Design and Development of Exoskeleton Hand

Senior Design Project Report

BY

Hagera Mumtaz Khan

Maheen Kafeel
Mubashir Ahmed Soomro

Supervised by
Dr Wasim Ahmed Khan

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

GIK Institute of Engineering Sciences & Technology
May 2023
 Design and Development of Exoskeleton Han

Senior design project report

BY

Hagera Mumtaz Khan 2019141

Maheen Kafeel 2019218
Mubashir Ahmed Soomro 2019263

Supervised by
Dr Wasim Ahmed Khan

submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

bachelor of science

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

GIK Institute of Engineering Sciences & Technology
May 2023
ABSTRACT
Hand disabilities that restrict movement in one way or another, can significantly impact
daily activities, limiting independence and reducing overall quality of life. Proper
treatment and rehabilitation can improve hand function and help individuals regain their
independence. One of the ways to tackle this problem is to design a wearable exoskeleton
rehabilitation device that allows its user to assist in performing precise hand functions
based on the nerve signals that command movement in human body. Most of the
exoskeleton products from market can pose many complications to a patient, especially
because of the bulkiness of their design and expensiveness. The previous research done
on exoskeleton hands provides us with models that do counter the bulkiness factor, but
some also add complexity to the design because of the mechanisms and sensor
technologies involved, and some are limited in movement capabilities by moving the
fingers altogether. Building on the previous research on this topic, our project aims to
design such a model that is as simple as possible, lightweight and cost effective while also
not severely limiting the movement capability of individual fingers, all without
compromising on the accuracy of results. The crux of the project revolves around
machine learning of the acquired nerve signals and precise control of motors, both of
which are centralized and coordinated by a microcontroller. The utilization of 3 channels
of EMG sensor obtains nerve signals, which is stored, sent to microcontroller, and trained
to recognize the movement by a Machine Learning classification algorithm, Support
Vector Machine (SVM). Signal features such as Root Mean Square (RMS) and Mean
Absolute Value (MAV) are extracted from EMG signals for the purpose of signal
processing. This gives us measurable characteristics of the signal that identifies the
movement, feeds it back to the microcontroller, which then commands the motors for the
desired movement. This project is also analyzed on the basis of its sustainability,
adherence to Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), social impact to the user, and
environmental impact of the processes involved. The major findings and implications of
this study suggest that a successful hand exoskeleton model can be developed by
correctly implementing SVM which results in high accuracy of classification,
corresponding to precise control of the motors that actuate movement through a Bowden
cable-based mechanism.
Keywords: exoskeleton, hand disability, rehabilitation, assistive grasping, EMG signal
classification, machine learning algorithm
 Table of Contents

Abstract ................................................................................................................................i
Table Of Contents................................................................................................................ii
Nomenclature.......................................................................................................................v
List Of Figures..................................................................................................................viii
List Of Tables.......................................................................................................................x
Chapter 1 Introduction.......................................................................................................11
1.1 Background And Motivation.........................................................................11
1.2 Problem Statement.........................................................................................11
1.3 Scope Of Work And Expected Outcome.......................................................11
1.4 Report Outline...............................................................................................12
1.5 Project Timeline............................................................................................12
1.6 Individual And Team Contribution...............................................................14
Chapter 2 Literature Review..............................................................................................15
2.1 Literature Review..........................................................................................15
2.1.1 EXOglove...................................................................................................15
2.1.2 RElab Tenoexo...........................................................................................15
2.1.3 Mano...........................................................................................................16
2.2 Inferences Drawn Out Of Literature..............................................................16
2.3 Summary........................................................................................................17
Chapter 3 Design And Analysis.........................................................................................18
3.1 Design Methodology.....................................................................................18
3.1.1 Methods For Extracting Motor Signals......................................................18
3.1.2 Concept Designs.........................................................................................19
3.1.2.1 Linkage Based Mechanism......................................................................19
3.1.2.2 Elastic-Bending Based Mechanism.........................................................20
3.1.2.3 Bowden-Cable Based Mechanism...........................................................21
3.1.3 Decision Matrix (Pugh Chart)....................................................................21
3.1.4 Final Design Conclusion............................................................................22
3.2 Mathematical Formulation............................................................................22
3.2.1 Free Body Diagram....................................................................................23
3.2.1.1 Distal:......................................................................................................23
3.2.1.2 Middle:....................................................................................................23
3.2.1.3 Proximal:.................................................................................................24
3.2.2 Mathematical Model:..................................................................................25
3.2.3 Rack And Pinion Calculations:..................................................................33
3.3 Geometric Modelling And Design................................................................34
3.3.1 Bowden-Cable Based Mechanism..............................................................34
3.3.1.2 The Distal Ring........................................................................................35
3.3.1.3 The Cap...................................................................................................36
 3.3.1.4 Junction Pieces:.......................................................................................36
3.3.1.5 Rack And Pinion......................................................................................37
3.3.1.6 Actuator Assembly Unit..........................................................................38
3.3.2 Isometric View Of The Assembly..............................................................40
3.4 Machine Learning..........................................................................................40
3.4.1 AI Algorithms:............................................................................................41
3.5 Summary........................................................................................................42
Chapter 4 Physical Model Development & Testing..........................................................43
4.1 Development Process....................................................................................43
4.1.1 Custom Designed Components:.................................................................43
4.1.2 Pre-Made Components:..............................................................................43
4.1.3 Complete Physical Model:.........................................................................44
4.2 Integration & Instrumentation.......................................................................45
4.2.1 Sensor And Electronics:.............................................................................46
4.2.2 Data Acquisition:........................................................................................48
4.2.2.1 Setting Up The Sensors:..........................................................................48
4.2.2.2 Reading & Sending The Data - Arduino:................................................49
4.2.2.3 Reading & Storing The Data - Python:...................................................49
4.2.2.4 Visualizing The Data- Python:................................................................51
4.2.2.5 Emg Signals For Various Movements:....................................................52
4.2.3 Data Handling:............................................................................................54
4.2.3.1 Feature Extraction:..................................................................................54
4.2.3.2 Visualizing The Data:..............................................................................57
4.2.3.3 Training The Data:..................................................................................59
4.3 Testing/Experimental Procedures..................................................................60
4.4 Summary........................................................................................................63
Chapter 5 Results & Discussion.........................................................................................64
5.1 Results...........................................................................................................64
5.2 Analysis And Discussions.............................................................................65
5.3 Summary........................................................................................................65
Chapter 6 Impact And Economic Analysis........................................................................66
6.1 Social Impact.................................................................................................66
6.2 Sustainability Analysis..................................................................................67
6.2.1 Economic Sustainability:............................................................................67
6.2.2 Impact Sustainability:.................................................................................67
6.2.3 Scope Of Implementation:..........................................................................68
6.2.4 Climate Conditions Suitability:..................................................................68
6.3 Environmental Impact...................................................................................68
6.3.1 Materials:....................................................................................................68
6.3.1.1 ABS Plastic:.............................................................................................68
6.3.1.2 PLA..........................................................................................................69
6.3.2 Processing Methods:...................................................................................70
6.3.2.1 3d Printing:..............................................................................................70
6.4 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).......................................................72
 6.5 Summary........................................................................................................74
Chapter 7 Conclusion And Future Recommendations.......................................................75
7.1 Conclusions...................................................................................................75
7.2 Future Recommendations..............................................................................75
Appendices.........................................................................................................................77
References........................................................................................................................102
 Nomenclature

ALS Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

DOF Degree Of Freedom

EEG Electroencephalography

EOG Electrooculography

EMG Electromyography

FBD Free Body Diagram

MI Motor Imagery

FD Force on distal phalange

FM Force on middle phalange

FP Force on proximal phalange

L1 Length of distal phalange

L2 Length of middle phalange

L3 Length of proximal phalange

θ1 Angle of curl of the distal phalange with respect to the middle phalange

θ2 Angle of curl of the middle phalange with respect to the proximal phalange

l1 Length of the object polygon between proximal and middle phalange

l2 Length of the object polygon between distal and middle phalange

αn Adjacent angle between the object polygon and phalange

βn Angle of the forces with respect to the polygon

CC +¿¿
MM Moment about the middle phalange, positive in counterclockwise direction
W Weight of object

μ Coefficient of friction between object and finger

M0 Moment about the hinge of distal phalange

F Force exerted by mechanism

FR Forced exerted by the Bowden cable

f (l , ∅ ) Friction of Bowden cable as a function of its length and bend

PR Critical load, the maximum force up till buckling

F. S Factor of Safety

E Modulus of elasticity of the cable

I Moment of inertia of the cross-section of cable

LDA Linear Displacement Analysis

SVM Support Vector Machine

ANN Artificial Neural Networks

CNN Convolutional Neural Networks

RNN Recurrent Neural Networks

DBN Deep Belief Networks

LiPo Lithium-Polymer

PWM Pulse Width Modulation

CSV Comma-Separated Values

COM Communication port

RMS Root Mean Square

MAV Mean Absolute Value

OVO One-vs-One
OVA One-vs-All

PLA Polylactic Acid

ABS Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene

VOC Volatile Organic Compound

SDG Sustainability Development Goal

 List of Figures

Fig 1-1: Project Timeline...................................................................................................13

Fig 2-1: Electrode Positions for EEG Headset..................................................................16
Fig 3-1: Concept drawing of Linkage Based Mechanism.................................................19
Fig 3-2: Concept drawing of Elastic-bending Based Mechanism.....................................20
Fig 3-3: Concept drawing of Bowden-cable Based Mechanism.......................................21
Fig 3-4: A finger, taken as a series of links.......................................................................22
Fig 3-5: FBD of Distal Phalange.......................................................................................23
Fig 3-6: FBD of Middle Phalange.....................................................................................23
Fig 3-7: FBD of Proximal Phalange..................................................................................24
Fig 3-8: A rigid body held by the finger............................................................................24
Fig 3-9: FBD of the finger holding a rigid body...............................................................25
Fig 3-10: Graphical Method to determine angles..............................................................27
Fig 3-11: Relation between the angles...............................................................................28
Fig 3-12: Relation between force and angle......................................................................29
Fig 3-13: Bowden Cable over the finger...........................................................................30
Fig 3-14: Friction Bowden Cable [2].................................................................................31
Fig 3-15: Buckling of Bowden Cable................................................................................31
Fig 3-16: Cross-section of a 1x7 steel wire.......................................................................32
Fig 3-17: Isometric view of the proximal/middle ring......................................................35
Fig 3-18: Isometric view of the distal ring........................................................................35
Fig 3-19: Isometric view of the distal ring's cap................................................................36
Fig 3-20: Junction piece for the cables over fingers..........................................................36
Fig 3-21: Junction piece for the cable over thumb............................................................37
Fig 3-22: Rack gear for thumb/index/middle finger cable................................................37
Fig 3-23: Rack gear for ring and little finger combined cable..........................................38
Fig 3-24: Pinion Gear........................................................................................................38
Fig 3-25: Actuator Assembly Holder................................................................................39
Fig 3-26: Assembled Actuator Unit...................................................................................39
Fig 3-27: Isometric view of the Assembly........................................................................40
Fig 3-28: Block Diagram of Hand Exoskeleton................................................................41
Fig 4-1: Hand Module.......................................................................................................44
Fig 4-2: Housing................................................................................................................45
Fig 4-3: Circuit Diagram...................................................................................................45
Fig 4-4: EMG Module with Surface Electrodes................................................................46
Fig 4-5: Arduino Uno........................................................................................................46
Fig 4-6: MG995 Servomotor.............................................................................................47
Fig 4-7: 2s LiPo Battery....................................................................................................47
Fig 4-8: XL4015 Buck Converter......................................................................................48
Fig 4-9: Wiring Diagram...................................................................................................49
Fig 4-10: Arduino Code for sending Data.........................................................................49
Fig 4-11: Data acquisition - Python...................................................................................50
Fig 4-12: Reading File and Plotting EMG Data - Python.................................................51
Fig 4-13: Plotting the entire file – Python.........................................................................52
Fig 4-14: EMG signals for Index-extension......................................................................52
Fig 4-15: EMG signal for Middle-finger extension...........................................................53
Fig 4-16: Raw EMG data for hand-extension....................................................................53
Fig 4-17: Active portion of EMG-signals for hand-extension...........................................54
Fig 4-18: Feature Extraction..............................................................................................56
Fig 4-19: Some Entries of the Features.............................................................................57
Fig 4-20: Visualizing Data using Seaborn – Python.........................................................58
Fig 4-21: Scatter Plot of the Features................................................................................59
Fig 4-22: Support Vector Machine Classification of Features..........................................59
Fig 4-23: Electrode Setup..................................................................................................61
Fig 4-24: Arduino Code for real-time prediction..............................................................62
Fig 5-1: Output (Serial Monitor - Arduino).......................................................................64
 List of Tables

Table 1-1: Individual and Team Contributions in the Project 14

Table 3-1: Mechanism Comparison (Pugh Chart) 21
Table 3-2: Contribution of each finger in a grip [8] 29
Table 5-1: Prediction Accuracy of Signals 65
Table 6-1: Adherence of FYP to SDGs 72
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background and Motivation

Disability is defined as the limitation caused by a condition at birth, evolved with time or
developed after an accident. The inhibition can be cognitive, sensory, physical, or mental
and affects the quality of life in performing regular activities and accessing privileges of
everyday life.
Physical disability is a long-term condition that affects a part of the body and restricts its
mobility, agility, strength, or physical functioning. These impairments can be prenatal,
perinatal, or postnatal due to accidents, diseases, genetic disorders, injuries, obesity,
infection, or substances exposure. Upper limb impairments, especially those of the hands,
are manifested through several operations like musculoskeletal or neurological injury,
stroke, aging, or chronic illnesses like diabetes, cerebral palsy, and amyotrophic lateral
sclerosis (ALS). Hands are an imperative fraction of ordinary life and muscle weakness in
the shoulder, arm and hands causes difficulty in lifting against gravity, controlling,
grasping, and moving. Finger muscle weakness is one of the primary causes of hand
impairment after stroke.
In Pakistan, the number of people with disabilities is 371,833 including 295,093 of those
with physical disabilities (NADRA Census, 2021). The current annual growth rate of
disabilities is 2.65% which is greater than the annual population growth rate of 2.03% of
Pakistan [1]. Thus, the need for economical and efficient rehabilitation devices and
prosthetics is on the rise.

1.2 Problem Statement

Design and development of hand exoskeleton to assist individual movement of fingers by
utilizing sensors to read nerve signals, and actuators to maneuver the mechanism
integrated with motor drivers.

