The final answer is rounded to the third significant digit.
To determine the image height, the magnification equation is needed. Since three of the four quantities in the
equation (disregarding the M) are known, the fourth quantity can be calculated. The solution is shown below.
hi/ho = - di/do
hi /(4.0 cm) = - (22.8 cm)/(45.7 cm)
hi = - (4.0 cm) • (22.8 cm)/(45.7 cm)
hi = -1.99 cm
The negative values for image height indicate that the image is an inverted image. As is often the case in
physics, a negative or positive sign in front of the numerical value for a physical quantity represents information
about direction. In the case of the image height, a negative value always indicates an inverted image.
From the calculations in this problem it can be concluded that if a 4.00-cm tall object is placed 45.7 cm from a
concave mirror having a focal length of 15.2 cm, then the image will be inverted, 1.99-cm tall and located 22.8
cm from the mirror.
The results of this calculation agree with the principles discussed earlier in this lesson. In this case, the object
is located beyond the center of curvature (which would be two focal lengths from the mirror), and the image is
located between the center of curvature and the focal point. This falls into the category of Case 1: The object
is located beyond C. The +/- Sign Conventions
The sign conventions for the given quantities in the mirror equation and magnification equations are as follows:
1. f is + if the mirror is a concave mirror
2. f is - if the mirror is a convex mirror
3. di is + if the image is a real image and located on the object's side of the mirror.
4. di is - if the image is a virtual image and located behind the mirror.
5. hi is + if the image is an upright image (and therefore, also virtual)
6. hi is - if the image an inverted image (and therefore, also real)
Multiple Choice
DIRECTIONS: Each question is a multiple-choice question with four answer choices.
Read each question and answer choice carefully and choose the ONE best answer.
__1. As the angle of incidence is increased for a ray incident on a reflecting surface, the angle between the
incident and reflected rays ultimately approaches what value?
a. zero b. 45 degrees c. 90 degrees d. 180 degrees

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__2. If you stand three feet in front of a plane mirror, how far away would you see yourself in the mirror?
a. 1.5 ft b. 3.0 ft c. 6.0 ft d. 12.0 ft
__3. A concave mirror with a focal length of 10.0 cm creates a real image 30.0 cm away on its principal axis;
the corresponding object is located how far from the mirror?
a. 20.0 cm b. 15.0 cm c. 7.5 cm d. 5.0 cm
__4. A concave mirror forms a real image at 25.0 cm from the mirror surface along the principal axis. If the
corresponding object is at a 10.0 cm distance, what is the mirror's focal length?
a. 1.4 cm b. 16.7 cm c. 12.4 cm d. 7.1 cm
__5. If a virtual image is formed along the principal axis 10.0 cm from a concave mirror with the focal length
15.0 cm, what is the object distance from the mirror?
a. 30.0 cm b. 10.0 cm c. 12.4 cm d. 6.0 cm
__6. Which of the following best describes the image formed by a plane mirror?
a. virtual, inverted and enlarged c. virtual, upright and the same size as object
b. real, inverted and reduced d. real, upright and the same size as object
__7. Which of the following best describes the image formed by a concave mirror when the object is located
somewhere between the focal point (F) and the center of curvature (C) of the mirror?
a. virtual, upright and enlarged b. real, inverted and reduced
c. virtual, upright and reduced d. real, inverted and enlarged
__8. Which of the following best describes the image formed by a concave mirror when the object is at a
distance further than the center of curvature (C) of the mirror?
a. virtual, erect and enlarged b. real, inverted and reduced
c. virtual, upright and reduced d. real, inverted and enlarged
__9. Which of the following best describes the image formed by a concave mirror when the object distance
from the mirror is less than the focal length (f)?
a. virtual, upright and enlarged b. real, inverted and reduced
c. virtual, upright and reduced d. real, inverted and enlarged
__10. Which of the following best describes the image formed by a convex mirror when the object distance
from the mirror is less than the absolute value of the focal length (f)?
a. virtual, upright and enlarged b. real, inverted and reduced
c. virtual, upright and reduced d. real, inverted and enlarged

Activity 1: WHAT I KNOW?

