MATHEMATICS K–6

NSW Department of School Education

Mathematics K–6

NSW Department of School Education

Published by: NSW Department of School Education

Sydney 1989

© NSW Department of School Education

ISBN 0 7305 5462 7

Reprinted 1999 by the Board of Studies NSW

with permission from the Department of School Education
MATHEMATICS K–6
Statement of Principles (K–12)

Syllabus (K–6)

Support Statements (K–6)

 MINISTER’S FOREWORD

EXCELLENCE AND EQUITY: THE NEW MATHEMATICS SYLLABUS

I warmly welcome the release of this important new syllabus document. It will be introduced in schools
from the beginning of 1990 and will clearly direct the study of mathematics in primary schools into the
21st century.

The children in our primary schools will spend nearly all of their adult lives in the 21st century. They
will live and work in a nation transformed by high technology. The economic well-being of Australia
in the fiercely competitive Asian-Pacific region will depend on having an educated and highly-skilled
workforce equipped to be at the forefront of change and innovation.

Our primary schools provide young people with the foundation skills and knowledge which will
underpin their future education and training. As a top priority, all primary school teachers must be
committed to providing this vital foundation in mathematical and language skills to all children,
irrespective of background and ability. This focus is essential for both individual achievement and
equality of opportunity and the Government’s twin goals of excellence and equity.

Primary school teachers who have trialled this syllabus believe strongly that it will support and assist
them in this vital enterprise. It provides a clear statement of the basic knowledge and skills that children
are expected to acquire over the years of primary school.

It complements the Government’s desire to provide clear curriculum guidelines and more practical
support materials for teachers. Over the next 4 years, the Department of School Education will develop
and distribute new syllabus material in all 6 key learning areas for primary schools. This new
Mathematics syllabus is the first in this series of new syllabus documents.

Parents and teachers will find this new Mathematics syllabus clear and concise, exciting and
demanding, vigorous and contemporary. It stresses that all students need a sound understanding of
mathematical concepts and need to acquire good language skills for the effective communication of
mathematical ideas and experiences. Importantly, the syllabus states that students should be challenged
to “achieve at a level of accuracy and excellence” appropriate to their particular stage of development.

This syllabus is based on the best research and practice and has been extensively trialled and evaluated
by teachers in both government and non-government schools.

It will be of great assistance to teachers and will be greatly appreciated by them. More important still,
it will ensure the highest quality of education and lifetime opportunities for our children.

(DR) TERRY METHERELL MP

MINISTER FOR EDUCATION
AND YOUTH AFFAIRS

iv
CONTENTS

MATHEMATICS K–12 STATEMENT OF PRINCIPLES 1

MATHEMATICS K–6 SYLLABUS 7

SYLLABUS AIMS 8
CONTENT SUMMARY 9
LEARNING EXPERIENCES 16
Attitudes
Problem solving and applications
Creativity
Language
Resources
Technology
Students with special needs

LEARNING OUTCOMES 41
ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION 42
TEACHING LEARNING UNITS 48
Scope and sequence chart notes
Scope and sequence chart
Space 52
Space 3D
Space 2D
Position
Graphs

Measurement 110
Length
Area
Volume
Mass
Temperature
Time
Number 194
Numeration
Addition
Subtraction
Multiplication
Division
Fractions and decimals
Money

SUPPORT STATEMENTS 285

Programming 286
Managing the classroom environment 305

INDEX 313

v
 DIRECTOR-GENERAL’S FOREWORD

The document The Primary Purpose - A Curriculum Handbook for Primary Schools and their
Communities, issued in 1987, structures the primary curriculum in six broad learning areas. Schools
will be given a syllabus for each of these broad learning areas. Mathematics K–6 is the first broad
learning area syllabus. This syllabus gives schools guidance on the mathematics that students should
learn at primary school and on how mathematics should be taught. This will strengthen mathematics
education in primary schools.

Mathematics K–6 responds to considerable recent research concerning how students learn
mathematics. It recognises that students learn at different rates and in different ways. It also
acknowledges the importance of concrete materials and language use in mathematics learning. The
nature of mathematical experiences undertaken must enable students to see the relevance of school
mathematics to many aspects of their everyday lives. Mathematical experiences will encompass the
three equally important strands of Space, Measurement and Number. Through these experiences
children will develop competency appropriate to their stage of development in all strands.

Our society is rapidly changing. One area of particularly rapid change is technology. For example,
calculators and computers have become more generally accessible to the majority of the population.
Students need to be able to use new technology appropriately and effectively. This syllabus will assist
teachers in equipping students to decide on the most efficient strategy to use in solving a particular
problem and whether or not it is appropriate to use a calculator or a computer software package.

In this syllabus teachers will also find strategies to assist with the particular educational needs of girls,
Aboriginal students and students from non-English speaking backgrounds. Mathematics K–6 also
addresses the needs of talented students and students with learning disabilities.

While the syllabus gives proper emphasis to learning the basic facts and operations of mathematics
including the memorisation of tables, it also advocates approaches which will assist students to develop
more positive attitudes towards mathematics. It recognises the importance of students developing
understanding of mathematics as well as computational ability. Above all, its successful
implementation will ensure a future generation which is well equipped to handle technological change
and to deal confidently with mathematical problems in everyday life.

The Mathematics K–6 syllabus is supported by a kit called “Resource Materials for Basic Learning:
K–6 Mathematics” published by the NSW Department of Education. There are many practical
mathematics activities detailed in this resource which was produced in part as a result of the Basic
Learning in Primary Schools Program. Further material was produced as a result of the
Department’s Basics in Education Program.

Advice to parents and the community on the implications of this syllabus for the teaching and learning
of mathematics in primary schools is contained in a package prepared by the Department of Education.
This will help schools in the task of explaining the syllabus to the local community.

F.G. SHARPE,
DIRECTOR-GENERAL OF EDUCATION

vi
MATHEMATICS K–12
STATEMENT OF
PRINCIPLES
MATHEMATICS K–12 STATEMENT OF PRINCIPLES
This K–12 Statement of Principles describes the general principles which underlie all ideas in this
syllabus.

THE NATURE OF MATHEMATICS

Mathematics is the study of number and space. Most particularly it is:
• a search for patterns and relationships. This search, utilising acquired knowledge and skills,
leads to the development of concepts and generalisations which can be applied in finding
solutions to problems, improving our understanding of the world around us and meeting the
specific needs of people.
• a way of thinking characterised by processes such as exploring, manipulating, discovering,
ordering, classifying, generalising, abstracting, estimating, calculating, predicting, describing,
deducing, drawing and measuring.
• a powerful, precise and concise means of communication used to represent, to interpret, to
explain and to predict.
• a creative activity. Accordingly, it involves invention, intuition and discovery.

RATIONALE FOR MATHEMATICS IN THE

CURRICULUM
Mathematics is useful.
• Mathematics is essential for living. Some aspects of mathematics are required by individuals
in order to function adequately as members of society. These aspects include strategies, skills
and techniques involved in number facts, computation, mathematical problem-solving and
reasoning.
• Mathematics is important and useful in many fields of endeavour. These fields include the
sciences, medicine, economics, commerce, industry, engineering, business and the arts.
• Mathematics provides a means of oral and written communication. Mathematics can be used
to present and convey information in many ways. Some of these include explanations, figures,
letters, tables, charts, diagrams, graphs and drawings.
• Mathematics provides opportunities for development of reasoning abilities.
Mathematics is part of our culture.
Mathematics has been part of human activity since the earliest times. It has made, and continues
to make, a significant contribution to human culture. Mathematics allows children to appreciate
their cultural heritage more fully by providing insights into many of the creative achievements
of the human race.
Mathematics can be part of our leisure.
Mathematics is a source of interesting and appealing puzzles and problems. When mathematics
is enjoyable it encourages curiosity, exploration, discovery and invention.

2
AIMS OF MATHEMATICS EDUCATION K–12
The aims of mathematics education will be achieved in different levels in the K–12 range according
to the stages of development of the students at these levels. These aims are to develop in students
confidence and enjoyment in doing mathematical activities, knowledge, skills and understanding in
certain specified areas, and awareness of the place of mathematics in solving problems of everyday
life and in contributing to the development of our society.

Confidence and enjoyment in doing mathematical activities

• confidence in their ability to do mathematics
• a positive attitude to mathematics as an interesting, enjoyable and challenging subject
• an appreciation of mathematics as a creative activity with aesthetic appeal.

Knowledge, skills and understandings in certain specified areas

• thinking which is logical, flexible, fluent and original
• skills in computation and problem solving in all areas of mathematics
• appropriate language for the effective communication of mathematical ideas and experiences
• an ability to recognise mathematical patterns and relationships
• a variety of methods for calculations and problem-solving
• an awareness of the basic structure of mathematics by an appreciation of the nature and
interrelationship of the various strands of mathematics.

Awareness of the place of mathematics in solving problems of everyday life and in contributing
to the development of our society
• an ability to apply mathematical ideas, rules and procedures to particular situations and
problems
• an awareness that the learning of mathematics includes the processes of inquiry, discovery
and verification
• an awareness of the uses of mathematics both in and beyond the classroom
• an appreciation of mathematics as a relevant and useful activity
• an appreciation of appropriate uses of technology, including calculators and computers.

3
THE NATURE OF MATHEMATICS LEARNING
Students learn best when motivated.
Mathematics learning is more effective when it is interesting, enjoyable and challenging.
Implications
• Learning activities should provoke curiosity, should be appropriate to students’ stages of
development, and should be related to everyday life experiences.
• The actual experiences of students should be used as the source of many learning activities.
• Students should be encouraged to become aware of the relevance of mathematics to their lives.
• Students should often experience success in mathematical activities. A positive attitude
towards mathematics and towards oneself will be promoted by emphasising the sutdents’
achievements.

Students learn mathematics through interacting.

Mathematics learning should involve interaction with the physical and social environment, leading to
the abstraction of particular mathematics ideas encountered.
Implications
• The understanding of mathematical ideas is promoted by interaction with people and
manipulation of materials in a wide variety of learning situations.
• Co-operative learning in small groups provides excellent opportunities for interaction.
Mathematics learning is promoted by the appropriate use of a variety of materials, equipment and
personnel.
Implications
• Materials and equipment should be used in imaginative ways to explore, discover and develop
mathematical ideas.
• The availability of technological equipment, such as calculators and computers, does not
reduce the need for mathematical understanding or the need for competence.
• Some concepts and skills will need to receive greater emphasis with the introduction of
calculators and computers, eg place value and decimal concepts; skills of approximation and
estimation.

Students learn mathematics through investigating.

Mathematics learning should involve the investigation of mathematical patterns, relationships,
processes and problems.
Implications
• Students should be given opportunities to discover and create patterns, and to describe and
record relationships contained in those patterns.
• Opportunities to use mathematical processes and to compose and solve problems should be
provided in all strands of mathematics.

4
Students learn mathematics through language.
Mathematics learning is promoted by the appropriate use of language. Language, including symbols
and diagrams, plays an important part in the formulation and expression of mathematical ideas and
serves as a bridge between concrete and abstract representation.
Implications
• Mathematical activities should be regarded as opportunities for teachers and students to use
and develop appropriate language.
• It is important that teachers be familiar with the language patterns appropriate to the different
mathematical processes.
• Students should be encouraged to use oral and written language appropriate to their particular
stage of development to gain meaning from their mathematical learning experiences.
• When developing teaching strategies and learning activities in mathematics, teachers should
give consideration to the diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds of students.

Students learn mathematics as individuals but in the context of intellectual, physical and social
growth.
Mathematics learning is promoted when individual differences of students are taken into account.
Implications
• Students vary in the way and the rate in which they learn mathematics.
• Learning experiences should be appropriate to the students’ stage of development.
• Teachers should take into account the student’s knowledge gained formally and informally
outside the school, including the home.
• Recognition should be given that the whole of society has mathematical ability. Maximum
participation and extension of all students, regardless of sex, is appropriate.
Mathematics learning should be appropriate to each student’s current stage of development and should
build upon previous experiences and achievement.
Implications
• To cater for the variety of developmental levels that may exist among a group of students,
teachers should provide a flexible learning situation where there is a variety of opportunities
for involvement.
• Whilst the student’s readiness to proceed to new work will depend on previous knowledge and
understanding this does not mean that there is an absolute order in which mathematics
learning should proceed for all students. There are many paths to understanding.
• Teachers should respond to emergent opportunities to capitalise on the student’s interests and
needs and vary the intended sequence of mathematical experiences.
• As each new mathematical concept is encountered, learning should proceed, where possible,
from the concrete to the abstract. Concepts should be continually developed and consolidated
through a wide variety of learning experiences.
• The development of understanding should, as a general principle, precede a requirement for
both automatic recall of factual information and speed and accuracy in performing
mathematical computations. Skills should be maintained through meaningful practice and
enjoyable drill.

ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION

In implementing any syllabus based on this Statement of Principles, schools must be careful to evaluate
the program offered by the school and to assess the progress of individuals within that program.

5
MATHEMATICS K–6
SYLLABUS
INTRODUCTION
Mathematics is a mandatory and integral part of the curriculum. All students will be provided with
experiences in mathematics on a regular basis. A school plan in mathematics and each teacher’s
program must be based on this syllabus, the particular school policy and the identified needs of
students. Schools are expected to demonstrate a commitment both in theory and practice to the
approaches embodied in this syllabus. The syllabus takes into account a wide range of across
curriculum policies: eg Aboriginal, Multicultural and Girls Education policies.
Each school needs to develop a school mathematics K–6 Policy which
• formulates a plan of action for the implementation of the Mathematics K–6 Syllabus
• gives guidance on using the Mathematics K–6 Syllabus in the school’s context
• meets the needs of the school community (students, teachers and parents)
• ensures effective implementation of the Mathematics K–6 Syllabus
• provides a framework by which the school’s mathematics curriculum can be monitored,
evaluated and modified as necessary
• involves parents in the mathematics program of the school
• provides the staff with opportunities for professional development in the understanding and
teaching of mathematics as required in this syllabus.

SYLLABUS AIMS
• To create in students favourable attitudes towards and stimulate interest in mathematics.

• To develop in students a sound understanding of mathematical concepts, processes and

strategies and the capacity to use these in solving problems.

• To develop in students the ability to recognise the mathematics in everyday situations.

• To develop in students the ability to apply their mathematics to analyse situations and
solve real-life problems.

• To develop in students appropriate language for the effective communication of

mathematical ideas and experiences.

• To develop in students an appreciation of the applications to mathematics of technology,

including calculators and computers.

• To encourage students to use mathematics creatively in expressing new ideas and

discoveries and to recognise the mathematical elements in other creative pursuits.

• To challenge students to achieve at a level of accuracy and excellence appropriate to their

particular stage of development.

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CONTENT SUMMARY
This section outlines the content of the Mathematics K–6 syllabus. It is about what mathematics to
teach. The next section, learning experiences, is about how to teach mathematics.
This content is organised in three strands: Space, Measurement and Number. Within each strand, there
is a number of sub-strands, each of which is divided into teaching/learning units which begin on page
48. These teaching/learning units should not be seen as individual lessons but teaching units that will
develop over time.

STRAND SPACE MEASUREMENT NUMBER

SUB-STRAND Three-Dimensional Length Numeration

Two-Dimensional Area Addition
Position Volume Subtraction
Graphs Mass Multiplication
Temperature Division
Time Fractions and Decimals
Money

Below is an introduction to the content of each strand and a list of the content for each sub-strand. The
content statements are taken from the content box of each of the teaching/learning units (see pages 48
to 284).

SPACE
The Space strand encompasses ideas and experiences related to shapes and solids, interpreting
diagrammatic representations, position and orientation.
Students start school with a practical knowledge of their world, gained by the movement of themselves
and of everyday objects through space. In this strand, activities with concrete materials provide
opportunities for giving students enjoyable experiences so that their spatial and geometric skills,
concepts and understandings can develop. Students should be encouraged to develop their own
understandings of spatial concepts, using their own language. This may mean that some students will
be using a language other than English.
Whilst traditional geometrical notions of points, lines and planes are important, the broader
understandings of space are crucial in the early years. These understandings are essential for activities
such as map reading, following directions, dressmaking, moving furniture and laying bricks.

CONTENT SUMMARY: SPACE

SPACE 3D Classification of objects
Patterns with 3D objects
Investigating the properties of 3D objects
Investigating the properties of prisms and cylinders
Investigating the properties of pyramids
Investigating the properties of cones and spheres
Investigating topology
SPACE 2D Classification of two-dimensional shapes
Relationship of 3D objects to 2D shapes
Recognising line symmetry
Arranging shapes
Investigating symmetry in patterns
Investigating topology
Investigating the properties of 2D shapes

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 Straight and curved lines
Constructing angles
Classification and construction of 2D shapes
Lines and points of intersection
Investigating line symmetry
Constructing and comparing angles
Investigating shape and pattern
Investigating tangrams and puzzles
Investigating transformations of shapes
Investigating the properties of polygons
Classification of angles
Investigating patterns of lines
Investigating shadows and perspective
Investigating the properties of angles
Investigating turning symmetry
Patterns and tessellation
Construction of 2D shapes
POSITION The language of position
Modelling and sketching the position of objects
Informal grids and mazes
Using coordinates to describe position
Investigating aspects of position, focusing on mapping
GRAPHS Pictorial representations of groups of objects
Comparing groups of objects that represent other objects
Comparing groups of objects by representing them with tally
marks
Column graphs
Picture graphs
Pie graphs, line graphs and bar graphs

MEASUREMENT
Early emphasis in this strand should be on play with materials, in order to explore length, area, volume,
mass, temperature and time. Students should be encouraged to talk about their experiences and
discoveries. Openended questioning will assist in this process, eg “How do you know?”
Measurement using informal units follows the practical experience involving free and structured play.
At this stage, students measure using familiar references, eg use of hand spans, popsticks, etc in
measuring the lengths of desks. Discussions and comparisons of measures with other students will lead
students to realise the need for a standard.
Formal units which are realistic in terms of the students’ manipulative skills should be introduced first,
eg the metre, kilogram, square metre. Students should be introduced to smaller or larger units only
when they have demonstrated a thorough understanding of basic units.
Many everyday, simple, practical activities involve the ability to estimate and approximate. Estimation
in both the informal and formal stages of measurement is vital. Students should be encouraged to
estimate first and then check.
Estimation and approximation skills play an important role in the ability to measure with understanding.
Students, from the time they come to school, need to be assisted to see the many activities which involve
these skills in their day-to-day living, as indicated in the following examples:
Cooking
• approximating quantities of ingredients, eg about a cup, approximately 500 mL
• estimating how much food or liquid fills a variety of containers
• being able to visualise liquid and solid quantities, eg “Two litres would come up to here in this
container”; “Five kilograms of sugar would fill this jar”.

10
Building
• estimating how many bricks are required to build a wall
• estimating how much concrete is needed for a path, how many tiles for a floor; skills in
estimating and approximating are important in building to avoid wastage; many “rules of
thumb” exist which are essentially estimations.
Travelling
• estimating how much time it takes to travel from place to place by car, train, bus, plane or on
foot
• approximating distances and petrol costs.
Sewing and Upholstering
• estimating quantities of cloth, cord, tape necessary to sew and furnish.
The examples from real-life are countless. Students should be encouraged to identify when and where
estimation and approximation skills are important.
Children and adults will vary widely in their abilities to estimate and approximate. In order for
students to develop their skills, they need to practise in a consistent and regular way from Kindergarten
onwards. Estimation activities might include different aspects of measurement and computation
depending on the ages and stages of the students.
Accuracy in estimated measurements is obtained through extensive practice in a variety of contexts
with a range of materials and units of measure.
Estimation requires that
• the person is familiar with the unit of measurement
• the appropriate unit of measure to be used in any given situation is clearly established, eg the
height of a door is about 2 m, the width of a hand about 10 cm
• practice using the unit to make other measurements will have occurred, eg it takes 10 minutes
to walk to school, the cup weighs 250 g
• a commitment exists to perform the estimation so that the estimate is as close to the actual
measurement as possible.
A measuring instrument may give a result which is much more accurate than is required. For example,
fencing might cost $36 per metre. Using a tape measure, the length of a fence could be measured to
the nearest centimetre but the quote or cost would probably be based on an approximation to the
nearest half metre.

CONTENT SUMMARY: MEASUREMENT

LENGTH Awareness of the attribute of length
Comparison of two lengths/distances
Ordering lengths and distances
Informal units of length
Awareness of the need for a standard unit
The metre as a formal unit
Investigating the need for the centimetre
The centimetre as a formal unit
Relating metres and centimetres to decimal notation
Investigating the need for the kilometre
Investigating the need for the millimetre
AREA Awareness of surface
Awareness of the attribute of area
Comparison of two areas
Measurement with informal area units
Comparison and ordering of areas
Awareness of the need for a standard unit
The square metre

11
 The square centimetre
Measuring land area
Calculating the area of a rectangle
VOLUME Play with containers and filling materials
Awareness of the attribute of volume
Awareness of the attribute of capacity
Comparison of the capacities of two containers
Measurement of capacity with informal units
Ordering containers according to capacity
Measurement of volume using informal units
Displacement as a means of ordering volume
Awareness of the need for standard units for capacity and
volume
The litre as a formal unit
The millilitre as a formal unit
The cubic centimetre as a formal unit
The cubic metre as a formal unit
Investigating relationships in volume, capacity and mass
MASS Awareness of the attribute of mass
Comparison of two masses
Understanding balance
The equal arm balance
Measurement with informal mass units
Ordering three masses
Awareness of the need for a standard unit
The kilogram as a formal unit
The gram as a formal unit
Measuring devices
The tonne as a formal unit
TEMPERATURE Awareness of the attribute of temperature
Comparison of two temperatures
Awareness of the need for a temperature measuring device
The principle of the thermometer
Temperature measurement with informal units
Awareness of the need for a standard unit
The degree Celsius as a formal unit
The use of various thermometers and temperature scales
TIME Awareness of concepts related to time
Passage of time related to routine events
Names of days, special days
Comparison of time
Passage of time using informal units
Seasons, months, weeks and days
Hours, minutes and seconds
Time – o’clock
Half hour
Reading digital clocks
Time – 1 minute intervals
Comparison and ordering of time intervals
Recognising and reading time in a.m. and p.m. notation
Relationships between time units
Timetables, time lines and 24 hour time
Use of a stopwatch
Speed
Geographical and astronomical time

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NUMBER
Early understandings in number are developed by activities and discussion about sorting, classifying
and comparing objects and groups of objects. Students also should have experiences in matching
objects, one to one.
Students need to be able to compute using
• concrete materials
• mental strategies
• pen and paper
• a calculator.
Recording mathematical investigations in the form of models, pictures, graphs, charts, etc should
precede the formal writing of algorithms, which occurs only after concepts and understandings are
firmly consolidated. Students should develop their own means of recording their investigations before
being introduced to teacher devised pictorial representations and algorithms. Teachers should be aware
that conventions of recording mathematical symbols vary from country to country and students may
have had experience with these alternate symbols.
Metric measures and decimal currency have reduced the need for common fraction notation in the
home and the community. The metric system allows measurements to be written using decimal
notation. For example, one metre and five centimetres is written as 1.05m. Another everyday use of
decimals is writing amounts of money eg $2.46.
Metric measures and decimal currency have reduced the use of common fraction notation in the home and
community. Thus, skills and concepts such as approximation and estimation, place value and decimal
notation will need to receive greater emphasis. Development of the ability to estimate and approximate
should be a regular component of mathematics programs at all levels in the primary school. The use of
calculators increases the need for the development of mental estimations and approximations.
Decimal notation, together with skills and concepts such as approximation, estimation and place value
will need to receive greater emphasis. These skills should be a regular component of mathematics
programs at all levels in the primary school.
The importance of developing students’ mental skills and skills of estimation is emphasised
throughout the Number strand. Estimation is an integral part of problem solving and should not be
seen simply as an alternative way of arriving at answers. Estimation activities should be seen as steps
to be used in all computational activities. Students should have wide experience with estimating so
that they develop increasingly effective estimation techniques and learn to rely on their estimates to
assist them in computation and problem solving.
Another important skill allied to numerical estimation is the ability to determine whether a particular
numerical solution to a problem is reasonable. Students should always be taught to ask, “Is my answer
reasonable? Could it be a possible solution? Within what range of numbers must my answer lie?”
Students should ask themselves these questions independently of any attempt to estimate or perform
the calculation involved in the problem at hand. For example, if the problem is to determine the
average number of peanuts in a 50 g packet and the proposed answer is six peanuts, then the students
should realise that this answer is unreasonable.
The creation of simple tests to indicate whether an answer is reasonable should be stressed. For example,
the average of a set of scores must lie between the smallest and largest values of the given data.
Estimation activities in the primary school should include instruction in the vocabulary concerned
with estimation. Some words assume a specialised use in estimation contexts, words such as around,
about and almost.
Here are examples of estimation and approximation strategies that should be considered from
Kindergarten to Year 6.
• Rounding off – 48 + 39 is roughly 50 + 40 so the answer is about 90.
• Rounding up – Items cost $7.55, $3.60 and $6.15 so $8 + $4 + $7 = $19 will definitely be
enough. Tender a $20 note to the salesperson.

