LEVELING AND INSTRUMENTS

Leveling is the determination of variation in altitude (level) of points on the

ground. Its is usually performed with an ‘engineers level and leveling rod (staff).
It is also defined as the operation of measuring vertical distances either
directly or indirectly in order to determine the difference in elevation.

Related Definitions:
Elevation of the point near the surface of the earth is its vertical distance above or
below an arbitrarily assumed level surface or curved surface.

Datum is the level surface, real or imaginary, used as a reference elevation in a

leveling works. The most commonly use datum is the mean sea level

ASSUMED LEVEL SURFACE – is a curve surface every element of which is

normal to the plumb line.

Difference in elevation between two points is the vertical distance between two
level surface in which the points lie.

Horizontal line is a straight line tangent to a level surface.

Level surface is a curve surface every element level of which is normal to the
plumb line.
Level line is a line in level surface.

Vertical angle is an angle between two intersecting line in a vertical plane.

METHODS OF MEASURING VERTICAL DISTANCES

1.DIRECT OR SPIRIT LEVELING-this method determines elevations by
measuring vertical distances directly . It is the most precise
method of leveling and the one commonly used.

A. DIFFERENTIAL LEVELLING- it is the operation of determining differences in

elevations of points a some distances apart.

B. PROFILE LEVELING-it is the operation of determine elevations points at

short intervals along a located line such as
center line of highways or sewer.

2.INDIRECT LEVELING OR TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELING- is an indirect

leveling method involves observing the vertical angle
and either horizontal distance ,or slope distance
between two points. The difference in elevation can
then be calculate

3. STADIA LEVELING - is the method of determining vertical distance by

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 tacheometry using the engineer’s transit and level;
plane table alidade and level rod..

4. BAROMETRIC LEVELING-this method is used in determine elevations of any

point requires the use of a barometer Since the
pressure of the earth’s atmosphere varies inversely
with the elevation, the barometer may be employed
for making observation of difference in elevation.
This method of leveling is employed principally on
exploratory or reconnaissance survey where
difference in elevation are large as hilly or
mountainous country .

Instruments Used:

1. mercurial barometer is accurate but it is cumbersome and

suitable only for observation at fixed station.

2. aneroid barometer is commonly used for it is light and easily

transported. This type has a dial about 3 inches in
diameter , graduated both in inches of mercury and in
feet of altitude. It is sometimes used by topographer on
small scale surveys where the contour interval is large

3. altimeter is an extremely sensitive barometer in which elevation

can be determined within a foot or so.

INSTRUMENTS FOR DIRECT LEVELING Any instrument commonly used for

direct leveling has an essential features; a line of sight and spirit level tube or
some other means of making the line of sight horizontal.

1) Levels or Engineer’s Levels

Types of Levels:

a) dumpy levels - a level with a telescope rigidly attached to the level bar
with a level tube permanently placed so that its axis lies in the
same vertical plane as the optical axis but is adjustable in
altitude by means of capstan- headed screw at one end.

b. ) wye levels - an obsolete type of level wherein its telescope rests in Y-shape
bearing called the wye ; where the leg of the wye passes
through the level bar and is secured in position by capstan nuts.

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c) tilting levels - a level whose telescope is mounted on a traverse fulcrum
at the vertical axis and on a micrometer screw at the eyepiece
end of the telescope. After the instrument has been leveled in the
usual manner, approximately; perhaps by the use of circular
spirit level , the telescope is pointed in the direction desired and
as then “ tilted “ or rotated slightly in the vertical plane of its axis
by turning the micrometer screw until the sensitive telescope-
level bubble is centered.

d) self leveling or automatic level –a level that allows establishment of horizontal

line of sight by means of a system of prisms and mirrors supported
by wires as in a pendulum. Most automatic level are designed so
that the line of sight is horizontal when the telescope barrel is within
± 10’ of being horizontal. At each set up , the instrument is leveled
approximately by use of circular spirit or bull’s eye level. And the
pendulum maintains a horizontal line of sight. The instrument is
light, easy to handle and its operation is quick and accurate.

e.) architect’s level or construction level is a special construction levels include

the Blout & George Laser Tracking Level (which can search a360°
plane and lock on a pocket-size target) the Dietzgen Laser Swinger
, Spectra-Physics Rotolite Building Laser, and AGL Construction
Laser. Some laser instruments are available for shaft plumbing and
setups inside large pipe lines.

f.)locke hand levels- widely used for rough leveling which consist of metal
sighting tube about 6 inches long on which a mounted level vial.
In the tube beneath the vial is a prism which reflects the image of
the bubble to the eye end of the level Just beneath the level vial is
a cross wire which is adjustable by means of pair of screws, the
head of which protrude from the case,; one screw is loosened and
the other is tightened. Hand level use to rough work. sights on
ordinary level rod limited to about 50 ft because of zero- to 2-power
magnification

2) ENGINEER’S TRANSIT OR THEODOLITE

3 ) LEVELING RODS
These are graduated rods of rectangular cross section with common
length of 3 or 4 meters in which the difference in elevation is measured.
The lower or ground end of the rod is shod with metal to protect it from
wear and is usually the point of zero measurement from which the
graduation are numbered. Aluminum alloy and fiberglass rods are also
available in certain specific style.