Directions: Which of the following statements are true of converging lenses? Identify all that apply.
1. Converging lenses are thicker at the center than they are at the edges.
2. If the bottom half of a converging lens is covered, then the top half of the image will not be visible.
3. Converging lenses only produce real images.
4. Converging lenses can produce images which are both magnified and reduced in size.
5. Converging lenses only produce inverted images.
6. Converging lenses have a + focal length.
7. The images formed by a converging lens can be located on either side of the lens relative to the
object.
Which of the following statements are true of diverging lenses? Identify all that apply.
8. Diverging lenses are thicker at the center than they are at the edges.
9. If the bottom half of a diverging lens is covered, then the bottom half of the image will not be visible.
10. Diverging lenses only produce virtual images.
11. Diverging lenses can produce images which are both magnified and reduced in size.
12. Diverging lenses only produce upright images.
13. Diverging lenses have a - focal length.
14. The images formed by a diverging lens can be located on either side of the lens relative to the object.
Which of the following statements are true of real images? Identify all that apply.
15. Real images are inverted.
16. Real images as formed by lenses are located on the opposite side of the lens from the object.
17. Real images are magnified in size.
18. Real images are only formed by converging lenses, never by diverging lenses.
19. An image of a real object is formed; the image distance (s' or di) for real images is a + value.
20. An image of a real object is formed; the image height (h' or hi) for real images is a + value.
A lens is a curved piece of glass or some other transparent material that is used to refract light. Like mirrors,
lenses can have different shapes and type of image formed depends on the shape of the lens. They may be
concave (diverging) or convex (converging). A convex lens is thicker at the center than at the edges while a
concave lens is thinner at the center that at the edges.

Image taken from http://www.physics.louisville.edu/cldavis/phys299/notes/lo_lenses.html

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Since a lens has two surfaces, it has two focal points, F and F’, and the center of the lens, C, between them.
The focal points are the same distance from the lens’ midpoint, O. The distance between lens’ midpoint and its
focal point is called focal length, f.

Refraction in Converging (Convex) lenses

When parallel rays of light pass through a convex lens, they are refracted inwards. The refracted rays meet
and cross over at the principal focus. A convex lens is converging lens.
Ray diagram can be used to determine the location, size, kind of image formed by a lens. The images formed
by a convex lens can be found by drawing diagrams using the following guidelines for lenses written below.
1. Draw a horizontal line to represent the principal axis and a symbol to represent a double convex lens.
2. Mark the position of F’ on the other side of the lens where the object is located and that of F on the other
side, also mark points called 2F’ and 2F at twice the focal length from the lens.
3. Draw the object, for example an arrow, standing upright on the principal axis at the given position.

A=double convex lens; B=double concave lens

4. Draw rays, with arrows to indicate directions, from the tip of the object using the following:
a. A ray parallel to the principal axis is refracted through the principal focus, F.
b. A ray passing through the principal focus F’ is refracted parallel to the principal to the principal axis.
c. A ray passing through the lens’ midpoint travels straight line.
5. Draw the image of the arrow with its tail on the principal axis. Find out the nature of the image, whether the
image is upright, or inverted, enlarged or reduced, real or virtual. (Use dashed line for a virtual image)
Images formed by a Convex Lens
Object’s Position Ray Diagram Image Example

Refraction in Diverging (Concave) lenses

When parallel rays of light pass through a diverging lens, they are refracted outward. The refracted rays
appear to spread out from the principal focus. A concave lens is a diverging lens.
Like the convex lens, ray diagram can also be used to determine the location, size, and kind of image formed
by the concave lens. The following are the guidelines to be followed:
1. Draw a horizontal line to represent the principal axis and a symbol to represent a double concave lens.
2. Mark the position of F’ on the other side of the lens where the object is located and that of F on the other
side, also mark points called 2F’ and 2F at twice the focal length from the lens.
3. Draw the object, for example an arrow, standing upright on the principal axis at the given position.