1.3 Scope of Work and Expected Outcome

The hand exoskeleton provides 1 degree of freedom (DOF) for each finger and thumb
except the ring and little finger which are combined. It is divided into two parts, the hand
module, and the housing to distribute its weight unevenly. The hand module has the
lightest weight and minimum components while the housing mounts all the heavy
equipment to displace all the weight from the rehabilitated hand. The actuating
mechanism consists of servo motors and Bowden cables and the sensory input is provided

1
by EMG sensors present in Myo armband which is processed by Arduino Uno through
machine learning. The hand exoskeleton will be used for rehabilitation purposes by
compensating for the deficit force provided by the hand and not for incrementing it.
The limitations of the exoskeleton include, lack of wrist and arm control, less precision in
position control of fingers and no haptic feedback.

1.4 Report Outline

 Chapter 2 gives an overview of the literature and discusses previous solutions to
similar problems; it also contains the key considerations drawn from the literature
review.
 Chapter 3 encompasses the discussion and selection of a proper motor signal to read,
multiple concept designs and a decision matrix for the selection of the final design.
CAD models are also included in this section.
 Chapter 4 outlines the processes and procedures involved in the development and
testing of a physical model, including fabrication, electronics, and experimental
testing. It also dives deep into the data acquisition and Machine Learning aspect.
 Chapter 5 presents the results and analysis of the project. It includes a detailed
discussion of the findings and their significance, along with a summary of the chapter.
 Chapter 6 covers various analyses including social impact, sustainability analysis,
environmental impact, and SDG mapping.
 Chapter 7 entails the final conclusion and future recommendations of this project.

1.5 Project Timeline

Refer to the next page.

2
Fig 1-1: Project Timeline

3
1.6 Individual and Team Contribution
Table 1-1: Individual and Team Contributions in the Project
Literature Review Hagera
Maheen
Mubashir

Design Selection Hagera

Maheen
Mubashir

Report Hagera
Maheen
Mubashir

4
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Literature Review

2.1.1 ExoGlove
Hong K. Y. et al. (2015) developed a rehabilitation device, ExoGlove, for the hand based
on a pneumatic system. The device comprises of a wearable glove with elastomers on the
dorsal side that inflate to bend the fingers when the pneumatic source and valves allow
pressurization. The distinguishing feature in its design is that the elastomer over the
fingers and thumb are fabricated such that it has variable stiffness at different regions
along its length. The stiffness is high over the phalange segments and low over the joints.
This feature allows more bending over the joints than the phalange segments during
inflation, leading to easier conforming and adaptability to a desired shape during grasping
objects. Force sensors on the fingertips provide a feedback loop that keeps the fingertip
force in limit for assistive grasping.[5]
The elastomer fabrication has to be adjusted to match the location of joints and length of
phalanges for each patient. The rehabilitation mode of ExoGlove is meant to allow
specific hand exercise movements, for each of which the elastomer fabrication has to
customized as well.

2.1.2 RELab Tenoexo

RELab Tenoexo is a wearable assistive exoskeleton hand, developed by the
Rehabilitation Engineering Laboratory at ETH Zurich University, to assist activities of
daily life. The actuation system is based on two Bowden cables, one for all four fingers
and the other for the thumb alone. Hence, the fingers do not have independent motion, but
the range of motion is sufficient to cover various grasping and pinching actions. The
actuation is achieved when Bowden cables transmit forces to a layered spring-blade
mechanism over the fingers and thumb. The layered spring-blades consist of a fixed
spring which provides structural support to the exoskeleton, and an actively sliding spring
fixed at the end which is responsible for the flexion and extension of the fingers. There is
another mechanism limited only to the thumb that allows abduction and adduction motion
of thumb, along with flexion and extension by the springs. This specific mechanism is
based on a miniature rack and pinion.[9]
The distinctive control aspect of this exoskeleton hand is that it uses the Myo Armband
over a Bluetooth connection to detect EMG signals, rather than conventional EMG sensor
kits which usually involve a hassle with cables, surface electrode gel, and extensively
filtering signals. Thalmic Labs (now known as North) is a company that developed the

5
Myo Armband using dry surface EMG electrodes encased in the form of an armband, and
it essentially reduces the complications caused by conventional EMG kits.

2.1.3 Mano
Randazzo et al. (2018) worked on a wearable hand exoskeleton sufficient to perform
daily life activities such as grasping for eating and drinking, and miscellaneous actions.
The exoskeleton is actuated by Bowden cables such that the thumb, index and
intermediate fingers have independent actuation, while the ring and little fingers have a
combined actuation. A chest-pack housing holds the battery, linear actuators, and
microcontroller unit (Arduino Mega). The unique aspect of this exoskeleton is that the
structural design covers minimal area on the palm, fingertips and forearm in order to
preserve the natural somatosensory capabilities. This is achieved by using Bowden cables
as the structural supports for the exoskeleton, along with their use as the actuation
elements.[6]
This study also aimed at determining whether motor imagery (MI) commands extracted
only from electro encephalography (EEG) signals could be used to continuously control
this exoskeleton hand. Although the conclusions suggested that the exoskeleton aided
users in performing MI tasks, this was not made part of the original Mano design due to
the uncertainty whether it was solely due to the exoskeleton’s actuation or due to
feedback from the MI.

2.2 Inferences drawn out of Literature

A review of all the designs incorporated in the mentioned literature suggests that the
exoskeleton hand has to be lightweight, comfortable, ergonomic, easy to wear and set up.
A pneumatic system exoskeleton hand may have a lot of components to deal with, and
their combined interfacing with the microcontroller can also be demanding task. The
components include but are not limited to air pump or compressor, pressure regulator,
valves, sensors, pneumatic actuators, exhaust and possibly a recirculation system – all of
which can increase the weight and general complexity of the system. An exoskeleton
hand using cable actuation is simpler comparatively in terms of components while also
being easier to fabricate. The components mostly include the cables, motors, and sensors.

6
 Fig 2-2: Electrode Positions for EEG Headset
Sensors based on EEG activity are generally complicated to set up because various
electrodes are placed at different locations of scalp, depending on the state of desired
mind activity. In many cases, it may become difficult for patients to accurately place
these electrodes without professional assistance. Some EEG headsets also require wearing
a head cover, which may be reasonably tight and becomes uncomfortable over a
prolonged period of time.
Although EMG sensor kits also have complications of their own, namely the excessive
cables and filtering of signals, but they are certainly less than those posed by an EEG
headset. The inconveniences caused by conventional EMG kits is why the idea of
recording EMG signals through the Myo Armband is a feasible option of countering
them, as a stable Bluetooth connection is the only pre-requisite to be fulfilled [3].
Additionally, Machine Learning can be implemented in this project for the purpose of
deploying a training module to recognize all the input signals of hand motions. Then the
exoskeleton hand would perform desired actions when it recognizes a specific input
signal. This training module allows the exoskeleton hand to adapt to multiple users [3].

2.3 Summary
This chapter explored a brief review of research on three different models of exoskeleton
hand, and the inferences drawn from them manifest the basis of our own design. The
literature will also form the ground in deciding multiple parameters such as hardware,
materials, simplicity, adaptability, power requirement, weight, and fabrication methods.
The design of exoskeleton hand we aim to achieve is partly a combination of RELab
Tenoexo and Mano, incorporating the use of Myo Armband from the former and Bowden
cables as structural support from the latter, with design modifications of our own to
encompass uniqueness as well. In essence, RELab Tenoexo and Mano serve as a
reference model and benchmark for our project.

7
 CHAPTER 3
DESIGN AND ANALYSIS

3.1 Design Methodology

For the purpose of design, we must keep in mind a few specific elemental points: need
(which is defined by the problem statement), feasibility, viability, and some design
limitations. Gathering from the problem statement, we can define our need as:
“To provide or assist desired movement to the individual fingers of a hand.”
A multitude number of research papers were accessed pertaining to the anatomy of the
fingers, different actuation systems and signal retrieval. We studied the basic biological
structure of human hands with the focus on joints and all possible hand movements. This
step was necessary to understand the range of motion of hand and determine the scope of
our project according to it.
Out of many aspects to consider, weight is a crucial one; this deliberation begs us to limit
the degrees of freedom since it greatly reduces the number of inputs (i.e., actuators). Our
specification can be defined as:
“Control only one degree of freedom for each finger.”

3.1.1 Methods for Extracting Motor Signals

Motor signals refer to the pulses that communicate body movements from the Central
Nervous System (brain and spinal cord) to muscles. These signals have their origin in the
brain, travel through the spinal cord where they get distributed in the Peripheral Nervous
System (all nerves excluding brain and spinal cord), and finally to the muscles for
performing movement. There are several ways to extract motor signals from nerves at
suitable points along this path, the ones possibly applicable to our project are discussed
next [5].
 Electroencephalography (EEG) translates to the measurement of weak electrical
signals given off by the brain’s activity. As discussed before, these signals can be
measured by electrodes placed on the scalp at different locations. The placement of
electrodes depends on the focus of desired activity, for example, the frontal and
posterior cortex of brain determine an action based on abstract thinking. The EEG
signal, usually no more than 150 V, is a very weak signal.

 Electrooculography (EOG) is the measurement of electrical potential between cornea

and retina of the eye. The measurement is taken by placing electrodes on skin close to
the eye, such as the forehead. It is capable of translating detected blinks of the eye

8
 into a useful command for the microcontroller. The signal strength has the range of
250-1000 V.

 Electromyography (EMG) signal measurement records electrical activity based on the

activity of skeletal muscles. In other words, it measures the muscle’s electrical
response when a nerve stimulates it. EMG signal can be measured either by surface
EMG in which a surface electrode is placed over the region of focus, or by
intramuscular EMG which involves inserting a needle electrode to directly reach the
muscle fiber. These signals can have a strength up to 10mV.
After a basic overview of these signal measuring techniques, we deduce that EMG signal
measurement is the most suitable option based on its highest strength as well as lowest
processing power required among these options. There are drawbacks in the setup of EEG
equipment due to the careful placement of electrodes, and the use of EOG is not
recommended since blinks are naturally repetitive and a random blink may not have the
intention to perform a function. We aim to make our design as comfortable and
convenient for the user as possible.

3.1.2 Concept Designs

3.1.2.1 Linkage Based Mechanism

Fig 3-1: Concept drawing of Linkage Based Mechanism

Driven by servo motors, this design consists of seven linkages per finger along with three
curved guides to guide the intersection points of the linkages; each of these three guides is
fixed at the respective joint of the finger (proximal, middle, and distal joints). The crank
pulls or pushes the first coupler, which in turn moves the other two links connected to it
and the process repeats for the rest of the phalanges. The links pinned on the finger are
responsible for pushing or pulling the respective phalange. This particular design is

9
geometrically restricted and allows one degree of freedom for each finger, therefore, five
in total. Thus, if the angle of rotation of the crank is known, the position of everything
else is determinable.
This mechanism is capable of exerting great force and is robust, however, the design has
its limitations. Since the nature of the rotation of the phalanges is always the same, the
mechanism does not adapt to the shape of an object being handled.

3.1.2.2 Elastic-bending Based Mechanism

Fig 3-2: Concept drawing of Elastic-bending Based Mechanism

Lying on top of the fingers is a bendable, stiff material which is driven by an actuation
system. The force is transmitted through the means of Bowden cable which is driven by
linear servo actuators present in the housing. The Bowden cable pushes or pulls the
flexible material which in turn moves the fingers. The straps restrict the material to be
fixed on the finger at all times.
Practical considerations lead to the conclusion that friction will be playing a key role in
energy losses, ergo, the transmitted force is not at its full potential but may be enough for
fulfilling the design requirements. The size and the weight of the system on the hand is
considerably small compared to the first design. The movement of the fingers is not
geometrically restricted; thus, the motion of individual phalanges depends upon the object
being handled; in other words: the system is adaptable.

10
3.1.2.3 Bowden-cable Based Mechanism

Fig 3-3: Concept drawing of Bowden-cable Based Mechanism

Bowden cables transmit forces by means of an inner wire that moves relative to an outer
cable. These cables are bendable but not elastic. This design consists of three rings per
finger, to pass the Bowden cable through, these rings act as supports or guides to direct
the wire to move along with the finger; the wire is free to move through these except for
the support on the distal phalange. The distal phalange of a finger has one end of the
Bowden cable fixed to it. The Bowden cable goes all the way from the housing to the
fingers. There is a frame on the back of the hand to accumulate and direct the cables to
the fingers.
Again, due to the inclusion of Bowden cable, friction will cause an encumbrance. One
other factor to be considered would be the buckling of the Bowden cable. The weight and
size of this design on the hand are the smallest.

3.1.3 Decision Matrix (PUGH chart)

Refer to the next page.

11
Table 3-2: Mechanism Comparison (Pugh Chart)

Linkage based Elastic-bending Bowden-cable

mechanism based mechanism based mechanism

Weight -1 +1 +1
Cost -1 0 +1
Ease of Fabrication -1 0 +1
Ease of assembly -1 0 +1
Power Requirement -1 0 +1
Ergonomic Design -1 +1 +1
Adaptability -1 +1 +1
Feasibility 0 -1 +1
Mechanical Losses 0 +1 -1
Possible Irregularities +1 0 -1
Soft Robotics -1 +1 +1
Total -7 +4 +7

*The datum is set to zero. ‘+1’ sign means positive inclusion and ‘-1’ means negative inclusion and 0 means neutral.

3.1.4 Final Design Conclusion

The Elastic-bending based mechanism comes a close second to Bowden-cable based
mechanism. Ease of fabrication, weight and cost play a key role here in the selection of
this particular concept design. This assessment leads us to choosing Bowden-cable based
mechanism.

3.2 Mathematical Formulation

We must now determine the maximum force out of all the desired tasks. Any force less
than this will be able to perform the tasks it's capable of. This makes it mathematically
difficult as there are so many parameters to deal with – theoretically there can be
infinitely many tasks and our goal here is to find the highest force needed out of all the
possible tasks. This force is useful in determining the torque needed by the motors and for
calculation of Factor of Safety (F.S).

12
Let us begin by developing the free-body diagram of a finger. Here we have considered
that the individual phalanges of the fingers are links (because they are connected by a
revolute joint).

Fig 3-4: A finger, taken as a series of links

3.2.1 Free Body Diagram

Now let us consider a case where the finger is holding an object thus exerting force on it,
this force is applied by the distal, middle, and proximal phalanges of the fingers and this
same force is applied on the phalanges as well, according to Newton’s third law.