2 general classes
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 a. self reading rod - which may be read directly by the leveler as he
looks through the telescope of the level. The rod is held vertically; the
leveler observes the graduation at which the line of sight intersect the
rod and records the reading. Observation closer than smaller division
on the rod are made by estimation. .

b. target rods – a rod equipped with a target, sliding on the rod is set by
rodman is directed by the leveler . With this type of rod, the leveler
signals the rodman to slide the target up and down until it is bisected
by the line of sight . The target is then clamped, and the rodman ,
leveler , or both observe the indicated reading. Usually the target
equipped with a vernier or other device by means of which fractional
measurements of the rod graduation can be read without estimation.

4.)Stadia Rods – a type of rods used for stadia surveying. Any type of self -
reading rod may be used as a stadia rod,but not leveling rod graduated in
hundredth of feet or in centimeter.

5.) rod levels – an attachment for indicating the verticality of the leveling rod
which consist of a circular or bull’s eye level vial mounted on a metal
angle or bracket which either attached by screw to the side of the rod is
held against rod as desired.
.
6.) turning points - A metal plate or pin that will serve temporarily as a
stable object on which the leveling rod may be held at turning points

COMMON ERRORS IN LEVELING

1) IMPERFECT ADJUSTMENT OF THE INSTRUMENT
2) PARALLAX
3) EARTH’S CURVATURE ( assumed R of the earth = 6400 km = 21,120,000 ft)
4) ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION
5) VARIATION IN ATMOSPHERE
6) ROD NOT STANDARD LENGTH
7) EXPANSION OR CONTRACTION OF THE ROD
8) SETTLEMENT OF TRIPOD OR TURNING POINT
9) BUBBLES NOT EXACTLY CENTERED AT THE INSTANT OF SIGHTING
10) INABILITY OF THE OBSERVER TO READ THE ROD EXACTLY
11) ROD NOT HELD PLUMB
12) FAULTY TURNING POINTS

COMMON MISTAKES IN LEVELING

1) CONFUSION OF NUMBER IN READING AND RECORDING
2) RECORDING BACK SIGHT( B.S) AND F.S COLUMN AND VISE VERSA
3) FAULTY ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION
4) ROD NOT HELD IN THE SAME POINT FOR BOTH B.S AND F.S
5) WRONG READING OF VENIER WHEN THE TARGET ROD IS USED
6) NO HAVING TARGET SET PROPERLY WHEN THE LONG ROD IS USED

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EARTH’S CURVATURE AND REFRACTION
In leveling, it is necessary to consider the effect of the (1) curvature of the
earth and (2) atmospheric refraction which effect the line of sight . Usually
these two effects are considered together.

From the figure shown, an object actually at C would appear to be at B, due to

atmospheric refraction, wherein the rays of light transmitted along the surface of
the earth is bent downward slightly. The value of h represents the effect of the
earth’s curvature and atmospheric refraction and has the following values:

K = distance from the point of tangency (station of the observer) in miles.

h = combined effect of earth‘s curvature and atmospheric pressure in feet.

Or h = 0.067 M2 where is in thousand of meters and h is in meter

RADIUS OF THE EARTH is 4000 MILES = 6400 KM

h = 0.574 K2 h = 0.021K² h = 0.067 K²

h = in feet h = in feet h = in meter

K = in miles K= in thousand feet K = in thousand meter(km)

EXAMPLE PROBLEM: 1. How wide would the river be if a man 1.8m tall stands
on the other bank of the river and still he could see a tower on the
opposite bank of the river which 30.50 m. high considering the effect of
curvature and refraction correction.

SOLUTION:

h =0.067K2
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 1.8=0.067K2
K1 = 5.18Km
30.50 =0.067K2
K2=21.34 Km
Width of the river = 5.18+21.34 = 26.52 km

EXAMPLE 2: An 8 meters triangulation observation tower is on top of the hill B

938 meters. above sea level. What would be the height of the equal
towers to be erected at A and C both located 15 km. from B.
respectively, if the elevation of A is 975 meters and that of C is 915
meters In order that A,B,& C will be intervisible.