13
 • Rounding down – A box measures 25.6 cm x 13.5 cm x 20.2 cm so the number of centicubes
that could be packed into it is 25 x 13 x 20 = 6500
• Clustering – To calculate 42 + 58 + 63 + 37, observe that two of the numbers are close to 40
and two are close to 60; the sum can be estimated as (2 x 40) + (2 x 60) or 200.
• Comparing – I think the red tin holds more toys.
• Reasonableness in context – The height of a building cannot reasonably be 5 cm or 1.5 m; the
height of a person cannot reasonably be 5 cm or 50 cm.
• Compatible numbers – To calculate 235 ÷ 12, note that 235 is close to 240, a multiple of 12;
the quotient can be estimated as 240 ÷ 12 = 20.
As students develop their estimation skills, they will build confidence in their abilities to test the
reasonableness of calculations and increase their flexibility in solving problems.
A calculator answer, particularly one resulting from division, can give accuracy to many decimal
places. An answer in terms of money would usually require only two decimal place accuracy. Hence,
the calculator display must be interpreted to give a useful and sensible answer. Problems can lead to
answers which are more accurate than required.
“One litre of drink is shared equally among seven students. How much drink does each
student get?”
Answer: 142.85714 mL.

CONTENT SUMMARY: NUMBER

NUMERATION Classification
Comparing by matching and one-to-one correspondence
Ordering groups by number
Recognising, copying, creating and continuing patterns
The numbers 1 to 9
Investigating zero
The number l0
Numbers 11 – 19
2-digit multiples of l0
Numbers 20 to 99
One hundred
Numbers l00 to 999
Numbers l 000 to 9 999
Numbers 10 000 to 99 999
The numbers 100 000 to one million and beyond
ADDITION Joining two groups of objects up to a total of l0 objects
Addition number sentences
Addition combinations to l0
Addition combinations to 20
Memorisation of addition facts
Addition to 99
Addition to 999
Addition to 9 999 and beyond
SUBTRACTION Taking away from a group of from 1 to 10 objects
Subtraction - number sentences using symbol cards
Comparing two groups of objects
Subtraction involving comparison
Subtraction to 20
Subtraction facts to 20
Subtraction involving two-digit numbers
Subtraction of two-digit numbers involving comparison
Addition and subtraction of single-digit numbers from two-digit numbers
Writing the subtraction algorithm

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 Subtraction of tens and ones with trading
Subtraction to 999
Subtraction of hundreds, tens and units with trading
Subtraction to 9 999
Subtraction involving four-digit numbers and beyond
MULTIPLICATION Modelling equal groups of objects
Repeated addition to find the total number of objects in groups or rows
The multiplication sign
Number facts - 2 and 4 times tables
Number facts - 10, 5, 1 and 0 times tables
Number facts - 3, 9 and 6 times tables
Number facts - 8 and 7 times tables
Factors, multiples, ratios and square numbers
Informal multiplication - 1 digit by 2 digit, 1 digit by 3 digit
Introduction to formal multiplication - 1 digit by 2 digits, 1 digit by 3 digits,
“partnering” multiplication
Formal multiplication - the contracted algorithm
Formal multiplication - 2 digits by 2 digits and beyond
DIVISION Sharing materials or a group of objects equally
Division as repeated subtraction
Sharing up to 100 objects
Division by repeated subtraction up to 100
Sharing up to 1 000 objects
Division by repeated subtraction up to 1 000
Recognition and use of the division symbol
Number sentences with a division sign
Basic division facts up to 100
Division of a 2-digit number by a single-digit number, or by 10, with or
without trading
Division of numbers with three or more digits by single-digit divisors
or by 10, with or without trading
Division by a divisor with 2 or more digits using a calculator
FRACTIONS AND Part/whole relationships
DECIMALS Fractions, equal parts
Fractions as parts of a whole
Introducing the term hundredths
Modelling hundredths
Comparing and ordering hundredths
Introducing the decimal form of recording fractions
Decimal fractions - the concept of tenths
Decimal fractions - place value
Common fractions using the notation a/b and the percentage sign
Decimal fractions - ordering and recording
Decimal fractions - the operations of addition and subtraction
Decimal fractions - the operations of multiplication and division
MONEY Sorting and classifying coins
The face values of the notes and coins
Trading amounts of up to $2 using cents
The class shop
The notes $5, $10, $20, $50 and $100
The concept of currency
The monetary system

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LEARNING EXPERIENCES
This section presents the foundation on which effective teaching and learning experiences should be
based. When planning learning experiences for students in mathematics, teachers should consider the
following issues
• attitudes
• problem solving and applications
• creativity
• language
• resources
• technology
• students with special needs

ATTITUDES
DEVELOPING POSITIVE ATTITUDES
Positive attitudes assist the learning and teaching of mathematics. The attitudes that children bring to
mathematics reflect the attitudes of those around them; peers, home, school, community and the media.
To help students develop positive attitudes to mathematics and towards themselves as learners and
users of mathematics, they should experience enjoyment through confidence in their ability to succeed,
a sense of purpose through relevant experiences and meaningful activities, pride in achievement and
pleasure in the use of suitable materials and games. Teachers should be aware of possible differences
in attitudes of boys and girls and of students from different cultural backgrounds towards mathematics.
This is essential for developing a positive classroom climate for all students.
“Positive attitudes assist the learning of maths; negative attitudes not only inhibit learning but very
often persist into adult life.” Mathematics Counts (The Cockcroft Report), 1982.
Confidence is an important factor in success in any area and this is especially so in mathematics.
Students need to experience success frequently in order to feel confident that they are making progress
and to enhance their enjoyment of mathematics.
“During every maths lesson children are not only learning, or failing to learn maths as a result of the
work they are doing, but are also developing their attitudes to maths.” Mathematics Counts (The
Cockcroft Report).
The most powerful lesson students may take from a mathematics lesson may not be mathematical, but
attitudinal.
Students already participate in and enjoy mathematics before they are even aware of what it is or that
it is called mathematics, eg games, cooking, measuring, counting, estimating, building.
How can we maintain this enthusiasm and curiosity throughout the school years?

CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT
Students need to feel comfortable and accepted as learners in the classroom. By recognising the
diversity of languages, cultures and values the teacher will be creating an environment which
stimulates the natural enthusiasm, vitality, spontaneity and originality of students, as well as
encouraging an atmosphere of respect for self and others. Encouragement of problem solving,
discussion and joint work on projects leads to a positive attitude towards the learning of mathematics.
We need to encourage students to see wrong answers as “bugs” that need fixing. Errors sometimes
indicate that the question was inappropriate or too difficult for the child.

16
Students who speak non-standard variants of English or languages other than English also need their
home language and culture recognised and respected before they can participate in the education
system successfully.
This can be facilitated by
• inviting parents and community members to work with the students in the school
• asking older peers to help students with exploration in their first language
• working closely with the Aboriginal Education Assistant or Ethnic Aides if available at the
school
• becoming more familiar with the Aboriginal community. (Assistance from the Regional
Consultant in Aboriginal Education and the Regional Aboriginal Community Liaison Officer
could be sought for this purpose.)
• working closely with ESL and Community Language teachers
• seeking assistance from the Community Liaison Officer or Field Officer, if available at the
school.
Also, an environment which is visually stimulating and which selectively uses sound and texture, eg
music, posters, plants, displays, craft models, helps students to relate to their school environment. This
is true for both younger and older primary students.

ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING WITH CONCRETE MATERIALS

Activities based on concrete materials should be used with all age groups because of
• the learners’ need to work from the concrete to the abstract with most new mathematical
concepts
• the need to provide a variety of experiences in a series of alternative settings
• the confidence and enjoyment shown by students when given opportunities to use materials
• the need to set the learning experiences in contexts that are relevant to the students’ world
• the need to cater for different learning styles.
Activity-based learning can be facilitated by including materials which are socially, culturally and
linguistically representative of the students in the school. For example, in the class shop, consider
packaging in different languages.

RECORDING
Opportunities for students to draw and/or write down their thinking processes, estimations,
descriptions of mathematical properties and feelings about mathematics during mathematics lessons
allow students to reflect on and clarify their experiences and attitudes in a personal and
non-threatening way.
Examples of students’ writing in English or languages other than English can be a valuable means of
determining their understandings and needs.

TECHNOLOGY
Students generally have very positive attitudes towards calculators and their use. Calculators give
students a powerful means of solving problems. Including the use of these and other forms of
technology in the mathematics program may be a good way of helping to improve students’ attitudes
towards mathematics in general.
Students enjoy using computers. Many computer activities provide students with an environment in
which
• mistakes can be quickly and easily amended
• trial solutions are encouraged
• mistakes often lead to unexpected results that encourage further exploration.

ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION

Short-term goals that students can attain need to be established. Success in attaining these goals helps
the student to become increasingly confident in tackling various mathematical activities and
investigations. This should lead to further success and, in turn, the development of even greater
confidence and understanding.
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While paper and pencil tests will continue to be an important method of assessment, teachers need to use
a variety of assessment strategies. In Mathematics, as in other curriculum areas, students learn from each
other. Through purposefully talking over ideas together, students develop their understanding of
mathematical concepts and enhance their enjoyment of mathematics. Teachers need to observe, listen to
and collect the products of these learning experiences. Using a variety of assessment strategies will help
to reduce students’ anxiety. (Refer to Assessment and Evaluation section).

TEACHER ATTITUDES
As students progress through the primary school their feelings about mathematics can change
remarkably as a result of the cumulative effect of experiencing success or failure, confusion or
exhilaration. Students’ feelings are often strongly influenced by their teacher’s attitude towards
mathematics. This is well documented in the case of girls.
Emphasis placed on establishing a warm, non-threatening and more cooperative environment will assist
greatly in the gradual development of more positive perceptions of mathematics by students. A learning
environment in which students feel comfortable, relaxed and confident will ensure greater success.
The teacher should show mathematics as being both useful and enjoyable so that students develop a
positive perception of mathematics and of themselves in relation to it. The manner in which
mathematics lessons are approached and organised passes on very definite messages to students.
Teachers’ enthusiasm for exploring mathematical ideas and their willingness to use a variety of methods
and materials in exploring the unknown will be beneficial in developing positive attitudes. Being
prepared to face mathematics as a joint discovery with students can bring enjoyment for both teacher
and students. “I don’t know, but I wonder how we can find out” can be the start of some very powerful
and enjoyable mathematics discovery learning.
Success in one curriculum area can trigger change in another. Which techniques, methods and
organisational strategies bring about feelings of confidence and achievement in your classroom? Can
these techniques, methods and strategies be applied to mathematics? Which activities in mathematics
produce feelings of enjoyment and accomplishment? How can these be extended to other areas of
mathematics? Which mathematics objectives can be incorporated into other areas? How can calculators
and computers be used to allow access to more interesting and challenging investigations?

STRATEGIES
Teachers should use these strategies:
• Ensure that questions, instructions and activities lead to positive outcomes.
• Provide a variety of experiences and learning situations to cater for students’ individual and
cultural learning styles (refer CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT).
• Recognise that not all students learn at the same rate or in the same way and ensure that
activities are at their level of development including language development.
• Use concrete materials for exploration, concept building and problem investigation.
• Use the everyday experiences of students as a basis for meaningful mathematical investigations
(refer CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT).
• Consider the practical uses of mathematics in everyday life outside the school, eg shopping,
cooking, budgeting, reading and drawing maps.
• Find mathematics in everyday school experiences:
– using the school canteen (money)
– planning posters and displays (measurement, area concepts)
– distributing materials (eg “How many paint brushes do we need?”)
– visiting the local shopping centre, pricing and selling cakes for a “cake day”, rearranging
furniture in the classroom.
• Introduce problems which are challenging but not overwhelming. Problems should extend
students to their full potential. There is great pleasure to be gained from solving a difficult
problem.

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 • Show that you like mathematics.
• Use praise so that students develop positive perceptions of mathematics and of their ability to
“do” mathematics.
• Accept students’ own language as a vital step in the process of developing formal
mathematical language.
• Ensure that students experience success in mathematics.
• Encourage students to initiate their own mathematical investigations and pursue individual
approaches to problem solving.