3.2.1.1 Distal:

Fig 3-5: FBD of Distal Phalange

13
3.2.1.2 Middle:

Fig 3-6: FBD of Middle Phalange

3.2.1.3 Proximal:

Fig 3-7: FBD of Proximal Phalange

It appears that there are too many unknowns, and it becomes almost impossible, even
computationally, to vary all the parameters individually for each possible value of the
other parameters and find the maximum force. And we must also take all links into
account and apply the condition of static equilibrium – otherwise the information to the
mathematical formulation would be incomplete.
We must now necessarily consider the object being held, and in order to consider it we
must define it. Since this is an optimization problem, we will keep the object’s size
variable. For simplification, consider the following polygon:

14
 Fig 3-8: A rigid body held by the finger
This object is assumed to be a rigid body, and its shape is defined by a polygon. The
vertices of this polygon are in contact with the finger.
This object must stay in equilibrium; therefore, the free body diagram becomes:

Fig 3-9: FBD of the finger holding a rigid body

The FBD shows the finger along with its angles of curl. θ1 shows the angle of curl of the
distal phalange with respect to the middle phalange and θ2 represent the angle of curl of
the middle phalange with respect to the proximal phalange. For simplification, the lengths

15
of the middle and proximal phalanges are taken equal, and the length of the distal
phalange is taken to be half of that.
The forces exerted on the finger are taken to be on the middle of the links. As a
consequence, an isosceles triangle is formed where the two angles and sides are equal,
thus, α n becomes the adjacent angle. β n represents the angle of the forces with respect to
the polygon. The forces are perpendicular because they are contact forces.

3.2.2 Mathematical Model:

The assumptions for the mathematical model are:
1. The lengths of the proximal and middle links are equal, and the length of the distal
link is half of that.
2. The forces exerted on the middle and proximal links are at their geometrical center.
3. The force exerted on the distal link is at its furthest end, (this helps for a mathematical
simplification).
4. The moment of the object being held is not balanced by friction forces.
5. There is no buckling in the Bowden cable (only bending).
6. The resistance due to the bending of the Bowden cable does not obstruct the force
transfer.
7. The links are free to move without any resistance, i.e., the fingers don’t possess a
spring-like behavior.
Balancing the moment about M:
CC +¿=0 ¿
ΣMM (3.1)

F D l 2 sin ( 90−α 1 )−F P l 1 sin ⁡(90−α ¿¿ 2)=0 ¿ (3.2)

F P l 1 sin ⁡(90−α¿ ¿2)=F D l 2 sin ⁡(90−α 1 )¿ (3.3)

F P l 1 cos ⁡(α ¿¿ 2)=F D l 2 cos ( α 1) ¿ (3.4)

Examining the geometry,α n’s relationship is:

( 180−θn ) + α n +α n=180 (3.5)

θ
α n= (3.6)
2
Applying the law of cosines:

( ) ( ) ( )( L2 ) cos ⁡(180−θ )
2 2
2 L L L
l n= + −2 n (3.7)
2 2 2

l =2 ( ) ( 1+cos ( θ ) )
2
2 L
n n (3.8)
2

Substitute eq . ( 3.6 )∧eq .(3.8) to eq .(3.4):

16
 () ( ) θ2
( ) (1+ cos (θ )) × cos ( 2 )
θ1
2 2
L L
2
F P ×2
2
( 1+cos ( θ 2 ) ) ×cos 2 2
2
=F D × 2
2 1
2
(3.9)

( 2)
θ

√
2
cos
(1+cos ( θ2 ) ) 0
F =F × 0 ≤θ 1 ,2 ≤ 90 (3.10)
cos ( )
D P
θ 1 (1+cos ( θ1 ) )
2

We must also balance the forces, for this, we will situate our coordinate axis on F D ,
Σ F x =0 (3.11)

F M cos ( θ 1−900 ) −F P cos ( θ1 +θ2−90 0 )=0 (3.12)

cos ( θ1+ θ2−90 )

0

F M =F P (3.13)
cos ( θ1−90 )
0

Σ F y =0 (3.14)

F D + F M sin ( θ 1−900 ) −F P sin ( θ 1+θ 2−900 ) =0 (3.15)

Substitute F M from eq .(3.13).

FD+ FP
( cos ( θ1 +θ 2−900 )
cos ( θ1 −90
0
) ) sin ( θ1−90 )−F P sin ( θ1+ θ2−90 )=0
0 0
(3.15)

FD+ FP
( cos ( θ1 +θ 2−900 )
cos ( θ1 −90
0
)
sin ( θ1 −90 ) −sin ( θ1 +θ 2−90
0 0
) ) =0 (3.16)

(
F D =F P sin ( θ1+ θ2−90 )−
0
cos ( θ1 +θ2−90 0 )
cos ( θ1−90
0
)
sin ( θ1−90
0
) ) (3.17)

Substituting the respective trigonometric identities:

F D =F P
( sin ( θ1 +θ2 )
sin ( θ1 )
cos ( θ1 ) −cos ( θ1 +θ 2)
) (3.18)

Substitute eq .(3.10) to eq .(3.18),

( 2)
θ

√
2
cos

( sin (θ ) ) cos ( θ ) ( 1+cos ( θ 2 ) )

sin ( θ +θ )
1 2
F P cos ( θ ) −cos ( θ +θ ) =F
1 1 2 P (3.19)
1 1 ( 1+cos ( θ 1 ) )
2

We will now resort to graphical method for determiningθ1∧θ 2.

17
Let θ1 = x and θ2 = y

Fig 3-10: Graphical Method to determine angles

Applying 0 ≤ θ1 ,2 ≤ 900, we get:

18
 Fig 3-11: Relation between the angles
As it turns out, when both the moment and the forces are balanced (according to our
model), the angles turn out to be equal:
θ=θ1=θ2 (3.20)
Substitute eq .(3.20) into eq .(3.10):

( θ2 ) (1+cos ( θ ) )
cos ( ) √
F P∗cos
FD= (3.21)
θ ( 1+cos ( θ ) )
2
F D =F P (3.22)
Substitute eq .(3.20) into eq .(3.13):

cos ( 2 θ−900 )
F M =F P (3.23)
cos ( θ−90 )
0

sin ( 2θ )
F M =F P (3.24)
sin ⁡(θ)
2 sinθcosθ
F M =F P (3.25)
sin ⁡(θ)
F M =2∗F P cosθ → eq . E (3.26)
μ F M + μ F P+ μF D=W (3.27)
μ(F ¿ ¿ M + F P + F D )=W ¿ (3.28)
W
FM + FP+ FD= (3.29)
μ

19
The table below shows the contribution of individual fingers [4]:
Table 3-3: Contribution of each finger in a grip [4]
Finger Percentage of Total Grip Strength
Index 40-45%
Middle 20-25%
Ring 10-15%
Pinky 5-10%
Thumb 20-25%

Holding an object of weight W and balancing it by friction:

μ F M + μ F P+ μF D=W (3.30)
μ(F ¿ ¿ M + F P + F D )=W ¿ (3.31)
W
FM + FP+ FD= (3.32)
μ
Our objective is to hold a 1.5L bottle of water. A healthy adult with an average grip
strength may need to exert a force between 30-70 Newtons to securely hold a 1.5-liter
water bottle from the side. [4]
Selecting the highest contribution (45%) from the table and taking the highest force from
the range (70N) from the range, the sum of the forces is,
F M + F P + F D =45 % ×70 (3.33)
FP ¿ (3.34)
15.75
F p= (3.35)
c os θ+1

20
 Fig 3-12: Relation between force and angle

Fp = y & θ = x (3.36)
As it can be seen, the Force increases with the angle. The maximum Force exists at π /2.
F P |π =15.75 N (3.37)
2

Since F P and F D are equal,

F D |π =15.75 N (3.38)
2

Now let us consider the Force exerted by the mechanism. Consider the FBD of the distal
phalange (link). Balance Moment about the link’s hinge:
Σ M 0 =0 (3.39)
F∗d =F D∗L1 (3.40)
F D∗L1
F= → eq . F (3.41)
d
Referring to Appendix D, length distal moment arm is d=6.5 mm and link length
L1=13.5 mm.
−3
15.75∗13.55∗10
F= −3 (3.42)
6.5∗10
F=32.832 N (3.43)
Consider the Bowden cable only:

Fig 3-13: Bowden Cable over the finger

21
Let F R be the force exerted on the Bowden cable at the end of it.
The friction force in a Bowden Cable is given by [2]:
−μφ
T out =T ¿ e ∧μ=0.075 (3.44)

Fig 3-14: Friction Bowden Cable [2]

Where T ¿ and T out are F R and F . The equation becomes:

−μφ
F=F R e (3.45)

The maximum bend angle (due to bend in elbow) according to design is φ=π .
32.832
FR= −0.075∗π (3.46)
e
F R =41.555 N (3.47)

Applying Euler’s column equation for buckling for the third case:

22
 Fig 3-15: Buckling of Bowden Cable
2
π EI
P R= =F . S × F R
()
2
L (3.48)
2
Where E is the modulus of elasticity and I is the moment of inertia of the cross-section of
the cable.

Fig 3-16: Cross-section of a 1x7 steel wire

The Bowden cable used for this project was a cable typically used in bikes as a clutch
cable. And usually, the configuration of the inner wire of such Bowden-cables is 1 x 7 , i.e.,
there are 7 strands in a circular cross-section. It is possible that each strand is built of
different circular strands, however, this model will give a close approximation.
As measured, the diameter of the cable is D=1.5 mm
D=3 d (3.49)
D
d= (3.50)
3
1.5
d= mm (3.51)
3
Centroid Moment of Inertia of a single strand:
π 4
I strand = d (3.52)
64
Using Principal Axis theorem, shifting the Axes of rotation of the outer strands to the
center of the cross-section of the wire and adding the respective moment of inertias:
2
I total=I strand +6 ×(I strand + A h ) (3.53)

23
Where h is the distance from the center of the cross-section to the center of an outer
strand.
d d
h= + =d (3.54)
2 2

( )
2
πd 2
I total=7 × I strand +6 × (d ) (3.55)
4

=7 × d +6∗(
4 )
4
π πd
4
I total (3.56)
64

=7 × d +6∗(
4 )
4
π πd
4
I total (3.57)
64

= ( ) ( 167 +6)
−3 4
π 1.5∗10
I total (3.58)
64 3
−14 4
I total=1.975 ×10 m (3.59)

Modulus of Elasticity of a Steel is E=183.9GPa

Maximum length of the inner cable when out of the outer covering L=15 cm

π 2 ( 183.9∗109 ) ×(1.975∗10−14 )
P R=
( ) (3.60)
−2 2
15∗10
2
P R=101.963 N (3.61)
101.963
F . S= =2.45 (3.62)
41.555
3.2.3 Rack and Pinion Calculations:
Force required: F R =41.555 N
Servomotor Torque: τ =1.2 Nm (4.8 V ),1.4 Nm (7.2V )
Radius of Pinion:
τ =F R ×r (3.63)
τ
r= (3.64)
FR

1.2+1.4
2 (3.65)
r=
41.555
r =0.03128 m (3.66)
∴ r=31.28 mm (3.67)

24
Length of Rack:
Since the motor can rotate only 180 °,
S=rθ (3.68)

(
S= ( 31.28 ) 180 ° ×
π
180 ° ) (3.69)

S=98.269 mm (3.70)
∴ S=100 mm (3.71)
Design of Rack and Pinion:
Radius of Pinion=r =30 mm (3.72)
Pitch diameter of Pinion=d =60 mm (3.73)
No . of teeth=N=20 (3.74)
d
Module=m= (3.75)
N
60
m= (3.76)
20
m=3 (3.77)
πd
Circular pitch of Pinion=p= (3.78)
N
π ( 60 )
p= (3.79)
20
p=9.25 mm (3.80)
p
Thickness of teeth=t= (3.81)
2
9.425
t= (3.82)
2
t=4.7125 mm (3.83)
Pitch Height of Rack=10 mm (3.84)
Mounting Distance=r + H=40 mm (3.85)
addendum=a=m=3 mm (3.86)
dedendum=b=1.25 a=3.75 mm (3.87)
m
fillet radius=r f = =1 mm (3.88)
3
face width=c=9 m<c <14 m (3.89)

25
 c=12 mm (3.90)
˚
addendum radius=r a=r + a=33 mm (3.91)
˚
dedendum radius=r d =r−b=26.25 mm (3.92)

Base Circle:
Pressure Angle=ϕ=20 ° (3.93)
r b =r cos ϕ=28.19 mm (3.94)
d b =d cos ϕ=56.38 mm (3.95)
pb= p cos ϕ=8.856 mm (3.96)

3.3 Geometric Modelling and Design

3.3.1 Bowden-cable Based Mechanism

The final design’s mechanism consists of three main parts which are repeated for each
finger.

3.3.1.1 The Proximal/Middle Ring

Fig 3-17: Isometric view of the proximal/middle ring

As seen in the image, the part contains a through hole for the cable to pass through. It
contains a slot that runs to the other end for the elastic straps to pass (these straps will be
used to fix this ring to the phalange). Both proximal and middle rings are of the same
design but different sizes.

26
3.3.1.2 The Distal Ring

Fig 3-18: Isometric view of the distal ring

Like the proximal/middle ring, the distal ring also has slot for an elastic strap. The
difference here is the inclusion of more slots. A Bowden cable has a barrel-like shape at
one of its ends, this will be placed into the two lateral slots. The slots at the top are meant
to be filled by the means of a cap.

3.3.1.3 The Cap

Fig 3-19: Isometric view of the distal ring's cap

This is the cap that is to be fixed into the distal ring. This ensures that the Bowden cable
remains fixed at the distal region.

27
3.3.1.4 Junction Pieces:
Junction pieces serve to align the Bowden cables in their respective path, preventing
entanglement of the cables.

Fig 3-20: Junction piece for the cables over fingers

Fig 3-21: Junction piece for the cable over thumb

3.3.1.5 Rack and Pinion

Rack and pinion mechanisms are utilized to translate the rotational motion from the servo
motor into linear motion that will exert forces to bend the finger.

28
 Fig 3-22: Rack gear for thumb/index/middle finger cable

Fig 3-23: Rack gear for ring and little finger combined cable
The shape of servo motor’s horn gear is cut into one side of the pinion gear’s face. This is
done to ensure proper locking of the pinion with the servo motor.

29
 Fig 3-24: Pinion Gear

3.3.1.6 Actuator Assembly Unit

A stand-like structure is specially designed to hold the servo motor, rack and pinion in
their assembled positions.