A=double convex lens; B=double concave lens

4. Draw rays, with arrows to indicate directions, from the tip of the object using the following:
a. A ray parallel to the principal axis is refracted through the principal focus, F’.

20
b. A ray projected toward the principal focus F is refracted parallel to the principal axis.
c. A ray directed toward the optical center travels straight on.
5. Draw the image of the arrow with its tail on the principal axis. Find out the nature of the image, whether the
image is upright, or inverted, enlarged or reduced, real or virtual. (Use dashed line for a virtual image).

‘
Image formed by a Concave lens
Lens Equation
Ray diagrams can be used to determine the image location, size, orientation and type of image formed of
objects when placed at a given location in front of a lens.
The use of these diagrams was demonstrated earlier for both converging and diverging lenses.
Ray diagrams provide useful information about object-image relationships, yet fail to provide the information in
a quantitative form. While a ray diagram may help one determine the approximate location and size of the
image, it will not provide numerical information about image distance and image size.
To obtain this type of numerical information, it is necessary to use the Lens
Equation and the Magnification Equation. The lens equation expresses the quantitative relationship between
the object distance (do), the image distance (di), and the focal length (f). The equation is stated as follows:

The magnification equation relates the ratio of the image distance and object distance to the ratio of the image
height (hi) and object height (ho). The magnification equation is stated as follows:

These two equations can be combined to yield information about the image distance and image height if the
object distance, object height, and focal length are known.
As a demonstration of the effectiveness of the lens equation and magnification equation, consider the following
sample problem and its solution.
1. A 4.00-cm tall light bulb is placed a distance of 45.7 cm from a double convex lens having a focal length of
15.2 cm. determine the image distance and the image size.
Like all problems in physics, begin by the identification of the known information.
ho = 4.00 cm do = 45.7 cm f =15.2 cm
Next identify the unknown quantities that you wish to solve for.
di = ??? hi = ???
To determine the image distance, the lens equation must be used. The following lines represent the solution to
the image distance; substitutions and algebraic steps are shown.
1/f = 1/do + 1/di
1/(15.2 cm) = 1/(45.7 cm) + 1/di
0.0658 cm-1 = 0.0219 cm-1 + 1/di
0.0439 cm-1 = 1/di
di = 22.8 cm
The numerical values in the solution above were rounded when written down, yet unrounded numbers were
used in all calculations. The final answer is rounded to the third significant digit.
To determine the image height, the magnification equation is needed. Since three of the four quantities in the
equation (disregarding the M) are known, the fourth quantity can be calculated. The solution is shown below.
hi/ho = - di/do
hi /(4.00 cm) = - (22.8 cm)/(45.7 cm)
hi = - (4.00 cm) • (22.8 cm)/(45.7 cm)
hi = -1.99 cm
The negative values for image height indicate that the image is an inverted image. As is often the case in
physics, a negative or positive sign in front of the numerical value for a physical quantity represents information
about direction. In the case of the image height, a negative value always indicates an inverted image.
From the calculations in this problem it can be concluded that if a 4.00-cm tall object is placed 45.7 cm from a
double convex lens having a focal length of 15.2
cm, then the image will be inverted, 1.99-cm tall and located 22.8 cm from the lens.
The results of this calculation agree with the principles discussed earlier in this lesson. In this case, the object
is located beyond the 2F point (which would be two focal lengths from the lens) and the image is located
between the 2F point and the focal point. This falls into the category of Case 1: The object is located beyond
2F for a converging lens.
Sign Conventions
The sign conventions for the given quantities in the lens equation and magnification equations are as follows:
• f is + if the lens is a double convex lens (converging lens)

21
• f is - if the lens is a double concave lens (diverging lens)
• di is + if the image is a real image and located on the opposite side of the lens.
• di is - if the image is a virtual image and located on the object's side of the lens.
• hi is + if the image is an upright image (and therefore, also virtual)
• hi is - if the image an inverted image (and therefore, also real)
Lens Application
The Human eye
The most important application of lenses would probably be the human eye.
Figure below illustrates the different parts of the eye.