PARENT ATTITUDES
Approaches to the teaching and learning of mathematics have undergone change and may be different
from those which most parents remember. There is a need to inform parents about these changes and
encourage them to assist in the development of students’ skills, understandings and attitudes.
This may be achieved by encouraging parent participation in the school’s mathematics program, eg
• involving parents in discussion on the changes in the teaching and learning of mathematics
• organising parent workshops to demonstrate and discuss mathematical processes
• providing opportunities for parents to engage in hands-on activities with concrete materials
• discussing with parents the well-documented body of research which indicates that many girls
avoid mathematics and why this is so
• discussing with parents the way in which mathematics is involved in everyday situations.
Some important messages for parents are listed below and may be included in newsletters, etc. In some
schools it will be more effective for these messages to be translated into languages other than English.

A MESSAGE TO PARENTS
Students’ attitudes to mathematics are related to many issues: the classroom environment, the amount
of success they experience and the attitudes of those adults with whom the students have most contact
— their family and their teachers. Below are some suggestions for parents who wish to promote
positive attitudes to mathematics:
• Praise your children’s efforts at measuring, counting, calculating. Emphasise positive aspects,
such as enjoyment, satisfaction, “having a go”.
• Encourage children to make discoveries for themselves and to talk about them.
• Don’t always tell them the answers but encourage them to find their own answers.
• Listen to children “talking” mathematics as they play shops or schools, use construction toys
or play games. This will give you insight into how they think through problems and
calculations.
• Encourage discussion about how things work, eg kitchen scales, the garden sprinkler,
thermometers.
• Encourage girls as well as boys to play and build with blocks and everyday objects.
• Avoid stereotyping your expectations of achievement for daughters compared to sons.
• Ask for a guess or estimate of amounts or distances.
• Play games with your children to show that mathematics related activities are fun for
everyone and can be shared.
• Keep lots of everyday material on hand for projects and model building, eg empty milk
cartons, cereal packets, cotton reels, straws, margarine tubs, orange juice bottles.
• Encourage your child to play games that rely on special skills, eg jigsaws, noughts and
crosses, boxes, tangrams, backgammon, cards.
• Have a calculator in the house and encourage the use of games that lead to the discovery of
some of the exciting properties of number.

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 • Involve your child in real mathematical experiences at home, such as compiling shopping lists,
estimating costs, counting out change, measuring ingredients for cooking, setting the table, and
looking for patterns in floor and wall tiles.
• Encourage all children to be involved in spare time activities that require “hands on”
mathematical skills eg making models and assembling kits.

WORKING WITH PARENTS

Teachers may need to consider the following factors when communicating with the families of their
students:
• What should the school do to help parents become involved?
• Does the parent have enough time, confidence, etc to be able to support the school’s
mathematics program?
• Is there a need to arrange for translation of the notes or for interpreters to be available for
parent teacher meetings?
• What is the most appropriate means of delivering this message? (In some cases sending a letter
home to parents via the students is not effective.)
Once again, support people such as Community Liaison officers and Ethnic Aides within the school and
community would be able to help teachers with these and related issues involved in communicating with
parents.

PROBLEM SOLVING AND APPLICATIONS

USING MATHEMATICS
Mathematical problem solving encompasses both applying mathematics to the solution of problems
arising from the environment, and puzzling over and reasoning about questions that have arisen within
a mathematical context. Sometimes doing mathematics for its own sake can help solve real-world
problems.
Being able to use mathematics to analyse situations and solve real-life problems is a major reason for
studying the subject. Frequent use of everyday experiences, such as shopping, recording and predicting
the weather, travelling, cooking and using the playground and wider environment, will give meaning to
the students’ mathematical experiences. They need to be confident in applying the mathematics they
have learned to situations in their environment and in interpreting their conclusions. Teachers can
structure situations in which students investigate problems that are relevant to their daily lives and that
help to answer the questions that students themselves are asking or can be encouraged to ask.
Students need to become aware of how they are currently using mathematics to solve familiar problems or
puzzles in games or other pastimes and how their mathematical knowledge and skills can be generalized
to everyday situations. Encouraging them to reflect on and discuss the strategies they used and the
knowledge and skills they required will assist in this process. These types of activities, which are good
opportunities for group work, will also help them to gain the confidence to approach positively future
mathematical learning and to be willing to apply the strategies they develop in familiar circumstances to
unfamiliar situations and problems.

MATHEMATICAL THINKING
Mathematics has two aspects. It is both a body of knowledge and a set of processes. As processes can
only be developed through content, so appropriate mathematical topics are needed as the vehicle
through which they are taught. The teacher’s task is to present the selected content in a way which will
assist the development of these processes. To illustrate this, consider the following classroom situation.
A group of children was working with pattern blocks on the floor of the library. To begin with,
they had done their “own thing” and had made patterns, pictures, models and quite abstract
designs.

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 “There aren’t any more yellow blocks. Let’s use some of the red ones, or even the green ones.
They would fit, wouldn’t they?”
“Let’s try them.”
Then one of them had noticed the resemblance between the yellow blocks and the picture of a
honeycomb in a book open on the bench nearby.
“We could make that (pointing) with these yellow blocks. Let’s see how big we can make it!”
So they began and soon used up all the yellow blocks. But they found they could go even further
and after a short while they sat back and surveyed their work with satisfaction.
The teacher, in the process of supervising the groups scattered around the room, observed this
achievement. After praising the children on the completion of the task, she asked them, “What is
so special about the design you have made?” “What made you think of making that particular
design?” “How did you know you could use the red and the green blocks when you ran out of the
yellow ones?”
Without being conscious of the fact, these children had been using a number of processes during this
discussion and activity. They had been
• analysing, eg the answer to the question, “What is so special about the design you have
made?”
• classifying, eg the colours and shapes of the blocks
• comparing, eg noticing the similarities between the yellow blocks and their arrangement and
the picture of the honeycomb
• counting, eg knowing how many pattern blocks have been used and how many are left to be
used
• inferring, eg “We could make that with these yellow blocks.”
• explaining, eg the children’s answers to the questions the teacher asks about their patterns on
the floor.
• estimating, eg “These would fit, wouldn’t they?”
• organising, eg “Let’s use some of the red ones, or even the green ones?” (organising material
and thoughts)
• patterning, eg the tessellation of the blocks
• synthesising, eg the knowledge of how shapes fit together to form patterns allows students to
make new patterns using this knowledge
• representing, eg the honeycomb represented by pattern blocks
• validating, eg the answer to the question, “How did you know you could use the red and the
green blocks when you run out of yellow ones?”
“They would fit, wouldn’t they? Let’s try them.”
These are examples of some of the processes which contribute to thinking mathematically. In addition,
the students may have been ordering, conjecturing, abstracting, approximating and measuring.
When children come to school they are already, in most cases, accomplished problem solvers. Teachers
need to build on the strategies and experiences children bring with them to strengthen and extend their
processes of learning and solving problems. There is no way to be absolutely sure of the methods
children have used and are using. Teachers need to observe them as they solve problems and to base
subsequent teaching on those observations.
One kind of reasoning power necessary for the modern world is that of critical judgement, a capacity
needed to enable people to sort through the mass of information with which they are being constantly
bombarded. Many of the above processes are essential in this regard. Much information in our society is
presented in a mathematical form so people need an understanding of mathematics to be able to make
informed descisions, for example, when buying and selling a house, making investments, etc.
The mathematics taught, therefore, should emphasise the relationships between the students’ everyday
world and its mathematical representations. For this purpose, the teacher helps students to estimate
quantities, to compare and to order a series of objects according to a criterion such as volume, area or
length. Obviously, teachers must use situations or problems for investigation and resolution which are
derived from the students’ world and from events which make sense to the students.

21
The mathematics program needs to be developed so that the relationship between the knowledge gained
through the study of mathematics and other aspects of experience can be seen and used effectively. This
can best be done through using a problem solving and investigational approach to the teaching of
mathematics.

MATHEMATICAL INVESTIGATION
Mathematical ideas, situations and problems can be explored and investigated in many possible ways. Some
investigations are very short and take only a few minutes, eg exploring the different keys on the various
calculators the students may be using and the function of those keys. Others take a lot longer and may be
continued intermittently over a period of one or two weeks. An example of such an investigation is a group
of young children playing with blocks and investigating the number of different buildings they can build with
eight blocks.
Some investigations are prompted by something which happens incidentally in the course of another
activity, while others are planned by the teacher either as part of the normal development of
mathematical ideas or as an additional activity.
In developing ideas on division, a situation might be set up with three trucks and a number of boxes.
This could be simulated by using toy trucks and centicubes. “If the trucks all carry the same number of
boxes, how many boxes will each truck carry if there are twelve boxes in the factory?”

MATHEMATICAL PROBLEMS
In problem solving, there are basically four stages
• problem or question formulating
• problem solving or question investigating
• verifying the solution
• reflecting on the process and solution.
In solving problems, students commonly pass through all these interacting stages. Although there is a
fairly natural order to these stages, students will not pass through all of these stages for all problems.
Because there are no set questions to start with, the initial exploration of the situation is important in
order to identify the question to be answered. Any solution found needs some justification and then
needs to be reflected upon by the learner so that understanding is consolidated and effective learning
takes place.
A problem has three characteristics:
• there is a goal to be reached
• an obstacle prevents ready solution
• the solver is motivated to reach a solution.
In the example of the children playing with the pattern blocks, cited earlier, one child, after an initial
period of playing rather haphazardly, saw the relationship between the yellow blocks and the picture of
the honeycomb and began to build a representation of it. Everyone joined in and when all the yellow
blocks were used up, someone suggested that the red blocks be used two at a time. So it went on until
all the possible blocks had been used. The children themselves had posed a question which they then
set out to solve. That was the goal. The obstacle was that they did not have as many yellow blocks as
they would have liked but were motivated to try other colours to enlarge their work.
One aspect of an investigation is the formulation of problems and another is the solving of those problems.
Part of the value of using the investigational approach to problem solving is that the students construct their
own questions. This means they will be more motivated to solve the problems raised because they are of
more immediate concern and interest. Also the level of difficulty is likely to be within the capabilities of the
students. The teacher’s role in such investigations is to encourage the children to extend and articulate what
they are doing.

22
Individual skills and interests vary and so what is a problem for one person may not necessarily be a
problem for another. Skills and interests could change even while students are trying to solve the
problem, due to changing circumstances or to frustration through lack of success.
If students have confidence in their ability to understand, develop, use and discuss mathematics, they
are more likely to apply the mathematics they have been learning to problems they encounter in
everyday life. This will lead to even greater confidence in their ability to solve mathematical problems
and thereby enhance self-esteem. The processes which are successfully used in solving problems will
lead to further learning because they contribute to the ability to reason and think mathematically.

SOURCES OF PROBLEMS
Problems can be developed
• from students’ own interests
These are an excellent source of problems and could be developed through the use of pictures
or stories.
• from incidents that occur in the classroom
Students ask questions or bring items of news to school.
• from situations or themes
Students may carry out a survey and represent and interpret their results.
• by reversing the direction of the problem
If the problem originally asked for “The number of chairs that could be put out”, we can
change the direction by asking, “How many parents can we seat with the chairs we have
available?”
• from other problems.
One of the best ways of developing problems is to let them arise from other problems. This
could be done, for example, by increasing the size of the numbers involved.

APPROACHES TO TEACHING PROBLEM SOLVING

Opportunities should be provided for
• teaching for problem solving, where the focus is on the acquisition of concepts and skills
useful for solving problems
• teaching about problem solving, where the focus is on learning strategies and the processes of
problem solving
• teaching through problem solving, where problem solving is the methodology adopted.
In teaching through problem solving, we are emphasising the value of problem solving as a means of
learning mathematics. This complements the aspects of learning for and about problem solving. It is
important to recognise the limitations of any single approach to the teaching of problem solving. If one
emphasises strategies, there is the danger that these will be learnt by rote. Teaching through problem
solving provides opportunities to challenge and excite children to be creative in their mathematics.

THE IMPORTANCE OF REFLECTION IN THE PROBLEM SOLVING PROCESS

It is when we reflect on our experiences that we learn from them. The review stage in problem solving
is a means of reflecting on the processes leading to solution and relating those experiences to our
existing knowledge. The integration stage in an investigation also involves reflecting on the total
process and making the new knowledge one’s own. In fact, reflection takes place at every step in a
process, if it is to be a learning experience. It may be subconscious or momentary, but unless it does
take place we are simply performing a routine which is learnt by rote and will be easily forgotten.
Reflection allows us to relate our knowledge appropriately to other situations.