Fig 3-25: Actuator Assembly Holder

With all the components in place, the assembled unit looks like this:

30
 Fig 3-26: Assembled Actuator Unit

3.3.2 Isometric View of the Assembly

Fig 3-27: Isometric view of the Assembly

The assembly contains the Bowden cables, the rings, and a frame to guide the Bowden
cables to the fingers.

3.4 Machine Learning

A major part of this project is the data-acquisition, training and implementation. Once the
data is acquired, valid information from the data must be put through a machine learning
algorithm to get trained and be able to predict the outcomes with acceptable accuracy.
The machine learning component of this project involves developing an algorithm that
can analyze sensor data from the exoskeleton hand and predict the user's desired
movements. The algorithm will be trained using supervised learning techniques, where
labeled training data will be used to teach the algorithm to recognize patterns in the
sensor data that correspond to different finger movements.

31
The input data to the machine learning algorithm will include sensor readings from the
user's arm and hand. The algorithm will be responsible for interpreting this data and
making predictions about the user's intended finger movements.
Once the algorithm has been trained, it will be integrated into the overall control system
of the exoskeleton hand. The algorithm will continuously analyze sensor data in real-time
and make adjustments to the torques of the motors to produce the desired finger
movements. Over time, the algorithm may be able to adapt to the specific movements and
intentions of individual users, improving the overall performance and usability of the
exoskeleton hand.

Fig 3-28: Block Diagram of Hand Exoskeleton

3.4.1 AI Algorithms:
Some of the most widely used AI Algorithms for EMG are:
Linear discriminant analysis (LDA):
A technique that projects high-dimensional data onto a lower-dimensional space, while
maximizing the separation between different classes. It can be used for pattern
recognition and classification of EMG signals.
Support vector machines (SVM): A technique that finds the best decision boundary
between different classes in a dataset. It can be used for classification and regression
problems, including EMG signal processing.
Artificial neural networks (ANN): A family of algorithms that use layers of
interconnected nodes (neurons) to learn complex patterns in data. They can be used for
various tasks in EMG signal analysis, such as feature extraction, classification, and
segmentation.
Convolutional neural networks (CNN): A type of neural network that is specialized for
image and video processing. It can be used for processing EMG signals that are
represented as images or spectrograms.
Recurrent neural networks (RNN): A type of neural network that is specialized for
sequential data, such as time series or text. It can be used for analyzing EMG signals that
have temporal dependencies.

32
Deep belief networks (DBN): A type of neural network that consists of multiple layers
of restricted Boltzmann machines. It can be used for unsupervised feature learning and
classification of EMG signals.
These AI algorithms can be used individually or in combination with each other to
achieve better performance in EMG signal analysis tasks. The choice of algorithm
depends on the specific problem at hand, the available data, and the desired output or
decision.

Table 3-3: Algorithm Comparison

Criteria/Algorithm LDA SVM ANN CNN RNN DBN

Accuracy 3 4 4 4 4 4
Training time 2 4 2 1 4 -
Computational
3 4 2 1 3 -
complexity
Robustness to noise 2 2 4 4 2 4
Interpretable 3 4 1 0 0 0
Total 13 18 13 10 13 8

Based on the Pugh table, three machine learning algorithms appear to be well-suited for
the given EMG signal processing task: SVM, LDA, and RNN. SVM has the highest total
score of 18, followed by LDA with a score of 15, and RNN with a score of 13. Based on
the scores alone, SVM is the most suited, however, it is to be noted that the choice of
algorithm depends upon the nature of data as well.

3.5 Summary
This chapter discusses the design methodology which includes methods for extracting
motor signals, and concept designs for the exoskeleton hand. The three methods for
extracting motor signals are examined based on the use of EEG, EOG, and EMG, after
which it is concluded that EMG is the most suitable for this project. Then three concept
designs are evaluated – a linkage-based mechanism, an elastic-bending-based mechanism,
and a Bowden-cable-based mechanism. The Bowden-cable-based mechanism is selected
by considering various factors on a Pugh chart. The mathematical model is developed
which gives us the critical force at the end, or the maximum force up till which the
Bowden cable will not buckle. To select the most suitable machine learning algorithm for
the device, a Pugh chart is used to compare various algorithms based on several factors
such as accuracy, ease of implementation, and computational complexity. The chart
concludes that Support Vector Machine (SVM) is the best algorithm for the device due to

33
its high accuracy, low computational complexity, and ease of implementation. Therefore,
SVM is selected as the machine learning algorithm for the finger movement device.

34
 CHAPTER 4
PHYSICAL MODEL DEVELOPMENT & TESTING

4.1 Development Process

The development process involves fabrication of the exoskeleton hand, data acquisition
through the EMG sensor module and its training through Machine Learning algorithm.
Other than the commercially available parts that are used in fabrication, custom designed
parts are made by utilizing 3D printing of PLA material.

4.1.1 Custom Designed Components:

The exoskeleton hand utilizes 3D printing technology to fabricate custom parts using
PLA. These parts include the housing, rack and pinion mechanism, junction and phalange
pieces, which are integral to the system's functionality.
The housing is specifically designed to accommodate all of the control components, such
as the microcontroller, battery, and four servo motors, each of which is integrated with a
rack and pinion mechanism to enable precise finger movement. This housing is
strategically located on the back to minimize the effect of added weight on the user's hand
movement. The rack and pinion mechanism is responsible for converting the rotational
motion of each motor into linear motion. This mechanism consists of a rack that is
attached to a Bowden cable, which transmits the linear motion necessary to move the
fingers. Two junction pieces located on the dorsal side of hand are used to keep the
Bowden cables organized so that do not tangle. Three phalange pieces are located on each
finger, including the proximal, middle, and distal phalanges, and they serve as guides for
the Bowden cable. Additionally, the phalange pieces restrict the movement of the cable
over the fingers, thereby ensuring precise and accurate finger movements.
4.1.2 Pre-made Components:
The components for the exoskeleton hand were carefully selected by comparing the
available options in the market and choosing the most feasible ones based on factors such
as weight and cost.
To enable finger movement, Bowden cables are used, similar to those found in bikes. To
prevent buckling over the finger joints, pieces of a silicone tube with a 2mm internal
diameter are used over the interior Bowden cable over the fingers to prevent the cables
form buckling. The exoskeleton hand features four servo motors, with individual motors
controlling the movement of the thumb, index, and middle fingers. The ring and little
fingers share a motor for combined movement. This decision was based on the fact that
the majority of grasping actions can be primarily executed by the thumb, index, and
middle fingers alone. LiPo (Lithium Polymer) battery is utilized because it can achieve

35
the desired voltage to power all the electronics involved. A ready-made glove with a good
grip was used as the base on which the entire exoskeleton was built. Finally, a compact
shoulder bag with straps is used to securely carry the housing.

4.1.3 Complete Physical Model:

The developed physical model has two parts:
 The hand module is built on a glove that the user will wear. All the 3D printed
junction and phalange pieces are placed on this glove at their respective locations.
Velcro straps are used to reinforce them and keep them fixed at their locations. These
straps are also useful in adjusting the looseness or tightness according to different
sizes of hands.

Fig 4-1: Hand Module

 The housing carries all of the electronics, motor with rack and pinion assembled units,
and the Bowden cables secured at one end of the rack.

36
 Fig 4-2: Housing

4.2 Integration & Instrumentation

The exoskeleton hand requires the integration of various electronic components for
precise finger movements. In this section, we will discuss the electronics involved in the
exoskeleton hand, including the microcontroller, EMG sensor, servo motors, battery, and
how data acquisition is carried out with the signals. The following circuit diagram
summarizes all the electronics involved and how they are connected within the circuit.

Fig 4-3: Circuit Diagram

37
4.2.1 Sensor and Electronics:
Although initially we planned to use the Myo Armband for recording EMG signals, we
faced a setback because of the unavailability of its brand new model. A 2nd hand model
was found but missing a crucial USB receiver. Additionally, the discontinuity of this
armband from its manufacturers is another reason that lead us to choose an alternative.
We chose a muscle sensor module compatible with Arduino to proceed with recording
EMG signals. Three such sensor modules are employed altogether to provide 3 channels
of measuring EMG for greater accuracy. It works on a dual power supply of ±9V, with
3.5V being its minimum working voltage.

Fig 4-4: EMG Module with Surface Electrodes

Arduino Uno is selected as the preferred microcontroller because of its availability,
sufficiency for our servo motors, compact size, low power consumption and cost-
effectiveness.

Fig 4-5: Arduino Uno

38
The MG995 is a high speed and high torque motor that can provide precise rotation over
180°. It is a good option for this Bowden cable-based exoskeleton hand because of its
good performance, compact size and weight for a reasonable price. It uses the PWM input
signal of the Arduino board and operates within a voltage range of 4.8 -7.2 V.

Fig 4-6: MG995 Servomotor

A 3500mAh 2s LiPo battery is selected for our power requirements. 2s means that two
LiPo cells are in series, where each cell has a nominal voltage of 3.7V and maximum
voltage of 4.2V. Hence, this adds up for two cells in series so the 2s LiPo battery has a
nominal voltage of 7.4V and maximum voltage of 8.4V. The capacity of this battery is
3500mAh (milli-Ampere-hour), which signifies its ability to provide a current of 3.5A
continuously for 1 hour. This capacity was deemed sufficient based on the current
requirement of servo motors, which can draw a maximum current of 1200mA at max
load. So, four servo motors are capable of drawing 4800mA or 4.8A at max load
condition. This means, a battery capacity of 4800mAh is required to work for a
continuous hour. The run time of the 3500mAh battery is calculated as:
t 60 minutes 60 minues
Run Time t : = ⟹ t= × 3500 ⟹t=43.75 minutes
3500 mAh 4800 mAh 4800
This is only an estimate for the least amount of time this battery will run because it is
calculated based on the assumption that four motors are continuously working at max
load. The actual run time will be well above an hour.

Fig 4-7: 2s LiPo Battery

39
The XL4015 is a Buck Converter used to step down a DC voltage of input range 5-36V to
an output range of 1.25-32V. The maximum voltage of the LiPo battery can go up to
8.4V, which is above the operating range of the MG995 servo motors. Hence, this buck
converter comes into play to step down the battery voltage within the operating range of
servo motors.

Fig 4-8: XL4015 Buck Converter

4.2.2 Data Acquisition:

We aimed to acquire electromyography (EMG) data using sensors and an Arduino board,
and then store it in a CSV file using Python. To begin with, we connected the EMG
sensors to the Arduino board using appropriate wiring and setup. We then used the Serial
communication protocol between the Arduino and our computer to transfer the data in
real-time.

4.2.2.1 Setting up the Sensors:

We used EMG sensors that utilized electrodes arranged in series, with each electrode
connected to the amplifier through a patch. The amplifier was powered by two 9V
batteries, with one battery providing a positive voltage and the other providing a negative
voltage. The ground of the amplifier was connected to both batteries. This constitutes
only one signal, in order to get multiple signals multiple sensors must be used. To collect
the EMG signals, we connected the output analog pins of the amplifier to the Arduino
board, while the ground pin was also connected to the Arduino board.

40
 Fig 4-9: Wiring Diagram

4.2.2.2 Reading & sending the data - Arduino:

The Arduino is supposed to read the values from the appropriate port and send values
over the Serial port at a baud rate of 9600.

Fig 4-10: Arduino Code for sending Data

The if statement filters the data below a certain value, this acts as a high-pass filter. The
variable data consists of the output from the EMG sensors.

4.2.2.3 Reading & storing the data - Python:

We used Python to read and process the data collected from the EMG sensors connected
to the Arduino board. We used the PySerial library to establish a serial connection
between the Arduino board and our computer, which allowed us to receive the data in
real-time.

41
To read the data, we first imported the PySerial module and created a serial object that
pointed to the appropriate COM port where the Arduino board was connected. We then
opened the serial port and used a while loop to continuously read the incoming data.

Fig 4-11: Data acquisition - Python

In this code, we first imported the PySerial and CSV modules to enable serial
communication between the Arduino board and our computer and to save the data in a
CSV file. We then created a serial object that points to the COM port where the Arduino
board is connected and opened the serial port.

The while loop is used to continuously read the incoming data from the EMG sensors. If
the serial object is waiting for incoming data, it reads a line from the serial buffer,
decodes it, and strips any leading or trailing whitespace characters. The EMG value is
then converted from a string to an integer and stored in a variable.

The elapsed time since the start of data collection is calculated using the time() function,
and the elapsed time and EMG value are then written to the CSV file using the
csv_writer.writerow() function.

It's worth noting that the delimiter used in the CSV file is a tab character \t, as specified in
the delimiter parameter of the csv.writer() function.

42
Overall, this code is a simple and effective way to collect and store data from EMG
sensors using an Arduino board and Python. By combining this code with data processing
and visualization techniques, we can gain valuable insights into muscle activity and
function for various applications.

4.2.2.4 Visualizing the data- Python:

To analyze and visualize the EMG data that we collected, we used Python libraries
Pandas and Matplotlib. Firstly, we imported these libraries.

Fig 4-12: Reading File and Plotting EMG Data - Python

Next, we read the CSV file containing the EMG data using Pandas. We then selected a
section of the data where there was activity by using the iloc() function of Pandas.
Specifically, we extracted the EMG values and the time values.

After extracting the relevant data, we used Matplotlib to plot the EMG values. The plotted
graph allowed us to visualize the muscle activity and function.

Finally, we plotted the entire file using the same process. These data visualization
techniques allowed us to explore and analyze the EMG data in a graphical format,
providing a better understanding of the muscle activity and function. This information can
be used in a wide range of applications, such as rehabilitation, sports performance, and
medical diagnosis.