The eye is an exceptional optical instrument. The transparent media of the eyes with curved surfaces
constitute the lenses made of living tissues. They are actually double-convex lenses which form a real image of
objects on the retina. The retina is an inner coat on the rear portion of the eyeball. It consists of a curtain of
nerve filaments which acts as a screen for the image formed by the lenses.
The eyeball is protected by a tough outer coat called sclera which helps to retain the shape of the eyeball and
protects the eye. In front of the sclera is the transparent cornea which admits the light into the eye. The choroid
layer is the middle coat which contains a black pigment. Its main function is to absorb all light which fails to be
focused properly to avoid the blurring of images by reflected light from the eye walls.
The colored portion of the eye is the iris which acts as a diaphragm to control the amount of light which enters
the inner eye. In the middle of the iris is the pupil which contracts in bright sunlight to reduce the amount of
light entering the eye or expands when one enters a dark room to allow more light to enter the eye.
How are the images formed in the eyes?
Each eye through its lens forms a real image in the retina. Like in case no. 2, the image is inverted and
reduced. If the object is not too close to the eye, the image formed will be bright and well defined.
To get district vision, the image formed by the combined effect of the cornea, the crystalline lens and other
refracting media within the eye should fall precisely upon the curtain of the nerve filaments (retina) located at
the back of the interior portion of the eyeball. This is actually how we get the sensation of seeing objects.

DEFECTS OF THE EYE

1. Myopia: (nearsightedness) This is a defect of vision in which far objects
appear blurred but near objects are seen clearly. The image is focused in front of
the retina rather than on it usually because the eyeball is too long or the refractive
power of the eye’s lens too strong. Myopia can be corrected by wearing
glasses/contacts with concave lenses these help to focus the image on the retina.
2. Hyperopia: (farsightedness) This is a defect of vision in which there is
difficulty with near vision but far objects can be seen easily. The image is focused
behind the retina rather than upon it. This occurs when the eyeball is too short or
the refractive power of the lens is too weak. Hyperopia can be corrected by
wearing glasses/contacts that contain convex lenses.
3. Astigmatism: This defect is when the light rays do not all come to a single
focal point on the retina, instead some focus on the retina and some focus in
front of or behind it. This is usually caused by a non-uniform curvature of the
cornea. A typical symptom of astigmatism is if you are looking at a pattern of
lines placed at various angles and the lines running in one direction appear
sharp whilst those in other directions appear blurred. Astigmatism can usually be
corrected by using a special spherical cylindrical lens; this is placed in the out-of-
focus axis.

22
ASSESSMENT
Multiple Choice
DIRECTIONS: Each question is a multiple-choice question with four answer choices.
Read each question and answer choice carefully and choose the ONE best answer.
__1. For a converging lens, a ray arriving parallel to the optic axis
a. appears to come from the principal focal point. c. passes through the "other" focal point.
b. passes through the principal focal point. d. appears to come from the "other" focal point.
__2. A converging lens is used to form a sharp image of a candle. If the lower half of the lens is covered by a
piece of paper, the
a. lower half of the image will disappear. c. image will become dimmer.
b. upper half of the image will disappear. d. image will not change.
__3. A diverging lens has a focal length of 10 cm. Where is the image located when an object is placed 30 cm
from the lens?
a. 7.5 cm on the near side c. 30 cm on the near side
b. 15 cm on the near side d. 7.5 cm on the far side
__4. A camera employs a .... lens to form..... images.
a. converging .... real c. diverging .... real
b. converging .... virtual d. diverging .... virtual
__5. In most cameras the location of the image is adjusted to appear on the film by changing the
a. position of the lens. c. shape of the lens.
b. diameter of the diaphragm. d. focal length of the lens.
__6. A human eye employs a ..... lens to form ..... images.
a. converging .... real c. diverging .... real
b. converging .... virtual d. diverging .... virtual
__7. The inability of eye to see the objects clearly is called
a. clarity of image b. Defect of vision c. blur image d. small image
__8. The condition in which the image is formed behind the retina is called
a. Farsightedness b. Nearsightedness c. image defect d. blind spotting
__9. The short-sightedness can be corrected if
a. converging glasses are used c. diverging mirror is used
b. converging mirror is used d. diverging glasses is used
__10. The condition in which image is formed in front of the retina is called
a. Farsightedness b. Defect of vision c. nearsightedness d. blind spotting