There are many simple techniques for encouraging reflection as part of the problem solving or
investigational process. In general, these aspects of reflection need to be considered

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 • recalling the experience
• relating it to earlier experiences
• re-evaluating the experience
• using the specific example to generalise to other situations.
A useful technique used for promoting reflection is retelling. The retelling procedure involves the
students in talking or writing about their problem solving experiences. Another technique is
visualisation which involves the students in forming a mental image related to the problem.
Responding to questions orally, in writing or in pictorial form and completing statements and pictures
are also important in helping students reflect on what they are doing. Any technique which helps
students reflect upon the experiences they have had, is valuable.
Providing opportunities for students to talk and write in English or other languages about what they
are doing will help clarify their understanding. In the process of reflection children should develop an
appreciation of the mathematical achievements they have made, ensuring the continued development
of positive attitudes.

STRATEGIES FOR TEACHERS

Teachers should use these strategies
• Choose situations to be investigated or problems to be solved from the students’ own
environment.
• Encourage students to work in small groups to explore mathematical situations and solve
problems. This increases confidence, provides a pool of shared resources and strategies and is
motivating in itself.
• Plan for discussion of the task in hand. This helps to clarify it and stimulate further thinking.
Discussion should involve talk between students as well as talk between the teacher and the
students. Discussion may be more effective in students’ first language.
• Allow and, indeed, encourage students to use their own strategies for solving problems or
working on an investigation. Note and commend any aspect of the student’s strategy which is
useful. Emphasise the positive aspects and the willingness of the student to try different
methods.
• Introduce the use of concrete materials, wherever possible and appropriate, as models of
everyday or mathematical situations. This will also help students to clarify their thinking.
• Be prepared to ask questions such as “How did you arrive at that result?” and “Why is that
result likely?” Another useful notion is to say “Convince me that’s true.” This will encourage
the student to check that the result has a logical basis.
• Encourage students to record what they have done through reporting to a significant friend or
relative.
• Develop listening skills by simple games involving the need to listen carefully. The ability to
listen should also be accompanied by the willingness to allow everyone to speak without fear
of ridicule or being patronised.
• Ensure that no boy or girl dominates or takes unequal time when engaged in group work.
• Provide opportunities and encouragement for students to devise their own mathematical
problems and investigations.
• Gradually introduce problems which require more than the application of known routines. For
example, start with a “problem of the week” or a “challenge question”. Discuss it with the
students early in the week and allow some class time for its resolution. Encourage students to
think about it out of class and involve their parents. Return to it every day or two to feed in
more ideas and to keep students motivated. As interest in this kind of problem increases, so
can the overall time spent on problem solving. Initial questions need to be challenging but
relatively easy, so that most students can reach a solution. Those who arrive at the solution
quickly can be further challenged through some extension of the problem.
• Participate with students, as fellow problem solver, modelling problem-solving approaches,
strategies and skills.

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CONCLUSION
Students enjoy learning if it relates to their needs and interests. Remember that students’ needs and
interests vary widely so be careful not to stereotype your expectations of students with respect to
gender, performance or culture. Such an approach emphasises the interpersonal, interactive and
dynamic nature of teaching and is likely to foster a love of learning. Students need to be encouraged
not only to do mathematics but also to communicate mathematics. This means sharing mathematical
meanings and connections between ideas.
Solving problems and carrying out investigations are means by which mathematical processes are
developed. They make mathematics more interesting for the students and more relevant to their
everyday lives.
Problem solving is itself a process and depends on many other processes. It is a way in which students
learn and develop independence in learning. With growing experience in problem solving they come to
accept responsibility for their own learning. The processes of mathematical thinking not only assist
students to develop mathematical concepts, skills and the ability to solve problems, but also make a
contribution to their capacity to think about a whole range of problems they encounter in everyday life.
Thus problem solving can provide a bridge between the abstract concepts of mathematics and the
day-to-day realities of the world. For students with language backgrounds other than English, mathematics
taught in this manner also becomes a valuable source of English language learning development.

CREATIVITY
CREATIVITY IN MATHEMATICS
Mathematics can be a creative activity involving intuition and invention. Mathematicians often explore
mathematical ideas with no specific goal and discover new and interesting relationships. Students
should be given opportunities to explore mathematical materials, concepts and ideas freely to assist
them to develop their own intuitive ideas about mathematics.
When solving problems, mathematicians often need time to think about the problem before gaining an
insight into possible solutions. Students need to be given similar opportunities. Students’ insights may
open up further possibilities for creative endeavour. The problem-solving process is an exciting and
creative process for students and teachers.
When solving problems students may be involved in creative processes such as
• searching for alternative methods of solving a problem
• creating and recognising patterns
• experimenting with different ways of communicating mathematical ideas
• creating personal hypotheses
• generating problems.
Mathematical inventions can develop in the classroom. Given the opportunity, students will make
significant personal and original mathematical discoveries. Encouragement and an environment
conducive to problem solving and creativity will assist students to refine their discoveries as their
knowledge, skills and understandings develop.
The teaching and learning of mathematics is not unlike the teaching and learning of writing. In the
writing process, teachers encourage students to explore and express ideas through writing as well as
focusing on the conventions of writing. Similarly, teachers can encourage students to explore
mathematical ideas and express them in unique and interesting ways as well as focusing on the
knowledge and skills of mathematics. As stated in the Problem Solving section, mathematics involves
both knowledge and processes.
To develop understanding of many of the concepts in the Space strand students will need to investigate
creative methods of communication such as sketching, photography, constructing and computer
graphics. To enhance understanding of some of the concepts in the Number strand students should be
encouraged to represent and record in creative ways.

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MATHEMATICS IN CREATIVE ACTIVITIES
Mathematics is part of creative endeavours such as music, art and literature, eg the patterns and
structures of musical compositions have a mathematical basis; mathematical ratios exist in the
composition of works of art.
Understanding of mathematical concepts can improve the students’ development in creative activities.
Also participation in creative activities can enhance students’ understanding of mathematical concepts.
Examples of the relationship between mathematics and some creative endeavours follow:

MUSIC
Understanding of patterning is enhanced through activities involving musical patterns, eg performing
percussion activities or singing. The development of understandings about patterns will assist students
to compose in music.

ART
Visual Arts is a process of interpreting images and objects whereby students come to know and
appreciate their visual world. This process is interdependent with the processes, knowledge and
understandings of mathematics, particularly in the Space strand. Art activities that occur in primary
classrooms can assist in implementing the aims and objectives of the Mathematics K–6 Syllabus.

LITERATURE
Many pieces of literature involve mathematical concepts, eg literature which deals with spatial concepts,
measurement and number. Students’ comprehension may be enhanced through investigation of these
mathematical concepts. Students’ interests in mathematical concepts can also be developed through the
use of literature as a stimulus.

LANGUAGE
MATHEMATICS AND LANGUAGE
Students make meaning of their experiences through language. When students are asked to describe or
write about what they are doing and thinking, they not only clarify and develop their own understandings
but also communicate their levels of understanding to the teacher. It is important that students become
good communicators of mathematics so that they become informed consumers and can successfully
interpret the graphs, tables and other data encountered in everyday life. Students need to use their own
language to clarify observations and discoveries and to communicate their findings to others, as they
explore and investigate in mathematics. While teachers need to be accepting of students’ early individual
language, they should assist them to develop more formal mathematical language as it is needed.
Mathematics learning is promoted by the appropriate use of language. Language, together with
mathematical symbols and diagrams, plays an important part in the formulation and expression of
mathematical ideas and serves as a bridge between concrete and abstract representations. The
acquisition of mathematical language develops through the use of the four interrelated processes —
talking, listening, reading and writing.
Explanations should not be confined only to talking and writing. Students should also be given
opportunities to show understanding in other ways, eg by making or drawing an answer.
Teachers need to be aware of the cultural and racial diversity of the students in their classes. This
diversity may be reflected in a variety of experiences, interests and languages which children will bring
with them into the classroom. Students’ expertise in languages other than English should be valued and
the use of these languages encouraged to provide insights into students’ understanding of mathematics.
Mathematical investigations provide ample opportunities for teachers to select experiences within which
Aboriginal and multicultural perspectives can be highlighted. Mathematical investigations also provide
opportunities for teaching through and about language.

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TALKING
It is important that teachers provide opportunities for students either in pairs or small groups to talk
about mathematics in their own words and language. Parroting the teacher’s words or reading aloud
from the chalkboard or textbook is not aufficient to ensure that learning is taking place. Students need
to talk in English or their first language about mathematics at their own level of language sophistication.
They need opportunities to reflect, justify and arrive at understandings through talking. They need to
listen to both their peers and their teacher talking about mathematics. Teachers should provide language
models which will assist students to gradually refine and widen their language options. To be most
effective in promoting understanding of processes and concept and skill development, talking and
listening should occur in conjunction with the manipulation of materials, investigations and/or the
consideration of real-life problems.
Teachers need to be able to judge when it is most appropriate to introduce formal concepts,
mathematical symbols and language to students who are talking and writing about mathematics in their
own language. The most appropriate time to introduce formal concepts and symbols is when students
demonstrate a need for these, ie they are able to see clearly for themselves the advantages, the elegance
and the power of using the concepts or symbols.
Teachers should use words carefully to optimise students’ understanding and avoid confusion. This is
particularly important for written calculations. For example, consider the phrases “borrow and pay back”
and “ten up, ten down” which were once used to assist memorisation of the subtraction process. These
phrases do not connect with the meaningful manipulation of materials experienced in practical learning
situations. They serve only in assisting the student to learn arithmetic processes through rote learning.
The language used should link the concrete materials to the written, symbolic form of the calculation, eg
“swap 1 ten for 10 units”. In this way, consistent meaning will be developed for operations, using either
concrete materials or algorithms.
With some concepts, eg volume, relying on verbal explanations may be misleading, as students may be
able to visualise an answer but not be able to express in words how the answer was obtained. For
example, it is difficult to explain how to recognise the mirror image of a complex three-dimensional
shape or how to fold a two-dimensional net to make a cube. While students may manipulate these
images mentally, they may not be able to remember or articulate how this was done.
Students need to be encouraged to question the responses of their peers and teachers in order to seek
further clarification, reassurance, cooperation and approval as a means of extending mathematical
understanding. The teacher’s approach to guided questioning can provide a model for students of how
to use questioning to extend their own understanding.
Teachers can help students to
• INVESTIGATE different approaches to a problem
• PROBE in order to focus their mathematical thinking
• RE-PHRASE in order to clarify ideas and re-focus their thinking.
“Teacher wait time” between asking a question and providing either a hint or an answer must be long
enough for the student to provide a reasoned answer. Students should be encouraged to reflect on the
mathematical investigations in which they are engaged, to enable them to think about what they are
doing and to consolidate their understandings.
Mathematical symbols and terminology are a concise form of communication. Each symbol is dense
with information which, when expressed in words, requires many more symbols/words. Teachers
should realise that the one mathematical symbol may have several interpretations. It is important to be
aware that some symbols have different meanings in different countries, eg decimal marker.
How might the teacher say “9 - 3”?
What is 3 subtracted from 9? Reduce 9 by 3. 9 take away 3.
By how much does 9 exceed 3? From 9 take 3. Deduct 3 from 9.
How many are needed to make 3 up to 9? From 9 subtract 3. Decrease 9 by 3.
What number is 3 less than 9? Take 3 from 9. Subtract 3 from 9.
By how many is 9 greater than 3? Given 9, reduce it by 3.
What would 9 reduced by 3 be? How many more than 3 is 9?
What is the difference between 9 and 3? What remains if 3 is taken from 9?
How many would you add to 3 to make 9? If you have 3, how many more do you need to make 9?
How might the student interpret each of these?

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Consider potential difficulties which may arise when the following word problems are posed by
teachers:
• Janet has 5¢ and John has 3¢ more than Janet. How much money has John?
Janet has 5¢ and John has 3¢. How much more money has Janet than John?
Both statements contain the words “more” and “than”, but the first statement requires an addition
operation and the second subtraction.
• Fifteen people are at a bus stop. The bus arrives and six people get on. How many left?
Ambiguity is the difficulty here. Presumably, the question is asking how many people were left
at the bus stop. It could also be interpreted as asking how many people left on the bus. These
give two different answers.
• What number is half as big as six?
What number is six half as big as?
Word order is crucial. The words used in the two sentences are exactly the same, but they are
asking entirely different questions.
These examples highlight the fact that teaching mathematics frequently entails teaching English
and making the form of the language explicit to students.