43
 Fig 4-13: Plotting the entire file – Python

4.2.2.5 EMG signals for various movements:

Fig 4-14: EMG signals for Index-extension

44
Fig 4-15: EMG signal for Middle-finger extension

Fig 4-16: Raw EMG data for hand-extension

45
 Fig 4-17: Active portion of EMG-signals for hand-extension

4.2.3 Data Handling:

4.2.3.1 Feature Extraction:
Features are the measurable characteristics of a signal that can be used to distinguish
between different types of data. In the context of EMG signal processing, features can be
used to identify different muscle movements or gestures. Feature extraction is the process
of identifying and extracting the most relevant features from EMG signals to be used in
machine learning algorithms for classification tasks.
Feature extraction from EMG signals is a crucial step in developing accurate and efficient
EMG-based control systems. Commonly used features for EMG signal processing include
time-domain features such as mean absolute value, root mean square, and waveform
length, as well as frequency-domain features such as power spectral density and cepstral
coefficients.
Root Mean Square (RMS) and Mean Absolute Value (MAV) are two commonly used
time-domain features in EMG signal processing [7], along with skewness, variance, and
kurtosis, which provide additional insights into the shape, spread, and asymmetry of the
EMG signal distribution.
RMS is a measure of the amplitude of the EMG signal and is calculated by taking the
square root of the mean of the squared signal values over a specific time window. RMS is
a measure of the overall activity level of the muscle and has been found to be useful in
detecting muscle fatigue and changes in muscle activation patterns.
MAV is another measure of the amplitude of the EMG signal and is calculated by taking
the mean absolute value of the signal over a specific time window. MAV is also a
measure of the overall activity level of the muscle, but is less sensitive to high amplitude
spikes in the signal than RMS.

46
Skewness tells us whether a dataset is lopsided or symmetrical. It measures the extent and
direction of the imbalance in the data. If the tail of the distribution stretches more to the
right, it is positively skewed, while if it stretches more to the left, it is negatively skewed.
Variance gives us an idea of how spread out or concentrated the values in a dataset are. It
calculates the average of the squared differences between each data point and the mean. A
higher variance means the data points are more spread out, indicating greater variability,
while a lower variance implies the opposite.
Kurtosis describes the shape of a distribution by focusing on its tails and peak. It tells us
if the distribution is more or less peaked compared to a standard bell curve. Positive
kurtosis indicates a sharper peak and heavier tails, while negative kurtosis suggests a
flatter peak and lighter tails. A value of zero means the distribution has a similar shape to
a normal distribution.
Both RMS and MAV have been extensively used in EMG-based control systems,
particularly for prosthetic hand and limb control. This is because they are simple to
calculate, computationally efficient, and provide information about muscle activation
patterns that can be used to control prosthetic devices.
Furthermore, RMS and MAV have been shown to be relatively robust to variations in
electrode placement and muscle contraction force, making them particularly useful for
applications where electrode movement or changes in muscle activation patterns may
occur. In addition, variance, kurtosis, and skewness are also utilized in EMG-based
control systems. Variance provides information about the spread of EMG signal values,
while kurtosis and skewness offer insights into the shape and asymmetry of the signal
distribution. These measures can enhance the understanding of muscle activation patterns
and contribute to the development of more precise and adaptable prosthetic control
mechanisms.
For Mean Absolute Value (MAV):
The formula for calculating Mean Absolute Value (MAV) from a set of EMG signal
samples is:

MAV = ( N1 ) Σ∨x ∨¿ i (4.1)

Where N is the number of samples in the signal, x i is the ith sample value, and ∑ denotes
the sum of the absolute values of all samples in the signal.
For Root Mean Square (RMS):

RMS= (√ N1 ) ∑ x 2
i
(4.2)

Where N is the number of samples in the signal, x iis the ith sample value, and ∑ denotes
the sum of the squared values of all samples in the signal.
For Skewness (S):

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 1 3
∗Σ ( x i−μ )
n (4.3)
S= 3
σ
Where n is the number of data points in the dataset, x i represents each individual data
point, μ is the mean of the dataset, σ is the standard deviation of the dataset.
For Variance (Var):
1 2
Var= Σ ( x i−μ ) (4.4)
n
For Kurtosis (K):
4
1 Σ ( x i−μ )
K= (4.5)
n σ4
The following code was utilized to calculate certain features:

Fig 4-18: Feature Extraction

The code begins by importing necessary libraries including pandas, matplotlib, NumPy. It
then loads EMG data from a CSV file and selects a range of values from the data. The

48
variable 'act' is assigned a string value referring to the ‘action’ performed for which the
feature is being extracted.
The next line calculates the rectified signal by taking the absolute value of the selected
EMG data. The root mean square (RMS) of the signal is then computed using NumPy’s
sqrt and mean functions. Similarly, the mean absolute value (MAV) of the signal is
computed using NumPy’s mean function.
A pandas DataFrame is created to store the computed features (action, MAV, and RMS).
This DataFrame is initially empty. The 'Action', 'MAV', and 'RMS' columns are inserted
into the DataFrame.
The following if-else statement determines whether to reset the feature DataFrame or to
append the new feature values to the existing feature DataFrame. The feature DataFrame
is saved as a CSV file. The plot function is then called to plot the EMG signal against its
respective time values. If one wishes to reset the file, then simply replacing the 0 in the if
statement will reset the file and add the new row.
Overall, the code processes EMG data, computes features (RMS and MAV), and saves
the features to a CSV file. It also creates a plot of the EMG signal.
Lastly, some entries of the DataFrame are shown:

Fig 4-19: Some Entries of the Features

4.2.3.2 Visualizing the Data:

We must see the nature of our data by visualizing it, for this we will use Python’s
seaborn.

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 Fig 4-20: Visualizing Data using Seaborn – Python
The first line imports the necessary libraries for the code to run. The 'pandas' library is
used for working with data in a tabular form, 'seaborn' is used for data visualization, and
'train_test_split' is used for splitting data into training and testing sets.
The second line reads in a CSV file named 'New_ft.csv' that contains the features of the
exoskeleton hand data and assigns it to a variable called 'ftrs'.
The third and fourth lines slice the features data into X (the independent variables) and y
(the dependent variable).
The fifth line creates a scatter plot using the 'lmplot' function from Seaborn library. The
'x' and 'y' parameters specify the variables to plot on the x-axis and y-axis, respectively.
The 'data' parameter specifies the data to use, which is the 'X' DataFrame. The 'hue'
parameter specifies the column in the DataFrame that should be used to color the points,
which is the 'Action' column. The 'palette' parameter specifies the color palette to use,
which is the 'Set1' palette. The 'fit_reg' parameter is set to False to remove the regression
line from the plot.
This code generates a scatter plot of the 'RMS' and 'MAV' features from the exoskeleton
hand data, with the points colored according to the 'Action' column. The plot can be used
to visualize the relationship between the 'RMS' and 'MAV' features and the different
actions performed by the exoskeleton hand.

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 Fig 4-21: Scatter Plot of the Features
It can be clearly seen that the data is linearly separable because there is only a very small
overlap.

4.2.3.3 Training the Data:

With the features extracted successfully, the data can be fed to the Machine Learning
Algorithm.

Fig 4-22: Support Vector Machine Classification of Features

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In this piece of code, we used the Scikit-learn library in Python to perform a Support
Vector Machine (SVM) classification on our EMG feature dataset.
First, we loaded our extracted feature data from the 'New_ft.csv' file using the Pandas
read_csv function. We then split our feature data into training and testing data using
Scikit-learn's train_test_split function. We set aside 30% of the data for testing, while the
remaining 70% is used for training our SVM classifier.
Next, we created an SVM classifier object using Scikit-learn's SVC function with the
linear kernel. We then fit the classifier to our training data using the fit method.
To evaluate the accuracy of our SVM classifier, we used the score method with the
testing data as input. This calculated the accuracy of our classifier on the testing data and
returned a value between 0 and 1. Additionally, we printed out the predicted values for
the testing data using the predict method.
Since, there are multiple classes the algorithm, by default, uses OVO method to
distinguish between multiple classes. Note, that OVO is more robust than OVA (see
Appendix A).

4.3 Testing/Experimental Procedures

In our experiment, we used three surface electrodes to record EMG signals from the
extensor digitorum muscle group responsible for finger extension. The two active
electrodes were placed on the muscle belly of the extensor digitorum muscle group,
parallel to the muscle fibers. The distance between the two active electrodes varied
depending on the size of the muscle group being recorded. The reference electrode was
placed on a bony landmark near the muscle, which served as a ground electrode. The
placement of the reference electrode helped to filter out any noise or artifacts from the
surrounding tissues, resulting in a cleaner and more accurate EMG signal.
To ensure good electrode contact and reduce the risk of motion artifacts, we shaved the
skin at the electrode placement sites and cleaned the skin with alcohol swabs before
attaching the electrodes. We then secured the electrodes in place with adhesive patches
and connected the leads from the electrodes to the EMG amplifier. The EMG amplifier
amplified the signals from the electrodes and transmitted them to the microcontroller for
further processing.
After the electrodes were connected and the EMG signals were being recorded, the
participants were instructed to perform finger extensions while wearing the EMG sensors.
The real-time processing of the EMG signals was achieved through the microcontroller,
which extracted features from the EMG signals and fed them into the trained SVM
module. The trained SVM module utilized the extracted features to classify the finger
extension movements into different classes, which were then displayed on a screen.

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 Fig 4-23: Electrode Setup
The setup allowed us to record and process EMG signals from the extensor digitorum
muscle group in real-time, which could be used to control external devices or provide
feedback for rehabilitation purposes.

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Fig 4-24: Arduino Code for real-time prediction

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4.4 Summary
This chapter dived into details of all the designed and ready-made parts involved in
fabrication, specifications of the electronics used and why they were deemed suitable.
Moreover, the data acquisition procedure is explored which constitutes reading, storing
and visualizing of raw data, which is later used to extract the relevant data to perform
hand movements. The EMG data is collected using sensors connected to the Arduino
board and transferred to a computer using serial communication. The data is then stored
in a CSV file using Python and visualized using Pandas and Matplotlib libraries. Feature
extraction techniques such as Root Mean Square (RMS) and Mean Absolute Value
(MAV) are used to identify relevant features from the EMG signal for machine learning
algorithms. The python code is explained in detail for each step of the process, including
setting up the sensors, reading and sending the data, reading and storing the data in
Python, visualizing the data, and feature extraction.

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 CHAPTER 5
RESULTS & DISCUSSION

5.1 Results
The code used in the project is designed to make real-time predictions based on the EMG
signals collected from the sensors. The Arduino code receives the coefficients and
intercepts calculated during the SVM training process in Python and uses them to make
predictions in real-time.
The predict() function is responsible for making the actual prediction. It takes in two
parameters, x1 and x2, which represent the mean absolute value (MAV) and root mean
square (RMS) of the EMG signal, respectively. The function uses the coefficients and
intercepts received from the Python code to calculate the decision values for each of the
three possible classes. The class with the highest decision value is then chosen as the
predicted class.
The main loop of the Arduino code reads in the EMG signals from the sensor and
calculates the MAV and RMS values using the collected data. These values are then
passed to the predict() function to make the actual prediction. The predicted class is then
sent to the serial monitor for real-time monitoring and analysis.
The EMG signal is only considered valid if the analogRead(A0) value is greater than 15.
If the signal is valid, the program will execute the necessary steps to calculate the MAV
and RMS values, make a prediction, and output the results to the serial monitor.
Otherwise, the program will skip the current iteration of the loop and wait for the next
valid signal to be received.
Here’s what the output window looked like:

Fig 5-1: Output (Serial Monitor - Arduino)

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Table 5-4: Prediction Accuracy of Signals
Correct Incorrect Prediction
Class Total instances
predictions predictions accuracy

Hand_Ext_a 5 4 1 80.00%

Index_ext_r 5 5 0 100.00%

Middle_ext_a 5 5 0 100.00%

Overall 15 14 1 93.33%

5.2 Analysis and Discussions

These results suggest that the EMG signals can be effectively used to classify hand
movements and that the SVM model can accurately predict the intended movements from
these signals. This has potential applications in prosthetics and rehabilitation
technologies, where EMG signals can be used to control prosthetic limbs or assist in the
recovery of motor function in patients with neurological disorders.
However, it's important to note that the sample size used in this study was relatively
small, and additional testing on a larger sample size is needed to validate the results.
Additionally, the accuracy of the model may be affected by factors such as signal noise,
electrode placement, and individual variability in EMG signals. Overall, further research
is needed to fully evaluate the potential of EMG-based movement classification for
practical applications.

5.3 Summary
This chapter presents the results and analysis of a project that uses EMG signals to
classify hand movements through the implementation of a Support Vector Machine
(SVM) algorithm. The code is designed to make real-time predictions based on the EMG
signals collected from the sensors. The results suggest that the EMG signals can be
effectively used to classify hand movements, and the SVM model can accurately predict
the intended movements from these signals. The results showed that the SVM model can
accurately predict intended movements from these signals, with an overall prediction
accuracy of 93.33%. The potential applications of this technology in prosthetics and
rehabilitation are also discussed.

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 CHAPTER 6
IMPACT AND ECONOMIC ANALYSIS

6.1 Social Impact

The hand exoskeleton designed for assistive grasping in rehabilitation has the potential
for significant social impact. The following are some potential social impacts:
 Improved Rehabilitation Outcomes: The hand exoskeleton can aid in the
rehabilitation process by providing support to individuals with hand impairments or
deficits in force production. By compensating for the deficit force provided by the
hand, the exoskeleton can help patients regain hand function and improve their overall
quality of life.
 Increased Independence: The hand exoskeleton can enable individuals with hand
impairments to regain a level of independence by allowing them to perform activities
of daily living such as writing, typing, pinching, holding utensils, opening doors or
containers, interacting with and picking up objects. This can help patients regain their
confidence and reduce their dependence on caregivers for assistance.
 Enhanced Access to Employment Opportunities: The use of the hand exoskeleton
in rehabilitation can potentially enable individuals with hand disabilities to re-enter
the workforce or pursue new employment opportunities. This can have a positive
impact on their social and economic well-being, by increasing their financial
independence and reducing the burden on social welfare programs.
 Inclusive Design: The hand exoskeleton, with its lightweight hand module and
housing to distribute weight away from the arm, has the potential to be a more
inclusive design, making it accessible to a wider range of individuals with different
levels of hand defects. This promotes inclusivity and diversity by providing
rehabilitation options for a broader population, including those with limited strength
or mobility in their hands.
 Technological Advancement: The use of servo motors, Bowden cables, EMG
sensors, Arduino Uno, and machine learning in the hand exoskeleton represents a
technological advancement in the field of rehabilitation. This can lead to further
research and development in the area of assistive technologies, driving innovation and
advancements in the field of rehabilitation and healthcare.
 Increased Awareness and Education: The development and use of the hand
exoskeleton can help raise awareness about hand disabilities, its effects on the patients
lifestyle and the importance of rehabilitation in society. It can also serve as an
educational tool for healthcare professionals, researchers, engineers, and the general
public, promoting understanding and knowledge about hand impairments,
rehabilitation techniques, and the potential of assistive technologies in improving
patient outcomes.