LESSON 3: Special Relativity

Direction: Read each statement carefully and choose the best answer that corresponds each. Write the letter
of best answer.
1. Which of the following observations made by an observer in a moving inertial frame of reference is
consistent with the postulates of the special theory of relativity?
A. Moving clocks run fast.
B. Moving sticks oriented parallel to the direction of motion become longer.
C. Simultaneous events happening at two different places will always be simultaneous to another observer.
D. Light always travel at the same speed in vacuum regardless of the relative motion between the source and
the observer.
2. What happens to its speed If you consider a blinking light source that approaches an observer?
A. Increases B. Decreases C. Remains the same D. Needs more information
3. If you consider a blinking light source that approaches an observer, what happens to its frequency?
A. Increases B. Remains the same C. Decreases D. Needs more information
4. If you consider a blinking light source that approaches an observer, what happens to its wavelength?
A. Increases B. Decreases C. Remains the same D. Needs more information
5. For a spaceship moving very fast with respect to the earth, the clocks on board are perceived to run slow
when viewed from the _____.
A. Earth B. space ship C. both places D. none of them
6. According to the special theory of relativity, all laws of nature are the same in reference frames that _____.
A. accelerate B. move at constant speed C. both A and B D. none of them
Before moving on, assess how much you know about this topic.
Answer the pretest in a separate sheet of paper.
7. Two meteorites are seen to strike two distant locations at the same time. As seen from a different location,
the two lightning bolts _____.
A. will also be seen at the same time C. may or may not be seen at the same time
B. will not be seen at the same time D. cannot be determined
8. There is an upper limit on the speed of a particle. This means that there is also an upper limit on its _____.
A. kinetic energy B. momentum C. both A and B D. none of them
9. Under what condition do relativity equations for length, mass, and time hold TRUE?
A. Relativistic speeds B. Everyday low speeds C. Both A and B D. None of them

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10. While the spaceship is still at rest on earth, a woman on board finds that a wooden rod she is carrying is 1
meter long. When the spaceship is moving very fast deep into the outer space, what will the woman find out
about the length of the same wooden rod she is still carrying?
A. It will be longer. B. It will be shorter.
C. It will be wider. D. It will still be of the same length.
11. How does the relativistic momentum of a fast-moving body compare to the momentum (mv) of the same
body according to classical physics?
A. Smaller B. Greater C. The same D. Cannot be determined
12. What is meant by the well-known equation, E =mc2?
A. Mass and energy are related.
B. Mass and energy travel at the same speed, the speed of light.
C. When mass travels at the speed of light, it is converted to energy.
D. When energy travels at the speed of light, it is converted to mass.
13. According to the Special Theory of Relativity, what will you notice about your own pulse rate if you travel at
a very high speed?
A. Smaller B. Just the same C. Greater D. Cannot be determined
14. What consequence of Special Theory of Relativity that states as clocks moving relative to an observer are
measured to run more slowly as compared to clocks at rest?
A. Length contraction B. Relativistic mass and energy
C. Relativistic addition velocities D. Time dilation
15. What consequence of Special Theory of Relativity dictates that the length of an object moving relative to an
observer is measured to be shorter along its direction of motion than when it is at rest?
A. Length contraction B. Relativistic mass and energy
C. Relativistic addition velocities D. Time dilation

CONSEQUENCES OF SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY TIME DILATION

Consider Figure 1, suppose you are in a spaceship sitting at rest on the Earth and turn on an overhead light.
The light will travel downward and land on the table below. The observer in the spaceship can measure the
distance traveled to the table, the time required for the light to arrive on the table and an average velocity for
the light.