LISTENING
Through careful listening, teachers can gauge the students’
• level of understanding of a concept or skill
• difficulty in applying their mathematical knowledge and skill
• perception of the relevance and usefulness of mathematics
• confidence in themselves as learners and users of mathematics
• attitude towards mathematics
• response to the teaching methodology employed by the teacher.
The feedback obtained through listening will assist the teacher to plan for further work, be it
consolidation, remediation or extension. Feedback will also assist evaluation of teaching style and the
resources used. Group work allows the teacher to observe and listen to students as they work together
on a mathematical task. By becoming more effective listeners in their own classrooms teachers will
become more aware of how their students are learning.
Student-initiated talk, directed either to the teacher or to other students, can provide the thinking and
listening teacher with useful information not only on students’ mathematical understandings, but also
on their feelings and attitudes to mathematics. Students who lack confidence in themselves as learners
and doers of mathematics often ask questions such as, “Is this right?” Instead of answering directly,
the teacher could ask students questions such as, “How did you work it out?“ or “How could you
check?” The students’responses will indicate their levels of understanding. This will encourage
students to reason rather than depend on teacher authority. Here is an opportunity to boost students’
confidence through positive feedback.
Low self-esteem, anxiety and “maths phobia” are often signalled by the students through statements
such as “I hate maths”, “I’ll never be able to do this”, “It’s too hard”, “Why are we doing this?” The
students’ tone of voice may indicate whether they are happy, dejected, enthused, bored, coping,
confused, anxious or stressed by the activity. Teachers must be aware, however, that speakers of
languages other than English may transfer tone of voice from their first language and this may be
misleading to teachers monitoring tone of voice as an evaluation strategy.
The development of students’ listening skills assists them to
• understand a problem
• identify key points
• acquire and use appropriate mathematical vocabulary.

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READING
Reading for mathematical meaning should occur using a variety of materials, including
• teacher generated material (chalkboard, workcards, stencils, etc)
• other students’ written work involving calculations, explanations, stories, solutions to
problems, description of investigations
• instructions for games, model making, knitting, crocheting, sewing, recipes and other “how
to” books
• the labels of packaged foods for information on the quantities of ingredients
• graphs, tables and maps
• stories, poems and songs.
The following can cause difficulties for students in both oral and written contexts:
1. Words where the meaning depends on the connecting words, eg
“7 is more than 4” 7>4
“7 more than 4” 4 + 7.
The articles “the” and “a” can make a complete difference in meaning, eg
“It is the tenth”
“It is a tenth”.
2. Words that have a different serial order to the order in the mathematics symbolic form, eg
“Take 6 from 12” 12 - 6.
3. Words that have a different meaning in mathematics from their everyday usage, eg
difference, degree, product, volume, odd, power.
4. Words used to give a mathematical instruction, eg
estimate, compute, multiply, calculate, simplify, tabulate.
At times teachers may quickly skate over such words without explaining them. Students may
gain the impression that they are meant to get the answer or to do the example in the same way
as was demonstrated by the teacher.
5. Words that have more than one mathematical context, eg
square: Draw a “square”
“Square” three.
6. Words that have a specific mathematical meaning, eg
square, rectangle, multiple, diameter.
In setting word problems for students to investigate, teachers need to consider the importance of using
language familiar to the child. Students’ real life experiences should be used as a source of problems.
Real-life problems provide students with the motivation to investigate their own environment.
In solving a word problem the student has to
• read the problem
• comprehend what has been read
• select relevant information
• transform (translate) the words into a mathematical form
• carry out the necessary mathematical processes to obtain an answer
• transform (translate) the answer into a word form related to the original problem
• consider whether the answer is reasonable

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WRITING
By encouraging students to write, teachers may gain information not only about student learning and
understanding but about their feelings and attitudes.
Students’ writing in mathematics may cover
• reports of their thinking
• reports of practical activities and investigations
• the designs of mathematical games, exercises or puzzles
• practice exercises to consolidate skills
• descriptions of mathematical properties
• explanations of mathematical processes
• applications of mathematics in everyday situations
• investigations about mathematical ideas in other cultures
• interpretations of graphs, tables and diagrams
• solutions to problem
• expressions of their feelings.
Students should be encouraged to attempt to identify and to record in various ways the processes they
use to investigate and solve problems. They need opportunities to develop the ability to
• record
• hypothesise
• observe
• predict
• argue
• analyse
• report
• generalise
• summarise
• synthesise
• describe
• abstract … .
Students’ written recordings and retellings provide teachers with diagnostic information.
Students’ writing has the potential to provide teachers with
• insights into the ways students are thinking
• an ongoing record of the developing stages and rates of development of students’ mathematical
thinking
• insights into students’ cultural backgrounds, experiences and interests, which can serve as a
basis from which to plan appropriate activities.
The process of recording is not unlike a “thinking aloud process”. It provides students with
opportunities to
• expand and extend their understandings by encouraging them to make their thinking explicit
in order to gain responses from others
• clarify for themselves the approach(es) they are using to solve a mathematical investigation
• identify a sequence or a pathway in the process they used to search for mathematical patterns
and relationships

30
 • use their recordings as a reference point from which they can make further applications and
generalisations
• transfer the ideas they develop at a concrete level to a more permanent symbolic, (pictorial,
written) level of representation.
Students should
• be aware of the purpose of their writing
• feel comfortable in talking and writing about mathematical ideas, using their own words and
language patterns
• feel motivated to write
• feel confident about writing in mathematics.
In the early years the emphasis should be on practical activities and talking. Students should not be
required to write or copy calculations. Rather, they should perform number operations using concrete
material. Gradually the students will wish to record their results and begin composing their own
written records. Eventually students will wish to use conventional recording techniques. This would
be the ideal time to introduce formal algorithms.

RESOURCES
INTRODUCTION
There are many resources that can be used successfully to help students understand mathematical
concepts and take part in mathematical investigations. These can all be considered as part of a “hands
on” or concrete approach to mathematics education. Resources, including the school, community and
home environment, encourage students to use and apply mathematical skills and concepts in
meaningful, everyday situations. Using interesting materials can stimulate curiosity and encourage
students to think mathematically. The use of simple mathematical tools, such as geometrical and
measuring equipment, enables students to undertake practical mathematical activities.

CONCRETE MATERIALS
When students use physical objects in mathematical activities these objects are often referred to as
concrete materials.
For most students, practical work provides the most effective means by which understanding of
mathematics can develop. Materials and equipment should be used in imaginative ways to explore,
discover and develop mathematical ideas. The use of concrete materials is a vital aspect of the learning
of mathematics. The manipulation of materials assists the development of understandings in all facets
of mathematics and their continued use, when appropriate, helps the consolidation of those
understandings. Concrete manipulation enables children to clarify ideas. Ideas inherent in the
activities can be thought through and discussed as manipulation occurs. A variety of experiences (eg
discussion, manipulation of concrete objects, investigations) will help students to use mathematics in
their own environment. The availability of calculators and computers does not reduce the need for
mathematical understanding or the need for competence in mental and pen and paper skills.
The use of concrete materials is important in mathematics teaching and learning for the following
reasons:
• The manipulation of concrete materials aids concept and skill development and enhances
understanding of processes.
• Structured games provide opportunities for students to practise and consolidate skills and
encourage speed in mental calculation. Additionally, there is potential for developing spatial
visualisation skills in an enjoyable way.

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 • Puzzles and strategy games develop problem-solving, spatial and organisational skills.
• Students’ use of materials provides them with opportunities to talk and write in English or other
languages about their mathematical experiences.
Children starting school will have already seen and handled many different shapes, mainly three
dimensional. An awareness of the properties of these shapes, capitalising on an interest which
commenced when the child first played with a variety of toys, should be developed at every opportunity.
Children’s understanding about conservation of length, mass, volume and area will be similarly assisted
by the use of many of these materials. The use of various concrete materials is a powerful way of
developing children’s understandings about number.

COLLECTABLE MATERIALS
The list of resources and suggested uses on the following page is by no means exhaustive but given as
a starting point for teachers and schools. Some of these materials are readily available or can be easily
collected by teachers and students. Teachers should also refer to the resources list included in each of
the teaching and learning units in this syllabus. Ideas for using these are given in the sample activities
of each of the teaching and learning units.

STRUCTURED MATERIALS
There are many commercially available structured materials that are useful in developing concepts and
exploring ideas. Many of these are listed in the resource box of the teaching/learning unit. Materials such
as Lego, Pattern blocks, Unifix, Multilink, Base 10 materials, Polydrons need to be readily available for
use in classrooms. Many of these types of structured material are available on annual requisition.

THE ENVIRONMENT
The playground and the wider community environment are resources for numerous mathematical
investigations.
Some specific resources might include
• school playground - including signposts, fixed equipment, fitness courses, games, courts,
playground markings, school canteen, watering systems, etc.
• shopping centres - including best buys, budgets, classification of shops, scale drawing,
estimation of parking spaces, etc.
• botanical gardens - lengths of paths, scale drawings of gardens, volume of water in ponds, etc.
• zoos - masses, heights and lengths of animals, quantities of food needed for various animals,
area of animal footprints, etc.
• parks - orienteering and treasure hunts, surveys of park users, areas of sporting fields, etc.
• the home - construction kits, jigsaws, model making, games, puzzles, etc.
• Field Studies Centres - maps, plans, graphs, areas and perimeters of regions, rainfall patterns,
etc.

COMPUTERS AND CALCULATORS

As referred to in the next section of this syllabus the use of computers and calculators has many
advantages for the teaching/learning program. Teachers will find references to various types of software
that can be used in achieving the objectives of this syllabus in the teaching and learning units as well as
ideas for the use of calculators.
Teachers should build a collection of suitable software as part of the school’s learning resources.
Students should be given regular access to calculators and computers in each class.
Providing opportunities for free play with these and other materials, including structured commercial
materials, will assist children in the development of early mathematical ideas and will encourage
creativity and imaginative thinking.

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 INEXPENSIVE MATERIALS USEFUL FOR TEACHING MATHEMATICS
ITEM SOME POSSIBLE USES

cartons, boxes, containers, shoeboxes, bowls, jars measuring volume, surface area; finding geometric
shapes; storing materials

pebbles, rocks, shells, buttons, bottle tops, dry sorting, counting, balancing, weighing, ordering;
beans, macaroni, nails, screws, corks, washers, pine linear, mass, area or volume measurement
cones, rice, marbles, feathers, thread spools, clay

beans, sand, gravel, plastic tubs or buckets measuring

staplers, staples, brass fasteners, paperclips, file making task cards, models and games; organising
folders, tape, cement glue, felt-tip pens, scissors, materials
labels, pencils, clear shellac, coloured paper,
spinners, fabric, index cards

sets of similar containers in different sizes – ordering; finding linear, area and volume
toothpaste boxes, mixing bowls, cans, plastic bowls, measurement; discovering ratios
measuring cups

ceramic tiles, rubber stamps making patterns, counting, place value

yarn, zippers, string, cord measuring, patterning, seriating

playing cards, dice, dominoes, bingo cards, spinners making number games, discovering probabilities

funnels, scoops, eyedroppers, measuring spoons, weighing and measuring

tape measures, paper clips

ribbons of different colours, widths, lengths, sorting, playing attribute games, developing number
textures; wooden or plastic figures of animals; concepts and basic vocabulary
buttons, shells, leaves

pegboard and pegs or golf tees making patterns, showing basic operations,
graphing, making charts, counting

newspapers, magazines, catalogues, used adding developing and solving real-life problems
machine tapes, menus, containers with labels

rubber bands of assorted sizes and colours making geoboard designs, sorting

cardboard tubes, plastic straws, pipe cleaners finding volume, seriating, discovering geometric
properties

mirrors (preferably plastic or metal) discovering line symmetry and patterns

toothpicks, clay, straws, wire, wire-cutters, clear mobiles, models

nail polish, thread

pudding, cake and gelatine mixes, powdered drink making an abacus, measuring, seriating
mixes, sand

dowels measuring mass, volume

coloured shapes, eg squares and circles making patterns and tessellations, graphing,
measuring.