58
 Addressing Limitations: The limitations of the hand exoskeleton, such as lack of
wrist and arm control, less precision in position control of fingers, and no haptic
feedback, highlight areas for future improvement and research. Addressing these
limitations can lead to the development of more advanced and effective assistive
technologies, which can have a significant social impact by improving the
functionality and usability of the exoskeleton, and ultimately benefiting patients in
their rehabilitation journey.
In conclusion, the hand exoskeleton designed for assistive grasping in rehabilitation has
the potential to bring about positive social impact by improving rehabilitation outcomes,
increasing independence, enhancing access to employment opportunities, promoting
inclusive design, driving technological advancements, raising awareness and education,
and addressing limitations for future improvements.

6.2 Sustainability Analysis

The hand exoskeleton, designed for rehabilitation purposes to compensate for the deficit
force provided by the hand, can potentially improve the rehabilitation process for
individuals with hand disabilities. By utilizing sustainable materials, energy-efficient
actuation, and reusable fastening systems, the hand exoskeleton can contribute to
reducing its environmental impact and promoting sustainability.

6.2.1 Economic Sustainability:

The hand exoskeleton project aims to be cost-effective by utilizing locally and
commercially available components in Pakistan and manufacturing the hand module and
housing using PLA through 3D printing. The actuating mechanism of the hand
exoskeleton consists of servo motors and Bowden cables, which can be energy-efficient
compared to other types of actuators. Servo motors are known for their precise and
controlled movements, reducing unnecessary energy consumption. Bowden cables, which
transmit motion from a remote actuator to the hand module, can also minimize energy
loss during transmission, improving overall energy efficiency. Velcro straps are used in
the hand exoskeleton for securing and adjusting the fit on the wearer's hand. Velcro is a
reusable fastening system that reduces the need for disposable straps or adhesives,
resulting in less waste generation, financial feasibility, and promoting sustainability. This
approach may help in reducing production costs and making the exoskeleton more
affordable and accessible to a wider population. Economic sustainability can be further
enhanced by considering factors such as scalability, cost of maintenance, and potential for
long-term cost savings in healthcare expenses associated with hand motor deficits.

6.2.2 Impact Sustainability:

The expected outcome of the hand exoskeleton project is to provide rehabilitation
opportunities by compensating for the deficit force provided by the hand. This can have a
positive impact on the quality of life of individuals with hand motor deficits by improving
hand function and motor skills. The long-term effects of the hand exoskeleton can include

59
increased productivity, employment opportunities, and participation in the workforce,
leading to social and economic empowerment. Additionally, the utilization of 3D printing
for manufacturing the hand module and housing may have positive environmental
impacts by reducing material waste and energy consumption compared to traditional
manufacturing methods. The 3D printed parts are made up of PLA (Polylactic Acid) and
ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene). PLA is derived from renewable resources which
reduces the environmental impact compared to traditional plastics. ABS, on the other
hand, is not biodegradable and requires petroleum-based raw materials for its production,
which has a higher environmental footprint. However, PLA and ABS can be recycled,
reducing waste generation, and promoting circular economy principles.

6.2.3 Scope of Implementation:

The hand exoskeleton is designed to provide 1 degree of freedom (DOF) for each finger
(except the ring and little finger). The actuating mechanism consists of servo motors and
Bowden cables, and the sensory input is provided by EMG sensors processed by Arduino
Uno through machine learning. While the hand exoskeleton provides assistive grasping
for rehabilitation purposes, it has limitations such as lack of wrist and arm control, less
precision in position control of fingers, and no haptic feedback. These limitations may
impact the scope of implementation and the exoskeleton's suitability for certain types of
rehabilitation cases that require more advanced functionalities.

6.2.4 Climate Conditions Suitability:

The materials used in the hand exoskeleton, namely PLA for the hand module and
housing, are generally considered to be biodegradable and have a lower carbon footprint
compared to some other plastics. PLA is derived from renewable sources such as corn
starch or sugarcane, which can contribute to reducing environmental impact. However,
the overall sustainability of the hand exoskeleton in terms of climate conditions would
also depend on factors such as the energy sources used for 3D printing, the end-of-life
disposal practices, and the durability of the components. Considering the local climate
conditions and availability of resources in Pakistan, the hand exoskeleton's suitability can
be further assessed and optimized to minimize environmental impact.
In conclusion, the hand exoskeleton shows potential for economic and impact
sustainability through its cost-effective approach, expected outcomes, and utilization of
locally available components. However, the scope of implementation and suitability
under given climate conditions should be carefully considered, taking into account the
project's limitations and potential environmental impacts. Further research, testing, and
optimization may be necessary to assess and improve the sustainability aspects of the
hand exoskeleton project.

6.3 Environmental Impact

6.3.1 Materials:
6.3.1.1 ABS Plastic:

60
Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) is a type of thermoplastic polymer that is
commonly used in a wide range of applications, including automotive parts, consumer
goods, electronics, toys, and more. Like many other plastics, ABS has environmental
impacts throughout its lifecycle, including its production, use, and disposal. This material
is present in the hand exoskeleton as the outer casing of the servomotor. Some of the
environmental impacts associated with ABS plastic are:
 Resource depletion: ABS is derived from petrochemicals, which are non-renewable
resources. The extraction and processing of these fossil fuels can result in habitat
destruction, air and water pollution, and contribute to climate change through
greenhouse gas emissions.
 Energy consumption: The production of ABS requires a significant amount of
energy, primarily in the form of heat for polymerization and molding processes. The
energy used in ABS production is typically derived from fossil fuels, which can result
in greenhouse gas emissions and contribute to climate change.
 Greenhouse gas emissions: ABS production involves the release of greenhouse
gases, such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, which are known to
contribute to climate change. Additionally, ABS products can release greenhouse
gases when they degrade or incinerate at the end of their life cycle.
 Water and air pollution: The production of ABS can result in the release of
pollutants into the air and water, including volatile organic compounds (VOCs),
particulate matter, and other hazardous chemicals. These pollutants can have negative
impacts on local air and water quality, as well as on human and ecosystem health.
 Waste generation: ABS plastic products can contribute to solid waste generation
when they reach the end of their useful life and are disposed of in landfills. ABS is not
biodegradable and can persist in the environment for a long time, leading to
accumulation in landfills and potential impacts on wildlife and ecosystems.
 Recycling challenges: While ABS is technically recyclable, it can be challenging to
recycle due to its complex composition and the need for specialized facilities and
processes. As a result, a significant portion of ABS plastic products may end up in
landfills or incinerators, contributing to waste and environmental pollution.
It's important to note that the environmental impact of ABS plastic can vary depending on
factors such as its production methods, use patterns, and waste management practices.
Efforts to reduce the environmental impact of ABS plastic include improving the
efficiency of production processes, increasing the use of renewable energy in production,
promoting recycling and waste reduction, and developing more sustainable alternatives to
ABS plastic.

6.3.1.2 PLA
Polylactic acid (PLA) is a type of biodegradable plastic that is commonly used in 3D
printing. PLA is derived from renewable resources, such as corn starch or sugarcane, and
is considered to be more environmentally friendly compared to traditional petroleum-
based plastics. In the hand exoskeleton, PLA has been used to manufacture all the 3D
printed parts which include hand module, housing, and rack and pinion. However, like

61
any material, PLA also has environmental impacts that need to be considered. Here are
some key environmental impacts associated with PLA:
 Resource consumption: PLA is made from renewable resources, but the production
of PLA requires land, water, and energy for growing crops, processing raw materials,
and manufacturing the plastic. Depending on the agricultural practices used in crop
production, there may be impacts on soil health, water use, and biodiversity.
 Energy consumption: PLA production requires energy for processing and
manufacturing, which may come from fossil fuels or renewable sources. Energy
consumption during PLA production contributes to greenhouse gas emissions and
climate change, depending on the energy source.
 Emissions: PLA production can release greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide and
methane, during the cultivation of crops, processing of raw materials, and
manufacturing of the plastic. However, PLA generally has lower carbon emissions
compared to traditional petroleum-based plastics, as it is derived from renewable
resources.
 Biodegradability and compostability: PLA is often marketed as biodegradable and
compostable, which means it can break down into natural materials when properly
managed in industrial composting facilities. However, PLA may not biodegrade or
compost in natural environments, such as landfills or marine environments, where
conditions may not be conducive to its decomposition, and improper disposal of PLA
can still contribute to pollution.
 Chemical additives: PLA can sometimes contain chemical additives, such as
colorants or flame retardants, which may have environmental impacts during
production, use, and disposal. It's important to choose PLA materials that are free
from harmful additives to minimize potential environmental impacts.
 Waste generation: 3D printing with PLA can generate waste in the form of failed or
rejected prints, supports, and other discarded materials. Proper management and
disposal of PLA waste are important to prevent environmental pollution and
contribute to a circular economy.
 Recycling challenges: While PLA is technically recyclable, it can be challenging to
recycle PLA materials due to potential contamination from other materials used in 3D
printing, as well as the lack of widespread infrastructure for PLA recycling. This can
result in lower recycling rates and increased waste generation.
To mitigate the environmental impacts of PLA, it's important to properly manage PLA
waste through appropriate disposal methods, such as composting or recycling, when
possible. Choosing PLA materials that are made from renewable resources, produced
with minimal energy and water use, and free from harmful additives can also help reduce
the environmental footprint of PLA. Additionally, optimizing 3D printing settings to
minimize material waste and considering the end-of-life disposal options for PLA prints
can contribute to more sustainable 3D printing practices using PLA materials.

6.3.2 Processing Methods:

6.3.2.1 3D Printing:

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3D printing, also known as additive manufacturing, is a rapidly growing technology that
has the potential to revolutionize manufacturing in various industries. While 3D printing
offers many benefits, such as increased design flexibility, reduced waste, and streamlined
production, it also has environmental impacts that need to be considered. Here are some
of the key environmental impacts associated with 3D printing:
 Material waste: 3D printing can generate material waste during the printing process,
including supports, rafts, and failed or rejected prints. This can contribute to solid
waste generation and potential environmental pollution if not properly managed. In
some cases, 3D printing may also require post-processing steps that generate
additional waste, such as sanding or polishing.
 Energy consumption: 3D printing requires energy to power the printers, heat the
printing material, and sometimes run post-processing steps. The energy used in 3D
printing can come from various sources, including fossil fuels or renewable energy,
and can contribute to greenhouse gas emissions and climate change, depending on the
energy source.
 Emissions: Depending on the type of 3D printing technology and materials used, 3D
printing can release emissions into the air during the printing process. For example,
some 3D printers that use plastics can release volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and
other potentially hazardous fumes. These emissions can contribute to indoor or
outdoor air pollution, posing potential risks to human health and the environment.
 Resource consumption: 3D printing materials, such as filaments, resins, or powders,
are typically derived from various raw materials, including plastics, metals, and
ceramics, which may require extraction and processing of natural resources. This can
result in habitat destruction, air and water pollution, and contribute to climate change
through greenhouse gas emissions.
 Recycling challenges: Some 3D printing materials, such as certain plastics or metal
powders, can be challenging to recycle due to potential contamination from supports,
adhesives, or other materials used during the printing process. This can result in lower
recycling rates and increased waste generation, adding to environmental impacts.
 Transportation and logistics: The production, distribution, and shipment of 3D
printing materials and equipment can involve transportation and logistics, including
shipping, packaging, and storage. These activities can contribute to energy
consumption, greenhouse gas emissions, and waste generation associated with
transportation and logistics.
 Design and material choices: The design and material choices made in 3D printing
can also impact the environmental footprint. For example, using large amounts of
materials or choosing materials with high environmental impacts, such as certain
metals or plastics, can exacerbate the environmental impacts of 3D printing.
To attenuate the environmental impacts of 3D printing, some measures can be taken, such
as optimizing print settings to reduce material waste, using energy-efficient printers,
selecting materials with lower environmental impacts, properly managing and disposing
of waste, exploring recycling options for used materials, and considering life cycle
assessments when making design and material choices. Additionally, using renewable
energy sources for powering 3D printers and improving the recycling and circularity of

63
3D printing materials can help reduce the environmental footprint of 3D printing
technology.

6.4 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

Table 6-5: Adherence of FYP to SDGs
S. No SDG Adherence of FYP to SDG
1. No Poverty N/A
2. Zero Hunger N/A
3. Good Health and Well-Being The hand exoskeleton is designed for
rehabilitation purposes, aiming to improve the
health and well-being of individuals with hand
motor deficits. By providing assistance in
grasping, it can help rehabilitate hand function,
enhance motor skills, and improve overall
quality of life for patients.
4. Quality Education N/A
5. Gender Equality N/A
6. Clean Water and Sanitation N/A
7. Affordable and Clean Energy N/A
8. Decent Work and Economic The hand exoskeleton contributes to
Growth sustainable economic and social development
by improving hand function, promoting
technological advancements, enhancing
accessibility, and supporting productivity and
employment opportunities for individuals with
hand motor deficits. By enabling individuals to
regain hand functionality through
rehabilitation, they may be able to participate
in the workforce more effectively, leading to
economic growth and productivity at both
individual and societal levels.
9. Industry, Innovation and The hand exoskeleton incorporates innovative
Infrastructure technologies, such as servo motors, Bowden
cables, and EMG sensors, to provide assistive
grasping for rehabilitation. The use of machine
learning algorithms in processing sensory input

64
 from the EMG sensors also demonstrates
technological advancements. Additionally, the
design of the hand module and housing, with a
distribution of weight, showcases infrastructure
development for efficient and effective
rehabilitation devices.
10. Reduced Inequalities The hand exoskeleton aims to reduce
inequalities in access to rehabilitation services
by providing an affordable and accessible
solution for individuals with hand motor
deficits and ensuring that the technology is
accessible to a wider population, including
those in resource-constrained settings. By
compensating for the deficit force of the hand,
it can help bridge the gap in functional abilities
and improve equality in rehabilitation
opportunities.
11. Sustainable Cities and The hand exoskeleton is designed to be
Communities lightweight and efficient, with a minimized
number of components in the hand module,
and heavy equipment distributed in the
housing. This design approach can contribute
to sustainable urban development by reducing
material usage, energy consumption and
promoting sustainable manufacturing and
transportation practices.
12. Responsible Consumption The design of the hand exoskeleton focuses on
and Production lightweight and minimal components, which
can help reduce resource consumption and
waste generation during manufacturing and
use. Additionally, the use of Arduino Uno for
processing sensory input from the EMG
sensors demonstrates the use of open-source
and reusable technology, promoting
responsible consumption and production
practices.
13. Climate Action N/A
14. Life Below Water N/A
15. Life on Land N/A
16. Peace, Justice and Strong N/A
Institutions
17. Partnerships The development of the hand exoskeleton

65
 involves collaboration between different
disciplines, such as engineering, rehabilitation,
healthcare sciences and machine learning. This
interdisciplinary approach showcases the
importance of partnerships and collaboration in
achieving sustainable development goals and
addressing complex challenges.