From the figure 2 above, suppose now that the spaceship is traveling past
Earth at high speed and that the observer is stationary on the Earth. For the observer in the spaceship, the
light falls down on the table traveling at the constant speed of light, c. However, for the observer on Earth, the
light travels diagonally with the spaceship and also falls down on the table. Hence, the time required by the
observer on Earth, will be greater than that measured by the observer on the spaceship, since the light not only
went downward but also diagonally.
However, according to postulate 2, the speed of light is the same independent of the speed of the source or
observer. So, it is not allowed for the light to travel farther in the same time and therefore have a greater
average velocity. In other words, the speed of light as observed inside the spaceship must be 3 × 108𝑚/𝑠 and
the speed of light as observed by the observer on the earth must also be 3 × 108𝑚/𝑠.
The time interval between two events is greater for the observer on Earth than for the observer on the
spaceship. This is a result of the theory of special relativity, known as time dilation.
Time dilation stated as clocks moving relative to an observer are measured to run more slowly, as compared to
clocks at rest.
The equation for Time Dilation is
Δ𝒕 = Δ𝒕𝟎
𝟏 –𝒗2
c2
Where,
Δ𝒕 = dilated time/ time interval between two events in the moving reference frame;
Δ𝒕𝟎 = stationary time/ time interval as measured in a stationary frame of reference;
𝑣 = relative velocity of the moving reference frame and c is the speed of light in a vacuum;
𝑐 = speed of light in a vacuum, 3 × 108𝑚/𝑠

LENGTH CONTRACTION
Time intervals are not only things different in different reference frames. Space intervals – lengths and
distances – are different as well, let us examine the given situation below.

24
Based from the image above, the observer on the ship brings out his meter stick and measures the spaceship
to be 20 m long while the ship sits at rest on the
Earth. An observer outside the ship, standing on the Earth, also measures the ship to be 20 m with his meter
stick. Suddenly, the spaceship flies past the Earth at a significant fraction of the speed of light, the observer on
the ship brings out again his meter stick and measures the length of the ship and again finds it to be 20 m.
The observer in Earth who is stationary measures the moving spaceship with his meter stick and was amazed
to find out the moving spaceship to be less than 20 m.
Just for the sake of clarity, let us say that he measures it to be 10 m.
So, how it is possible for the two observers to measure the same spaceship to be in two different lengths?
When the spaceship is at rest on the Earth, the on-ship meter stick and the off-ship mater stick are the same
but when the spaceship suddenly travels past the earth, the on-ship meter stick as seen by the observer one
Earth has shrunk. When the observer keeps on insisting the spaceship is still 20 m long, the observer on Earth
argues “No, your meter has shrunk and so has your ship. The ship now measures 10 m long using my meter
stick.”

This is a general consequence of Special Theory of Relativity and it is applicable to lengths of objects and
distance between two objects. The length of an object moving relative to an observer is measured to be shorter
along its direction of motion than when it is at rest, this is called as Length Contraction.
This can be mathematically expressed as,
𝒍 = 1 – v2
c2
Where,
𝑙0 = proper length – length measured by observes at rest or stationary
𝑙 = length measured on the moving body
𝑣 = relative speed of the reference frames
𝑐 = speed of light
It is important to note that shortening of the moving objects does not produce just a smaller object of the same
shape. The object is only shortened because length contraction occurs only along the direction of motion.
Therefore, the length is only shortened but its height remains the same as when it is at rest.