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AUDIOVISUAL RESOURCES
Audiovisual materials, both simple and complex, can be applied to mathematics lessons as a
motivational tool for students and will assist the teaching/learning process. These can be bought
commercially, borrowed or made inexpensively at school by both teachers and students. Some of these
materials and their suggested uses include

AUDIOCASSETTES
• for drill and practice, review and reinforcement
• producing competitions and quizzes, eg “Beat the tape”
• as the “teacher” during group work to identify tasks
• recording stories which involve a mathematics problem
• developing student tapes of riddles, problems, teasers, etc

THE OVERHEAD PROJECTOR

• silhouettes of opaque objects, geometric shapes, fractional parts, transparent rulers, protractors
and counters
• overlays and colour to build up graphs, maps etc
• projecting images onto wall or chalkboard (to create large-scale maps, drawings, plans and
shapes) or floor (to build 3-D models, eg from the floor plan of a house, etc)
• playing games such as “Maths Bingo” (where students match projected shapes, numbers, etc,
with individual Bingo cards)
• cleared X-ray film, shirt box lids, etc, as inexpensive transparency materials
• coloured tape for charts and graphs
• transparencies made from books, using the thermal copier

35 MM SLIDES
• commercial and home-made presentations on areas of investigation, eg looking at artificial and
natural structures for shapes, symmetry, patterns, etc
• school-made slide sets on relevant topics
• bleached old filmstrips, cut up and placed in slide mounts for use with felt pens to draw
desired images

FILMS/TELEVISION/VIDEOS
• from the Film and Video Library, Resource Services, NSW Department of Education
• ABC school broadcasts
• your own videos of activities, investigations, interviews, etc

DISPLAY BOARDS
• brain teasers, puzzles or a “problem of the week”
• exhibits of “best” work
• vocabulary lists
• selected aspects of the history of mathematics which are interesting and relevant
• people using mathematics

OTHER RESOURCES
• flannel boards, flip charts, posters, charts, mobiles, papier-mache objects, dioramas, models
(student or teacher-made)

34
 • polaroid photographs recording activities, experiences, etc
• magazines, newspapers and other print media.

SOURCES OF ASSISTANCE
• Departmental organisations, at Head Office and Regional level
• your in-school supervisor
• the support teacher
• the principal and other executive
• the teacher librarian
• the mathematics contact person on staff
• the computer education contact person
• consultants
• the inspector
• professional teacher associations.

TECHNOLOGY
TECHNOLOGY AND MATHEMATICS
Electronic calculators, microcomputers and digital watches are some of the products of technology
that children are taking for granted. Most children either own a calculator or have access to one. Many
own a digital watch and many have access to a computer. They are familiar with examples of
microprocessor-based technology such as electronic clocks, microwave ovens, sound and video
systems, electronic banking and point-of-sale terminals. It is important that students learn about both
the strengths and limitations of this technology and its place in mathematics so that they can take
advantage of its rapid development and gain skills in managing it effectively.
This section deals specifically with calculators and computers and their uses in mathematics education.
Calculators and computers are in general use and have become increasingly sophisticated. The impact
of these on the structure of society and on the lives of individuals has been considerable.
Developing an awareness of the place of mathematics in solving problems in everyday life and
developing knowledge, skills and understandings for problem solving are two major aims of
mathematics education. Using a calculator for complex computations enables the problem solver to
focus attention on the problem and to identify a sequence of mathematical procedures which leads to
a solution. In contrast, a heavy emphasis on algorithms tends to inhibit the development of
problem-solving abilities by encouraging rule-seeking behaviour.

WHY USE A CALCULATOR?

• Research in the 1980’s has reaffirmed the positive effects on mathematics achievement
associated with calculator use. Some of the specific benefits include
– facilitation of counting (ie number sense)
– facilitation of the understanding of subtraction and division, particularly with
low-achieving students
– the feasibility of using calculators with disabled learners.
• Research evidence supports the use of calculators at all levels, indicating that achievement
will not be harmed and may be enhanced when calculators are used.

35
 • An area of considerable research has been the use of calculators in problem-solving
situations. Using the computational power of the calculator encourages the use of more
realistic problems and directs attention towards the problem-solving process rather than the
computations.
(Report by the Role of Technology Theme Group, Fifth International Congress on Mathematical
Education, Adelaide, 1984, p. 33)
Many adults now use calculators for complex calculations, thus reducing the use of pen and paper for
such operations. It is inappropriate for students to use a calculator solely to check written calculations.
It is sensible, however, for them to check results obtained from a calculator using mental or simple
written approximations. Although calculators have reduced the use of pen-and-paper calculations in
everyday life, the need for mental skills in calculation is now even more important. In some instances
a mental calculation is more efficient than the use of a calculator. At other times an exact answer is not
needed and a mental estimation will suffice. When a calculator is used, however, it is necessary to
make a quick mental check on the reasonableness of the answer.
Calculators are not just tools for performing computations. They have great potential as instructional
aids for the development of mathematical concepts and understandings. They can initiate interest in
previously unexplored areas of mathematics. They have a place in mathematics classes, alongside other
instructional aids such as concrete materials.
The following example demonstrates how the calculator may be used in developing problem-solving
skills and the concept of place value:
Enter 5234.98 and without clearing this number
(a) replace the 2 by O
(b) replace the 8 by 1
(c) restore the original number in one step.
The learning of basic number facts and the development of skills in mental computations can go hand
in hand with the use of calculators. For instance, appropriate use of the calculator can lead to the
discovery of basic number facts or reinforce the memorisation of such facts. Students need to develop
an appreciation of instances where it would be faster to use mental skills rather than a calculator.
Speedy estimates of the range into which an answer should fall are important for minimising keystroke
errors and for checking on the reasonableness of the answer which appears on the calculator display,
eg 23.6 x 578.1 must be larger than 20 x 500 = 10 000, and must be smaller than 30 x 600 = 18 000.
In brief, the calculator can
• provide the correct answer quickly and accurately
• focus attention on the problem since the computational steps are less distracting
• give confidence to try specific cases in the process of trying to understand a general problem
(trial-and-error strategies become practical)
• motivate students to engage in mathematical activity because
– the expectation of failure is diminished
– errors seen on a calculator display are less public than those seen in written work
– the risk of error in trying different ways to solve problems is accepted without fear
– patterns can be explored
– different ways of tackling a problem can be readily tried in a short space of time
• act as a catalyst for new mathematical learning, for example
– sooner or later young children using calculators produce negative numbers and decimal
fractions on the display panels, and their curiosity at the time can be channelled into
further learning
– squares and square roots can also be investigated
• serve as a very useful diagnostic aid for identifying thought processes through teacher
observation of calculator use, in the same way as for observation of written work
36
 • extend facility with number, since examples need no longer be restricted to simple numbers
but can extend to the complicated numbers often found in real-life problems, eg “Are you a
million seconds old?”

WHY USE A COMPUTER?

Computers can be used to enable students to investigate and apply mathematical ideas in a way not easily
achieved by other means. Computers should not be used for tasks that are better done with concrete
materials, pen and paper or calculators. Many of the advantages ascribed to calculator usage are also
relevant to computers.
Although computers should not replace the use of concrete materials, they may provide a means of
linking concrete, pictorial and symbolic representations. For example, some programs enable children
to manipulate pictures of concrete material, with both pictorial and symbolic information being
presented simultaneously. Research shows computers can give an opportunity for creating and
exploring mathematical ideas where irrelevant details are eliminated. Computers can also provide a
link between concrete manipulation and abstract processing.
There are many potential uses of computers in learning mathematics. Good programs allow students
to have varying degrees of control over decision making and opportunities to explore alternatives.
Students can go beyond using computers as a routine tool and use them as a medium for representing
and exploring mathematical relationships.
Examples of these programs and their uses include
• adventure games and simulations, which may require students to interpret information,
make judgements and predictions, determine further actions and promote spatial visualisation,
mapping and scale-drawing skills
• dynamic, graphic and interactive educational games, which may motivate students to
practise and refine skills, as well as promote rapid recall
• diagnostic testing, which may be of assistance in that the task can be individually tailored to
the student’s level and experiences, and information about specific types of errors can be
collated for the teacher
• computer software that provides a context for mathematical explorations, which may
assist students’ learning of spatial and problem-solving skills, eg LOGO
• data bases, spread sheets and graphing packages, which allow students to apply
mathematics to all curriculum areas and which students can use to investigate, record, analyse
and present mathematical information, eg graphs.
Other programs, such as word-processing and drawing packages, assist students to write about and
illustrate their mathematics.
Mathematics provides, as do all other areas of the curriculum, opportunities for students to learn about
calculators and computer-based techniques by using calculators and computers in their learning
activities.
Teachers need to be aware of the large body of research detailing differences in the attitudes to and
use of computers by boys and girls. Boys generally have a higher level of home ownership of
computers and this prior experience can affect the dynamics of computer use in the classroom. There
are Departmental documents available to help teachers assess and select programs that are free of
cultural or sexist bias, eg Handle with Care.
This is not a comprehensive treatment of computer usage in schools, but highlights the ways in which
computers can be used when teaching mathematics. Detailed guidance and assistance is given in
documents and resources produced by the Computer Education Unit of the NSW Department of
Education, including software evaluations and “ComputEd”, the Computer Education Unit’s
newsletter.

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STUDENTS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS
INTRODUCTION
Some students have special needs. Schools and teachers should take these special needs into account
when planning learning experiences in mathematics. Students with special needs may not be achieving
adequately in mathematics or may be at risk in terms of full participation in educational experiences
beyond primary school. Students with special needs include girls, Aboriginal students, students from
non-English speaking backgrounds and exceptional students (talented students and students with
disabilities and learning difficulties).

GIRLS AND MATHEMATICS

Research conducted in recent years, based on observations in primary schools and discussion with
teachers about the ways students learn mathematics, has highlighted most significant sex differences:
• The early childhood and play experiences of girls are often different from those of boys. Girls
tend to have had less experience than boys in handling concrete materials and in engaging in
activities which involve spatial manipulation.
• Girls tend to be more passive than boys in the classroom and therefore demand less teacher
time.
• Girls are often reluctant to take risks or to experiment by using a trial-and-error approach to
solving problems.
• Girls sometimes have lower expectations than boys of their ability to achieve in mathematics.
• When girls experience success, they still tend to lack confidence and attribute this to external
factors such as the nature of the test or the skill of the teacher, rather than to their own ability.
While these differences are not true for all girls or for all boys, there is aufficient substance in the
generalisations for teachers to need to take them into account in choosing learning activities and in
managing group work and other classroom practices. Girls as such do not have a problem with
mathematics. Difficulties arise only if the way girls are taught does not adequately build on their prior
experiences or strengthen their expectations by providing opportunities to experience success. Due to
role modelling, the confidence levels of teachers in teaching mathematics may also be a factor affecting
the learning of all students, particularly girls.

ABORIGINAL STUDENTS AND MATHEMATICS

Most Aboriginal students come to school with a background of experiences which distinguish them
from their non-Aboriginal peers and which, in most cases, will have affected their attitudes to school
and schooling. These experiences often will have affected Aboriginal students from less obvious
Aboriginal backgrounds (eg the fostered or adopted child) just as much as they have affected students
from Aboriginal families and communities.
One key difference, that is crucial to education, is that many Aboriginal people speak a non-standard
variant of English called Aboriginal English. Teachers should handle it in ways similar to a
non-English language. A confident Aboriginal student, whose background and language are respected,
is in a better position to learn all the various subjects at school, including Mathematics.
Another way of including Aboriginal students’ culture in the mathematics program is to use teaching
materials that both contribute towards achieving the aims of this syllabus and present some Aboriginal
content. In this way the Aboriginal students will see themselves and their communities as part of the
school and not feel that it is an alien place. Some suggested activities in the teaching/learning units in this
syllabus reflect Aboriginal culture. The best sorts of materials are those that have a local perspective.
A range of resources is available to assist in improving the educational outcomes of Aboriginal
students. These include
• the local Aboriginal community
• Aboriginal Education Assistants and Aboriginal Community Liaison Officers at the school
level

38
 • consultants in Aboriginal Education, Aboriginal Liaison Officers, Home School Liaison
Officers (Aboriginal), Inspectors in Charge of Aboriginal Education at the regional level
• representatives and members of the Aboriginal Education Consultative Group at local,
regional and State level
• Aboriginal workers in various community organisations such as Aboriginal health, legal,
housing, welfare, pre-schools and post-secondary education.
These people will be able to provide valuable assistance in contacting the parents and the wider
Aboriginal community and so help teachers:
• become aware of the cultural attributes of Aboriginal students, eg Aboriginal English
• become aware of the current socio-economic conditions of Aboriginal people and how these
affect Aboriginal students
• recognise possible alternative learning styles and develop the flexible teaching methods to
take account of them.