6.5 Summary
The hand exoskeleton designed for assistive grasping in rehabilitation has significant
social impact potential, improving rehabilitation outcomes, increasing independence, and
enhancing access to employment opportunities. Its inclusive design promotes inclusivity
and diversity, and technological advancements drive innovation. The project aims for
economic sustainability by using locally available components, energy-efficient actuators,
and reusable systems, reducing production costs. Impact sustainability is achieved
through improved quality of life, increased productivity, and participation in the
workforce. The use of 3D printing with PLA, a renewable resource, reduces material
waste and energy consumption, promoting environmental sustainability.
However, ABS plastic, used in the servomotor casing, has environmental impacts such as
resource depletion, energy consumption, and emissions. ABS production causes
pollution, waste generation, and recycling challenges. PLA, used in 3D printed parts, is
considered more environmentally friendly, but still has impacts such as biodegradability
challenges and waste generation. Proper waste management, choosing renewable PLA
materials, optimizing printing settings, and using sustainable production methods can
mitigate environmental impacts.
In conclusion, the hand exoskeleton has social impact potential and aligns with
sustainability goals. Efforts should be made to reduce environmental impacts of ABS and
PLA through sustainable production, renewable energy use, waste reduction, proper
waste management, and material choice. Optimizing 3D printing settings can also
contribute to sustainable practices.

66
 CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RECOMMENDATIONS

7.1 Conclusions
The development of hand exoskeletons has the potential to revolutionize rehabilitation for
individuals with hand injuries. The aim of this project was to design and develop a
wearable hand exoskeleton rehabilitation device that would assist individuals with hand
disabilities to perform necessary hand functions based on signals coming from the nerves.
The main focus is maintained on creating a simple, lightweight, and cost-effective model
that does not severely limit the movement capability of individual fingers while also
achieving high accuracy of classification and precise control of the motors. The project
utilized 3 channels of EMG sensor to obtain nerve signals, which were then processed by
a machine learning classification algorithm, Support Vector Machine (SVM) along with
various Python libraries, to recognize the movement. The study found that the designed
model was effective in aiding individuals to perform accurate hand movements.
Additionally, the project's sustainability, compliance with SDGs, social impact on users,
and environmental impact of processes were all analyzed, yielding a positive outlook.
Overall, this project strongly demonstrates the potential of wearable hand exoskeleton
rehabilitation devices in improving hand function and helping individuals regain their
independence, with further research and development leading to more advanced models
that can be widely used in the future. Due to lack of availability of a disabled patient, for
demonstration, the sensors capturing EMG signals were worn by one person, while the
exoskeleton hand was worn by another person. The exoskeleton was successfully being
controlled by the person not wearing it, and the corresponding movements were being
seen on the person wearing it.

7.2 Future Recommendations

Some of the limitations of our exoskeleton hand are, lack of wrist control, no motion
capability besides flexion and extension of fingers and thumb, and no measurement of the
force being applied. These factors can be included in the future after redesigning some
parts of this model. In terms of finger motion, the addition of adduction and abduction
motion for the fingers could be a valuable improvement to the exoskeleton's functionality.
This would require additional DOF for each finger and thumb, which could potentially be
achieved through a redesign of the hand module. Another potential avenue for future
research is the integration of other types of sensors to enhance the sensory input provided
to the user. For example, incorporating tactile sensors on the fingertips will provide more
detailed information about the forces and pressure being applied by the user's hand. This
force or pressure measurement can be used in a feedback loop to allow more precise
control of the exoskeleton hand. By addressing the current limitations and building on the
existing design, there are many directions in which this project could be expanded and
improved upon in future research.

67
 References

[1] Disability statistics. Pakistan Bureau of Statistics. (n.d.) [w]. Retrieved September 7,
2022, from https://www.pbs.gov.pk/content/disability-statistics [R].
[2] Feedforward Friction Compensation of Bowden-Cable Transmission Via Loop
Routing Useok Jeong, and Kyu-Jin Cho, Member, IEEE [J].
[3] Franziska Ryser, Tobias Butzer et al. (2017), Fully Embedded Myoelectric Control
for a Wearable Robotic Hand Orthosis [J].
[4] Habibi, E., Kazemi, M., Dehghan, H., Mahaki, B., & Hassanzadeh, A. (2013). Hand
grip and pinch strength: Effects of workload, hand dominance, age, and Body Mass
Index [J].
[5] Hong Kai et al. (2015), A Soft Exoskeleton for Hand Assistive and Rehabilitation
Application using Pneumatic Actuators with Variable Stiffness [J].
[6] Luca Randazzo et al. (2018), mano: A Wearable Hand Exoskeleton for Activities of
Daily Living and Neurorehabilitation [J].
[7] Phinyomark, A., Phukpattaranont, P., & Limsakul, C. (2012). Feature reduction and
selection for EMG signal classification. Expert Systems with Applications [J].
[8] Tam et al. BMC (2019), Human motor decoding from neural Signals [J].
[9] Tobias Butzer et al. (2020), Fully Wearable Actuated Soft Exoskeleton[J]. for
Grasping Assistance in Everyday Activities (SOFT ROBOTICS Volume 00, Number
00, 2020) [J].

[J] = Journal Article [B] = Book/Manual [D] = Dissertation/Thesis [R] = Report [C] = Conference
proceeding [W] = Webpage

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 Appendices

Appendix A (OVA vs OVO)

One-vs-All (OVA):
In OVA, also known as one-vs-rest, a binary classifier is trained for each class in the data.
The goal is to classify each sample into one of the classes, or 'rest' if it does not belong to
any of the classes. For linearly separable data, OVA can be used to train a binary
classifier for each class, with the decision boundary separating that class from the rest of
the data. When a new sample is presented for classification, each binary classifier is used
to classify the sample, and the class with the highest confidence score is assigned to the
sample.
One-vs-One(OVO):
In OVO, also known as all-pairs, a binary classifier is trained for each pair of classes in
the data. The goal is to classify each sample as belonging to one of the classes in the pair.
For linearly separable data, OVO can be used to train a binary classifier for each pair of
classes, with the decision boundary separating those two classes. When a new sample is
presented for classification, each binary classifier is used to classify the sample, and the
class with the most votes is assigned to the sample.
Both OVA and OVO can be used for linearly separable data, but OVA is typically more
computationally efficient since it requires training fewer classifiers than OVO. However,
OVO can be more robust since it can handle cases where some pairs of classes are not
linearly separable.

69
Appendix B (Python Code)
Only Data Acquisition
ser = serial.Serial('COM3', 9600) # 'COM3' is the serial port
csv_file = open('hand_ext_a.csv', 'w', newline='')
csv_writer = csv.writer(csv_file,delimiter='\t')

start_time = time.time() # get the current time in seconds since the epoch

while True:
if ser.in_waiting > 0:

line = ser.readline().decode().strip()

emg_value = int(line)

elapsed_time = time.time() - start_time

csv_writer.writerow([elapsed_time, emg_value])

Real Time Feature Extraction (along with data acquisition):

import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
import serial
import csv
import time
import warnings
warnings.filterwarnings('ignore')

n=0

ser = serial.Serial('COM6', 9600) #'COM3' is the serial port

print("Get Ready!")

feature_df1 = pd.DataFrame()

feature_df1.insert(0, 'Action',[0])
feature_df1.insert(1, 'MAV',[0])
#feature_df.insert(1, 'RMS',[0])
feature_df1.insert(2, 'Var', [0])
feature_df1.insert(3, 'Skew', [0])
feature_df1.insert(4, 'Kurt', [0])

feature_df2 = pd.DataFrame()

70
feature_df2.insert(0, 'Action',[0])
feature_df2.insert(1, 'MAV',[0])
#feature_df.insert(1, 'RMS',[0])
feature_df2.insert(2, 'Var', [0])
feature_df2.insert(3, 'Skew', [0])
feature_df2.insert(4, 'Kurt', [0])

feature_df3 = pd.DataFrame()

feature_df3.insert(0, 'Action',[0])
feature_df3.insert(1, 'MAV',[0])
#feature_df.insert(1, 'RMS',[0])
feature_df3.insert(2, 'Var', [0])
feature_df3.insert(3, 'Skew', [0])
feature_df3.insert(4, 'Kurt', [0])

k1 = pd.DataFrame()
k1.insert(0, 'does not matter', [0])
k1.insert(1, 'value', [0])

k2 = pd.DataFrame()
k2.insert(0, 'does not matter', [0])
k2.insert(1, 'value', [0])

k3 = pd.DataFrame()
k3.insert(0, 'does not matter', [0])
k3.insert(1, 'value', [0])

act = ['ext','grasp']

rec = [0,0,0]

print(len(act))

for i in range(len(act)):
for l in range(3):

print("Perform Action: ", act[i])

print("1")
time.sleep(1)
print("2")
time.sleep(1)
print("3")
time.sleep(1)

while not ser.in_waiting > 0:

h=0

print("RECORDING")

71
for j in range(1000):

#csv_file = open('if1.csv', 'w', newline='')

#csv_writer = csv.writer(csv_file,delimiter='\t')
start_time = time.time() # get the current time in seconds since the epoch

line = ser.readline().decode().strip()

line = line + ','

rec = [0,0,0]
strip = ''
c=0

for h in range(len(line)):

if line[h] == ',':
rec[c] = int(strip)
c=c+1
strip = ''
else:
strip = strip + line[h]

emg_value1 = rec[0]
emg_value2 = rec[1]
emg_value3 = rec[2]

y1 = pd.DataFrame()
y1.insert(0, 'does not matter', [0])
y1.insert(1, 'value', [emg_value1])
k1 = k1.append(y1, ignore_index=True);

y2 = pd.DataFrame()
y2.insert(0, 'does not matter', [0])
y2.insert(1, 'value', [emg_value2])
k2 = k2.append(y2, ignore_index=True);

y3 = pd.DataFrame()
y3.insert(0, 'does not matter', [0])
y3.insert(1, 'value', [emg_value3])
k3 = k3.append(y3, ignore_index=True);
#elapsed_time = time.time() - start_time
#csv_writer.writerow([elapsed_time, emg_value])

#csv_file.close()

emg_signal1 = k1.iloc[:,1] #Change the Range to the suitable values

rectified_signal = np.abs(emg_signal1)
# Compute the root mean square (RMS) of the signal
rms = np.sqrt(np.mean(rectified_signal**2))
# Compute the mean absolute value (MAV) of the signal

72
mav1 = np.mean(rectified_signal)
var1 = (emg_signal1/mav1).var()
skew1 = (emg_signal1/mav1).skew()
kurt1 = (emg_signal1/mav1).kurtosis()

emg_signal2 = k2.iloc[:,1] #Change the Range to the suitable values

rectified_signal = np.abs(emg_signal2)
# Compute the root mean square (RMS) of the signal
rms = np.sqrt(np.mean(rectified_signal**2))
# Compute the mean absolute value (MAV) of the signal
mav2 = np.mean(rectified_signal)
var2 = (emg_signal2/mav2).var()
skew2 = (emg_signal2/mav2).skew()
kurt2 = (emg_signal2/mav2).kurtosis()

emg_signal3 = k3.iloc[:,1] #Change the Range to the suitable values

rectified_signal = np.abs(emg_signal3)
# Compute the root mean square (RMS) of the signal
rms = np.sqrt(np.mean(rectified_signal**2))
# Compute the mean absolute value (MAV) of the signal
mav3 = np.mean(rectified_signal)
var3 = (emg_signal3/mav3).var()
skew3 = (emg_signal3/mav3).skew()
kurt3 = (emg_signal3/mav3).kurtosis()

val1 = pd.DataFrame()
val1.insert(0, 'Action',[act[i]])
val1.insert(1, 'MAV',mav1)
#val1.insert(2, 'RMS',rms)
val1.insert(2, 'Var', var1)
val1.insert(3, 'Skew', skew1)
val1.insert(4, 'Kurt', kurt1)

feature_df1 = feature_df1.append(val1, ignore_index=True)

val2 = pd.DataFrame()
val2.insert(0, 'Action',[act[i]])
val2.insert(1, 'MAV',mav2)
#val1.insert(2, 'RMS',rms)
val2.insert(2, 'Var', var2)
val2.insert(3, 'Skew', skew2)
val2.insert(4, 'Kurt', kurt2)

feature_df2 = feature_df2.append(val2, ignore_index=True)

val3 = pd.DataFrame()
val3.insert(0, 'Action',[act[i]])
val3.insert(1, 'MAV',mav3)
#val1.insert(2, 'RMS',rms)
val3.insert(2, 'Var', var3)
val3.insert(3, 'Skew', skew3)
73
 val3.insert(4, 'Kurt', kurt3)

feature_df3 = feature_df3.append(val3, ignore_index=True)

print('Success')

file_name1 = 'if1.csv'
file_name2 = 'if2.csv'
file_name3 = 'if3.csv'

#Set '0' to '1' for Resetting if 1: feature_df.to_csv(file_name, sep='\t', index=False)

feature_df1.to_csv(file_name1, sep='\t', index=False)

feature_df2.to_csv(file_name2, sep='\t', index=False)
feature_df3.to_csv(file_name3, sep='\t', index=False)

For Plotting the data in Feature space

ftrs = pd.read_csv('New_ft.csv', sep='\t')
X = ftrs.iloc[:35,:]
y = ftrs.iloc[:,0]

sns.lmplot(x='RMS', y='MAV', data = X, hue = 'Action', palette = 'Set1',fit_reg = False,

scatter_kws={'s': 100})

Machine Learning with Real Time Prediction

import serial
import csv
import time
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
from sklearn import svm
import warnings
warnings.filterwarnings('ignore')

def vote(a,b,c, act, ctr):

for i in range(len(act)):
if a[0] == act[i]:
ctr[i] = ctr[i] + 1
if b[0] == act[i]:
ctr[i] = ctr[i] + 1
if c[0] == act[i]:
ctr[i] = ctr[i] + 1
x=0
for i in range(len(ctr)):