SOLUTION:
Because the distance of
Hill A from Hill B is
equal as Hill C from Hill B
then;
h1 = h2 = 0.067 K2

h1=h2 = 0.067 (15)2

h1=h2 = 15.08 m.

h3 = 975 – 15.08
h3 = 959.92 m

h4 = 915 – 15.08
h4 = 899.92 m

let x = is the height of equal tower

y1 =(x+959.92)-(x+899.92) =60
y2 =946 -(x+899.92)
y2 = 46.08 – x

60 46.08 − X
=
30 15
x = 16.08 height of tower at A & C

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3. Three hills A, B, and C have elevations of 1100, 980 and 800 meters
respectively. Hill C is 22 Km. from Hill A and 12 km. from hill B.
a.) Determine whether hill C is visible from hill A ,considering the effect of
earth’s curvature and atmospheric refraction.
b.)If not, what height of the tower must be constructed at C so that it could be
visible from A with the line of sight having a clearance of 1.2 m above hill B.

SOLUTION a) :

h = 0.067 K2

h1 = 0.067 (10)2
h1 = 6.7 m.
h2 = 0.067 (12)2
h2 = 9.65 m.

y1 = 1100 – 6.7 =1,093.3 m.

y2 = 800 – 9.65 =790.35 m
x1= y1- y2
x1= 1,093.3 – 790.35 = 302.95
let H is the elevation of the line
of sight at hill B.
x2= H- y2
x2= H – 790.35

by ratio and proportion;

X 1 H − 790.35
=
22 12
302.95 H − 790.35
=
22 12

H = 955.95 m < 980 m.

Therefore C is not visible at hill A.

SOLUTION b) :
By ratio and proportion:

Let Ht = height of the tower.

𝑦1 −(𝑦2 +𝐻𝑡) 981.2−(𝑦2 +𝐻𝑡 )
=
22 12

1,093.3 −(790.35+𝐻𝑡 ) 981.2−(790.35+𝐻𝑡)

=
22 12

Ht = 56.26 m.
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LEVELING INSTRUMENTS

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DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING
DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING – IS THE PROCESS OF DETERMINING
ELEVATION OF A NEW POINT FROM A KNOWN ELEVATION OF AN
EXISTING POINT OF SOME DISTANCE APART.

BENCH MARK (B.M) IS A DEFINITE POINT ON AN OBJECT,IN WHICH THE

ELEVATION AND LOCATION OF WHICH ARE KNOWN.IT SERVES AS
POINT OF REFERENCE FOR LEVEL IN A GIVEN LOCALITY.IT MAY BE
PERMANENT ( P.B.M.) OR TEMPORARY ( T.B.M. )

TURNING POINT (T.P) AN INTERVENING POINT BETWEEN TWO BENCH

MARKS UPON WHICH POINT FORESIGHT AND BACKSIGHT ROD
READING ARE TAKEN.
Turning points may be points set either before or during the course of the
survey, or natural or man-made points in the area. They must be solid, well defined
(or marked) and permanent enough to remain intact until the level loop is finished
Turning points should be marked when used so as to insure that the rod is in the
exact same place when the backsight and foresight are taken
BACKSIGHT (B.S)
IS A ROD READING TAKEN ON A POINT OF KNOWN ELEVATION, AS A
BENCH MARK OR TURNING POINT.. IT IS SOMETIMES CALLED AS PLUS
SIGHT.

FORESIGHT (F.S) IS A ROD READING TAKEN ON A POINT THE ELEVATION

OF WHICH IS TO BE DETERMINED, AS ON TURNING POINT OR A
BENCH MARK THAT IS TO BE ESTABLISHED. IT IS SOMETIMES CALLED
MINUS SIGHT.

HEIGHT OF THE INSTRUMENT (H.I) IS THE ELEVATION OF THE LINE OF

SIGHT OF THE TELESCOPE WHEN THE INSTRUMENT IS LEVELED.
Balance shot distances – The rodman and instrument man must work as a team to
balance the backsight and foresight distances. This can be accomplished by use of a
digital level, estimating distance by pacing, three-wire stadia difference or, when
available, by observing stationing marked on the project. Balanced backsights and
foresights, essential in precise leveling, will help eliminate errors caused by
refraction, the curvature of the earth and an instrument that is out of adjustment and
are an especially necessary procedure when establishing control bench marks

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STA. BS. HI. FS. ELEV.
BM1 7.11 728.16 721.05
TP1 8.83 735.75 1.24 726.92
TP2 11.72 746.36 1.11 734.64
BM2 4.32 740.47 10.21 736.15
TP3 3.08 733.57 9.96 730.51
TP4 2.74 727.40 8.91 724.66
TP5 0.81 716.59 11.62 715.78
BM3 12.42 704.17
∑B.S.= 38.59 ∑F.S= 55.47

NOTE: H.I =ELEV.+B.S, ELEV = H.I-F.S

∑B.S-∑F.S=55.47-38.59=16.88
DIFFERENCE OF THE FIRST ANDLAST STATION = 721.05-704.17=16.88

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