RELATIVISTIC QUANTITIES
A. RELATIVISTIC ADDITION OF VELOCITIES
Imagine a rocket ship that travels away from the Earth with speed 𝒗, and assume that this rocket has fired-off
another rocket ship that flies at speed 𝑢′ with respect to the first. Applying the classical velocity addition and as
expected that the speed 𝑢 of rocket 2 with respect to Earth is 𝑢 = 𝑣 + 𝑢′. But, as the second postulate dictates
us that there is no object that can travel faster than the speed of light in any reference frame. Thus, the
classical addition of velocity formula is invalid. Instead, the valid formula is:
𝒖 = 𝒗 + 𝒖’
𝟏 + 𝒗𝒖’
c2
Where:
𝑢 = velocity of an object relative to one observer
𝑢′ = velocity relative to the other observer
𝑣 = relative velocity between two observers

B. RELATIVISTIC MOMENTUM
There is time dilation and length contraction because time intervals and length are relative, meaning their
values depend on the reference frame from which they are measured. Having time intervals and length being
modified, it is expected that other physical quantities such as momentum and energy are needed to be modify.
To preserve the law of conservation of momentum in relativity, the classical momentum formula is redefined
as,

C. RELATIVISTIC MASS AND ENERGY

Having momentum being modified, relativistic corrections for energy and mass are also expected to be made.
Einstein showed that at high speeds the formula 𝐾𝐸 =1
2
𝑚𝑣2 is not correct. He showed that the kinetic energy of a particle having mass
𝑚 travelling at speed 𝑣S is given b.

25
ASSESSMENT
I. MULTIPLE CHOICE. Read and analyze each question then select the BEST answer. Write the
corresponding CAPITAL LETTER of your choice in a separate sheet of paper.
1. If you consider a blinking light source that is receding an observer, what happens to its speed?
A. Increases B. Decreases
C. Remains the same D. Needs more information
2. If you consider a blinking light source that is receding an observer, what happens to its frequency?
A. Increases B. Decreases
C. Remains the same D. Needs more information
3. If you consider a blinking light source that is receding from an observer, what happens to its wavelength?
A. Increases B. Remains the same
C. Decreases D. Needs more information
4. Which of the following event is TRUE based on the special theory of relativity?
A. Clocks that are moving run slower than when they are at rest.
B. Clocks that are moving run faster than when they are at rest.
C. Clocks run at the same rate regardless of whether they are moving or not.
D. Clock run at rates that depend on an observer’s inertial frame of reference.
5. Which of the following is TRUE about the speed of light?
A. The speed of light is slower in a moving frame of reference.
B. The speed of light is constant in an inertial frame of reference.
C. The speed of light has the same value for observers in all reference frames.
D. The speed of light has a value that depends on the observer’s frame of reference.
6. What situation does relativistic formula for length contraction, time dilation and relativistic mass are valid?
A. Only for speeds less than 0.10c
B. Only for speeds greater than 0.10c
C. Only for speeds very close to c
D. For all speeds
7. Suppose you are in rocket ship going faster and faster. As your speed increases and your velocity gets
closer to the speed of light, which of the following can be observe in your frame of reference?
A. Mass increases B. Length shortens
C. Clock slows down D. All of the above
8. The spaceship which is measured to be 50 m long by the captain. When the spaceship past a space dock at
0.5c, space dock personnel measure the rocket ship to be 43.3 m long. What is the proper length?
A. 13.3 m B. 43.3 m C. 50.0 m D. 93.3 m
9. As the spaceship in Number 8 passes by the space dock, the ship’s captain flashes a flashlight at 1.00 s
interval as measured by space-dock personnel.
How often does the flashlight flash relative to the captain?
A. Every 0.87 s B. Every 1.15 s
C. Every 1.00 s D. cannot determine
10. What does this expression represent: 1
1- v2
c2

A. Time dilation C. Relativistic factor

B. Length contraction D. Relativistic energy

II. TRUE OR FALSE. Read each statement below carefully. Write T if the statement is correct and F if not
correct. Write your answer in a separate sheet of paper.
______1. An object’s length will be the same when it travels close to the speed of light.
______2. The time will noticeably slow down when travelling at speed close to c.
______3. Length and height are being changed as a consequence of Special Theory of Relativity.
______4. Relativistic mass increases with the speed of an object relative to the reference frame.
______5. Relativistic effects are significant only at high speeds or close to the speed of light.

Credits to Department of Education

26