74
 if ctr[i] >= 2:
x=i
break

return x

ftrs1 = pd.read_csv('if1.csv', sep='\t')

ftrs1 = ftrs1.iloc[1:,:]

ftrs2 = pd.read_csv('if2.csv', sep='\t')

ftrs2 = ftrs2.iloc[1:,:]

ftrs3 = pd.read_csv('if3.csv', sep='\t')

ftrs3 = ftrs3.iloc[1:,:]

X_train1 = ftrs1.iloc[:,1:]
y_train1 = ftrs1.iloc[:,0]

X_train2 = ftrs2.iloc[:,1:]
y_train2 = ftrs2.iloc[:,0]

X_train3 = ftrs3.iloc[:,1:]
y_train3 = ftrs3.iloc[:,0]

#X_train, X_test, y_train, y_test = train_test_split(X, y, test_size=0.01,

random_state=899)

clf1 = svm.SVC(kernel='linear')
clf1.fit(X_train1,y_train1)

clf2 = svm.SVC(kernel='linear')
clf2.fit(X_train2,y_train2)

clf3 = svm.SVC(kernel='linear')
clf3.fit(X_train3,y_train3)

ser = serial.Serial('COM6', 9600) # 'COM3' is the serial port

while True:

feature_df1 = pd.DataFrame()
feature_df1.insert(0, 'Action',[0])
feature_df1.insert(1, 'MAV',[0])
#feature_df.insert(1, 'RMS',[0])
feature_df1.insert(2, 'Var', [0])
feature_df1.insert(3, 'Skew', [0])
feature_df1.insert(4, 'Kurt', [0])

75
feature_df2 = pd.DataFrame()

feature_df2.insert(0, 'Action',[0])
feature_df2.insert(1, 'MAV',[0])
#feature_df.insert(1, 'RMS',[0])
feature_df2.insert(2, 'Var', [0])
feature_df2.insert(3, 'Skew', [0])
feature_df2.insert(4, 'Kurt', [0])

feature_df3 = pd.DataFrame()

feature_df3.insert(0, 'Action',[0])
feature_df3.insert(1, 'MAV',[0])
#feature_df.insert(1, 'RMS',[0])
feature_df3.insert(2, 'Var', [0])
feature_df3.insert(3, 'Skew', [0])
feature_df3.insert(4, 'Kurt', [0])

k1 = pd.DataFrame()
k1.insert(0, 'does not matter', [0])
k1.insert(1, 'value', [0])

k2 = pd.DataFrame()
k2.insert(0, 'does not matter', [0])
k2.insert(1, 'value', [0])

k3 = pd.DataFrame()
k3.insert(0, 'does not matter', [0])
k3.insert(1, 'value', [0])

print("hi")

rec = [0,0,0]

start_time = time.time() # get the current time in seconds since the epoch

while not ser.in_waiting > 0:

h=0
print("starting")
for i in range(700):

start_time = time.time() # get the current time in seconds since the epoch
line = ser.readline().decode().strip()

line = line + ','

strip = ''
c=0
rec = [0,0,0]
for h in range(len(line)):

if line[h] == ',':

76
 rec[c] = int(strip)
c=c+1
strip = ''
else:
strip = strip + line[h]

emg_value1 = rec[0]
emg_value2 = rec[1]
emg_value3 = rec[2]

y1 = pd.DataFrame()
y1.insert(0, 'does not matter', [0])
y1.insert(1, 'value', [emg_value1])
k1 = k1.append(y1, ignore_index=True);

y2 = pd.DataFrame()
y2.insert(0, 'does not matter', [0])
y2.insert(1, 'value', [emg_value2])
k2 = k2.append(y2, ignore_index=True);

y3 = pd.DataFrame()
y3.insert(0, 'does not matter', [0])
y3.insert(1, 'value', [emg_value3])
k3 = k3.append(y3, ignore_index=True);

print("hehe")
n=1

emg_signal1 = k1.iloc[:,1] #Change the Range to the suitable values

rectified_signal = np.abs(emg_signal1)
# Compute the root mean square (RMS) of the signal
rms = np.sqrt(np.mean(rectified_signal**2))
# Compute the mean absolute value (MAV) of the signal
mav1 = np.mean(rectified_signal)
var1 = (emg_signal1/mav1).var()
skew1 = (emg_signal1/mav1).skew()
kurt1 = (emg_signal1/mav1).kurtosis()

emg_signal2 = k2.iloc[:,1] #Change the Range to the suitable values

rectified_signal = np.abs(emg_signal2)
# Compute the root mean square (RMS) of the signal
rms = np.sqrt(np.mean(rectified_signal**2))
# Compute the mean absolute value (MAV) of the signal
mav2 = np.mean(rectified_signal)
var2 = (emg_signal2/mav2).var()
skew2 = (emg_signal2/mav2).skew()
kurt2 = (emg_signal2/mav2).kurtosis()

emg_signal3 = k3.iloc[:,1] #Change the Range to the suitable values

rectified_signal = np.abs(emg_signal3)
# Compute the root mean square (RMS) of the signal

77
rms = np.sqrt(np.mean(rectified_signal**2))
# Compute the mean absolute value (MAV) of the signal
mav3 = np.mean(rectified_signal)
var3 = (emg_signal3/mav3).var()
skew3 = (emg_signal3/mav3).skew()
kurt3 = (emg_signal3/mav3).kurtosis()

val1 = pd.DataFrame()
val1.insert(0, 'Action',[0])
val1.insert(1, 'MAV',mav1)
#val1.insert(2, 'RMS',rms)
val1.insert(2, 'Var', var1)
val1.insert(3, 'Skew', skew1)
val1.insert(4, 'Kurt', kurt1)

feature_df1 = feature_df1.append(val1, ignore_index=True)

val2 = pd.DataFrame()
val2.insert(0, 'Action',[0])
val2.insert(1, 'MAV',mav2)
#val1.insert(2, 'RMS',rms)
val2.insert(2, 'Var', var2)
val2.insert(3, 'Skew', skew2)
val2.insert(4, 'Kurt', kurt2)

feature_df2 = feature_df2.append(val2, ignore_index=True)

val3 = pd.DataFrame()
val3.insert(0, 'Action',[0])
val3.insert(1, 'MAV',mav3)
#val1.insert(2, 'RMS',rms)
val3.insert(2, 'Var', var3)
val3.insert(3, 'Skew', skew3)
val3.insert(4, 'Kurt', kurt3)

feature_df3 = feature_df3.append(val3, ignore_index=True)

a = clf1.predict(feature_df1.iloc[1:,1:])
b = clf2.predict(feature_df2.iloc[1:,1:])
c = clf3.predict(feature_df3.iloc[1:,1:])

act = ['ext','grasp']
ctr = [0,0]

print('prediction1: ', a[0])

print('prediction2: ', b[0])
print('prediction3: ', c[0])
print('voted prediction: ', act[vote(a,b,c, act, ctr)])

78
Appendix C (Arduino Code)
#include <Servo.h>
double coef[3][4] = {{-0.83141334, -0.00376557, -0.02959438, -0.16066591},
{-0.17895769, -0.00364335, -0.02300627, -0.15123637},
{0.20783653, -0.03972082, -0.2027858, -1.34818274}};
double intercept[3] = {109.10151124, 24.19844435, -22.71124905};

//servo motor objects

Servo thumbServo;
Servo indexServo;
Servo middleServo;
Servo rinkyServo;

int vote(String a, String b, String c, String* act, int* ctr, int size) {
for (int i = 0; i < size; ++i) {
if (a == act[i]) {
ctr[i] += 1;
}
if (b == act[i]) {
ctr[i] += 1;
}
if (c == act[i]) {
ctr[i] += 1;
}
}
int x = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < size; ++i) {
if (ctr[i] >= 2) {
x = i;
break;
}
}
return x;
//if (ctr[1]>=1){x=1;return x;}

//else{return x;}
}

int predict(double x1, double x2, double x3, double x4) {

double decision_values[3];
for (int i = 0; i < 3; i++) {
decision_values[i] = 0.0;
for (int j = 0; j < 4; j++) {
decision_values[i] += coef[i][j] * x1 + coef[i][j] * x2 + coef[i][j] * x3 + coef[i][j] *
x4;
}

79
 decision_values[i] += intercept[i];
}
double max_value = decision_values[0];
int max_index = 0;
for (int i = 1; i < 3; i++) {
if (decision_values[i] > max_value) {
max_value = decision_values[i];
max_index = i;
}
}
return max_index;
}

int mean(int x[], int n) {

int sum = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
sum += x[i];
}
return sum / n;
}

int variance(int x[], int n, int mu) {

int sum = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
int dev = x[i] - mu;
sum += dev * dev;
}
return sum / (n - 1);
}

int skewness(int x[], int n, int mu, int var) {

int sum = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
int dev = x[i] - mu;
sum += dev * dev * dev;
}
return sum / ((n - 1) * var * sqrt(var));
}

int kurtosis(int x[], int n, int mu, int var) {

int sum = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < n; i++) {
int dev = x[i] - mu;
sum += dev * dev * dev * dev;
}
return sum / ((n - 1) * var * var);

80
}

const int EMG_PIN = A1;

const int NUM_SAMPLES = 100;

int n = NUM_SAMPLES;

void setup() {

Serial.begin(9600);

thumbServo.attach(3);
indexServo.attach(5);
middleServo.attach(9);
rinkyServo.attach(11);
thumbServo.write(0);
indexServo.write(0);
middleServo.write(0);
rinkyServo.write(0);
}

String pred = "";

void loop() {
int data = analogRead(0);
int data2 = analogRead(1);
int data3 = analogRead(2);
int d = data+data2+data3;

double MAV1 = 0;
double MAV2 = 0;
double MAV3 = 0;
int prediction = 0;
int emgData1[NUM_SAMPLES];
int emgData2[NUM_SAMPLES];
int emgData3[NUM_SAMPLES];

for (int i = 0; i < NUM_SAMPLES; i++) {

emgData1[i] = analogRead(0);
emgData2[i] = analogRead(1);
emgData3[i] = analogRead(2);
delay(10); // Sampling frequency of 100 Hz
}
double sumMAV1 = 0;
double sumRMS1 = 0;

81
double sumMAV2 = 0;
double sumRMS2 = 0;

double sumMAV3 = 0;
double sumRMS3 = 0;

for (int i = 0; i < NUM_SAMPLES; i++) {

sumMAV1 += abs(emgData1[i]);
sumRMS1 += emgData1[i] * emgData1[i];

sumMAV2 += abs(emgData2[i]);
sumRMS2 += emgData2[i] * emgData2[i];

sumMAV3 += abs(emgData3[i]);
sumRMS3 += emgData3[i] * emgData3[i];
}

MAV1 = sumMAV1 / NUM_SAMPLES;

double RMS1 = sqrt(sumRMS1 / NUM_SAMPLES);

MAV2 = sumMAV2 / NUM_SAMPLES;

double RMS2 = sqrt(sumRMS2 / NUM_SAMPLES);

MAV3 = sumMAV3 / NUM_SAMPLES;

double RMS3 = sqrt(sumRMS3 / NUM_SAMPLES);

int mu1 = mean(emgData1, n);

int mu2 = mean(emgData2, n);
int mu3 = mean(emgData3, n);

double a1 = MAV1;
double a2 = variance(emgData1, n, mu1);
double a3 = skewness(emgData1, n, mu1, a2);
double a4 = kurtosis(emgData1, n, mu1, a2);

double b1 = MAV2;
double b2 = variance(emgData2, n, mu2);
double b3 = skewness(emgData2, n, mu2, b2);
double b4 = kurtosis(emgData2, n, mu2, b2);

double c1 = MAV3;
double c2 = variance(emgData3, n, mu3);
double c3 = skewness(emgData3, n, mu3, c2);
double c4 = kurtosis(emgData3, n, mu3, c2);

82
int prediction1 = predict(a1, a2, a3, a4);
int prediction2 = predict(b1, b2, b3,b4);
int prediction3 = predict(c1, c2, c3, c4);

String act[3] = {"extension", "grasp"};

int ctr[3] = {0,0,0};

String a = act[prediction1];
String b = act[prediction2];
String c = act[prediction3];

/*Serial.print("Prediction1: " );
Serial.println(a);
Serial.print("Prediction2: " );
Serial.println(b);
Serial.print("Prediction3: " );
Serial.println(c);*/

prediction = vote(a, b, c, act, ctr, 2);

Serial.print("Voted Prediction: " );
Serial.println(act[prediction]);

double MAV = MAV1+MAV2+MAV3;

int thumbAngle = map(MAV1, 0, 200, 20, 150);

int indexAngle = map(MAV1, 0, 200, 20, 150);
int middleAngle = map(MAV1, 0, 200, 20, 150);
int rinkyAngle = map(MAV1, 0, 200, 20, 150);

if (prediction == 1) {
thumbServo.write(thumbAngle);
indexServo.write(indexAngle);
middleServo.write(middleAngle);
rinkyServo.write(rinkyAngle);

} else if (prediction == 0) {
thumbServo.write(20);
indexServo.write(20);
middleServo.write(20);
rinkyServo.write(20);
} else if (prediction == "thumb_flex") {
thumbServo.write(thumbAngle);
} else if (prediction == "thumb_ext") {
thumbServo.write(0);
} else if (prediction == "index_flex") {
indexServo.write(indexAngle);

83
 } else if (prediction == "index_ext") {
indexServo.write(0);
} else if (prediction == "middle_flex") {
middleServo.write(middleAngle);
} else if (prediction == "middle_ext") {
middleServo.write(0);
} else if (prediction == "rinky_flex") {
rinkyServo.write(rinkyAngle);
} else if (prediction == "rinky_ext") {
rinkyServo.write(0);
}
delay(2000);

//Serial.println(analogRead(0));

//Serial.print(data);Serial.print(",");Serial.print(data2);Serial.print(",");Serial.print(data3);
Serial.println();
Serial.print(pred[prediction]);}
//Serial.print(data);Serial.print(",");Serial.print(data2);Serial.print(" ,0,1000,
");Serial.print(data3);Serial.println();}
//Serial.print(data);
//Serial.print(",");Serial.print(data2);Serial.print(",");Serial.print(data3);Serial.println();}
//Serial.print(" ,0,1000, ");
//Serial.println(data2);
//Serial.println();
/*Serial.print(", ");
Serial.print(data3);
Serial.println();*/

//if(d > 150){

//Serial.println(d);
//}
//if(data > 100){Serial.println(data2);}

//else{Serial.println(0);}

//Serial.print(data2);
//Serial.print(" ,0,4000, ");
//Serial.print(data);
//Serial.println();

84
Appendix D (CAD Drawings)

85
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