NESB STUDENTS AND MATHEMATICS

Most students from language backgrounds other than English enter primary school with fluency in at
least one other language. Their conceptual development has progressed to its present stage through
interaction in the first language. Their mathematical concepts and mathematics education have usually
also been developed through this first language.
The teaching of mathematics to these children, as with all children, must build upon their previous
knowledge and experience. Teachers will need to observe their students to determine their
mathematics learning needs and in doing so should consider that
• some children from language backgrounds other than English, particularly those newly
arrived and older, will have had extensive mathematics experience and developed significant
skills in their home country
• problem solving approaches may not have been part of some children’s previous school
experience and they may need specific support until they have adjusted to the different
teaching style. It may be most effective if students are encouraged to use their first language
in discussions leading to hypothesis, prediction and experimentation
• use of children’s first language in lessons will support their ongoing conceptual development
• care should be taken to ensure that classroom activities, materials and resources reflect the
cultural diversity of the children’s background and our society as a whole and avoid cultural
bias
• there will be as much diversity in interest, talent and skill in mathematics of children from
language backgrounds other than English as there is in the community as a whole. Teachers
should avoid making judgements of student ability based on stereotypical images of particular
ethnic groups and should determine teaching/learning objectives through analysis of student
needs
• mathematics is experienced, learned and taught through language. When the language of
instruction, in this case English, is different from children’s first language, each lesson
becomes simultaneously an English language lesson and a mathematics lesson. Wherever
possible, teachers should be facilitating both the English language and conceptual
development of students from language backgrounds other than English by incorporating the
use of concrete materials into lessons.
When taught with an interactive, problem-solving approach, mathematics education is a rich source of
both conceptual and English language development for children from language backgrounds other
than English. It frequently provides an area of success for these children, particularly those recently
arrived, and supports their positive self-concept and level of self-esteem. Many of the strategies and
approaches highlighted in this syllabus promote the supportive, encouraging learning environment
needed for these students to develop their English language skills.

39
EXCEPTIONAL STUDENTS AND MATHEMATICS
A variety of teaching and learning stategies will need to be used to meet the range of needs of
exceptional students. These needs may relate to a students’ special talents, a particular disability
(intellectual, sensory, physical) or learning difficulty.

The talented student will respond to teaching strategies that focus on enquiry, problem solving and
critical thinking. Appropriate extension and enrichment activities ensure that favourable attitudes
towards mathematics are maintained.

Students with a mild or moderate intellectual disability will require more highly structured teaching
strategies developed within the context of the Mathematics K–6 Syllabus. Teachers may need to
employ intervention strategies in, for example, group work to ensure that effective learning is taking
place. Mathematical experiences should assist them in developing independent living skills.

Teachers will need to

• develop a language environment sensitive to the identified needs of their students
Hearing impaired students need to participate in written and oral language activities that will
assist in their development of concepts and expressive language fluency. Published materials
used with students with a mild or moderate intellectual disability and students with learning
difficulties may need to be modified to suit the language level of their students.
• ensure maximum participation of all students
Irrespective of their disability, students should be included in all class activities. A Teachers’
Aide (Special) could assist a student with a physical disability in group work activities. An
Itinerant Teacher may provide assistance for students with hearing or visual impairments.
• provide opportunities for cooperative learning
Peer tutoring could be used to assist students with learning disabilities or difficulties within the
classroom. A mentor system could be instituted for students with special talents. This could
involve older students, staff members or members of the community.
• realise that some students may require flexible learning situations
Students with disabilities and learning difficulties in mathematics may need to be involved in a
program developed by a support teacher in response to their identified needs. This may be
implemented by using a team-teaching model, group work within the class or a specific
individual program. Students with behaviour disorders or students returning from community
care may experience problems related to an inability to attend or concentrate for long periods of
time. High interest strategies are essential for these students.
• use a variety of instructional materials.
Concrete material should be used more extensively in the investigation and clarification of
mathematical ideas for students with learning disabilities and learning difficulties.

Technology can assist all exceptional students. Computers can be used to stimulate learning for both
talented students and students with disabilities or learning difficulties. Technology can also be used in
particular ways to assist students with visual, hearing or physical disabilities.

40
LEARNING OUTCOMES
The terms achievement, accuracy and excellence are important and useful when considering learning
outcomes. Teachers must be aware that in implementing the aims of this syllabus all students should
be challenged to achieve each task they undertake to the best of their ability. A careful assessment of
students’ needs, strengths and interests by teachers will help to ensure that the learning experiences
are suitable to the stages of individual development.
In undertaking activities students should be encouraged to think about the level of accuracy needed to
achieve their goals. Some problems involve students in coming to a single accurate answer, eg
deciding how much money to collect to pay for an excursion involves students being accurate with
number facts. In other tasks an estimate may be the most appropriate response, eg in deciding whether
or not to book an excursion, an estimate of the likely costs is needed.
The scope of this syllabus allows all students to achieve excellence in undertaking mathematical tasks.
All students should be encouraged to reach a standard of excellence appropriate to their particular
stage of development. For some students this may involve undertaking research projects in particular
areas, as suggested in the teaching/learning units. The activities in the teaching/learning units assist all
students in reaching a standard of excellence.
The learning outcomes for students in mathematics should reflect the aims of this syllabus, the
learning experiences (as outlined previously) and the objectives of the teaching/learning units. There
is a variety of ways in which schools and teachers can facilitate the achievement of these outcomes.
They should consider the needs, strengths, interests and backgrounds of students and the school
community.
Each teaching/learning unit has specific learning outcomes (objectives) and suggested assessment tasks,
eg in the Numeration sub-strand unit 12, the following objective and assessment task are given:
Objective To represent groups to 999 using concrete materials.
Task To make models of numbers up to 999 using Base 10 material.
The assessment tasks are suggestions only and teachers will need to use other tasks, depending on the
nature of the learning experiences being undertaken at a particular time. It should also be noted that
not all aims and objectives are covered by the suggested assessment tasks and teachers will need to
use other assessment strategies for these objectives. Some examples of questions for which alternative
assessment strategies may need to be devised and used are as follows:
• What is the present level of the student’s understanding?
• Is the student progressing?
• Does the student need extension, consolidation or teaching in an area of difficulty?
• Does the student need more experience with relating concrete materials to symbolic work?
• Can the student apply his/her understandings, knowledge and skills in a variety of situations?
• Does the student initiate problems for investigation?
• Does the student try a variety of approaches to problem solving?
• Does the student have the prerequisite skills necessary for the activity?
• Does the student know and understand what is required?
• Does the student enjoy the work and become actively involved?
• Does the student work cooperatively with others?
• Does the student communicate mathematics effectively in oral and/or written form?
Some learning outcomes in classrooms are unexpected. Often students will respond to a particular
learning experience in a creative way which was not expected by the teacher. When this happens the
information can be used to guide the teaching and learning process and to gather assessment
information which is useful to both the student and the teacher.

41
ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION
Assessment is the process of gathering evidence of and making judgements about students’
needs, strengths, abilities and achievements.

Evaluation is the process of gathering data and making judgements about the effectiveness of
teaching programs, policies and procedures.

ASSESSMENT OF STUDENTS’ NEEDS,

STRENGTHS, ABILITIES AND ACHIEVEMENTS
Students demonstrate the outcomes of their learning through speaking, writing, drawing and engaging
in other activities. A variety of assessment strategies is necessary. Whatever assessment strategies are
used, it is important that teachers ensure that tasks are accessible to all students, eg the language being
used is accessible to all students including those from non-English speaking backgrounds; the situation
does not disadvantage students from Aboriginal background.
In every teaching/learning unit of the Mathematics K–6 Syllabus specific student objectives, stated in the
form of learning outcomes, are provided and a number of activities to assist teachers in assessing students’
achievement of the objectives are suggested. There are many assessment strategies that may be used to
gather evidence of students’ achievements in Mathematics. In assessing students from language
backgrounds other than “standard” English, teachers should be aware that these students may be hampered
in revealing the full extent of their mathematical abilities by their capacity in English. Some examples of
useful assessment strategies follow.

PEN AND PAPER TESTS

Pen and paper tests are a means of assessing how well older students have acquired certain
understandings, knowledge and skills. A well-designed test can provide the teacher with information
about the strengths and weaknesses of individual students, particularly when the students have
opportunities to explain their answers to the teacher. Unfortunately, in ticking and crossing answers in
order to obtain a total score on the test, there is the risk that the teacher may ignore or fail to gain a clear
picture of the student’s understandings. A careful study of the “working out” can provide more
information than the final answer. An analysis of students’ answers can unearth weaknesses and gaps in
understanding, knowledge and skill as well as indicate creative strengths.
It is relatively easy to construct tests to assess recall of facts and basic skills. It is rather more difficult,
however, to construct test items that assess
• understanding of a concept
• problem solving abilities
• application of mathematics in non-routine situations.
Since mathematics involves practical activities, assessment procedures should include observing the
students while they are engaged in mathematical activities.
For these reasons, pen and paper tests are generally inappropriate in the early years of school. When
used in later years, they should be supplemented by other assessment strategies.

OBSERVATION
While students are working in groups or individually on exercises, activities or projects, the teacher has
the opportunity to observe and note aspects of the students’ learning. Things to look for include
• choices students make regarding the students they work with, the equipment they use and the
activities they prefer

42
 • attitude to work (perseverance, restless when faced with difficulties, organised, cooperative
independent worker, seeks help from other students and/or the teacher)
• interaction with other students (cooperative, helpful, sharing equipment, selfish, disruptive)
• gross and fine motor skills (movement, manipulation of materials)
• the degree of care shown in the use of equipment and measuring devices
• the approaches students take to solving problems.

LISTENING
It is important that teachers listen to what students say and give them time to respond. What students
say to the teacher or to other students provides many clues to their understandings and attitudes. The
teacher may be too busy talking to think about what the student is saying. The teacher may volunteer
information too quickly, without giving sufficient time for students to think through a problem and
come to a conclusion.
Things to listen for include
• the tone of voice (eg indignant, happy, bored, enthusiastic, puzzled, confused, eager, dejected,
confident, anxious, stressed)
• the accuracy of language used, (eg confusing “longer than” with “bigger than”)
• the kind of language used (its structure and vocabulary, eg “bigger than”, “heavier than”, “has
more mass than”)
• student explanations which often provide immediate feedback on understanding
• cries for help such as:
“This is too hard!”
“I can’t do this.”
“This doesn’t make sense.”
By becoming more effective listeners in their own classrooms teachers will become more aware of
how their students are learning.
Student responses are to some extent determined by the types of questions asked. Teachers should
consider how best to elicit responses from students. Examples of the types of questions teachers might
use are listed below:
• problem posing, inquisitive “What would happen if ...”
“What does it mean?”
“Is the person with the biggest feet the fastest runner?”
• fact finding “How many millimetres in a metre?”
“What is it?”
• reason seeking “Why does this work?”
“Why does this happen?”
• routine “Where do I put this away?”
• reassurance seeking “Is this right? Is this how you do it?”
• perceptive “What does ‘5’ mean to you?”

STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS
Structured interviews can provide the teacher with specific information on how the student thinks in
certain situations. The student’s responses will often reveal strengths, weaknesses, misunderstandings,
level of understanding, interest, attitude and abilities. The following are suggestions for improving the
quality of structured interviews:
• Talk to students in their classroom so that they are able to respond naturally.
• Let the student do the talking and do not interrupt.
• Try not to use leading questions.

43
 • Use questions that require more than simple recall of facts. Ask students to describe what they
are doing and why. Ask for explanations about why certain things happen.
• Listen carefully to the student’s responses.
• Give the student plenty of time to answer a question. If the answer does not come immediately,
wait; do not rephrase the question immediately.
• Have the students verbalise their thoughts while working through particular problems,
questions, activities.

STUDENT-TEACHER DISCUSSIONS
These differ from the structured interviews in that the student’s talk is not limited or directed by the
teacher’s questions and may be initiated by the student. The types of questions raised by students, their
reasoning and expressed feelings give valuable information as to how they think. Valuable discussions
can take place in informal situations such as the playground, as well as the classroom. The following are
suggestions to assist:
• Let the student provide direction for the discussion.
• Do not feel obliged to fill in gaps in the flow of conversation.
• Listen carefully.

STUDENT EXPLANATION AND DEMONSTRATION

Provide opportunities for students to give an explanation or demonstration of a particular facet of
mathematics to the teacher alone, another student, a group of students or the whole class.
Teachers should take note of
• how the student organises the material
• language, including both the vocabulary and the structure of English used
• the depth and breadth of the treatment
• clarity
• the student’s confidence.
In setting work, the possibility of students just collecting facts without interpreting or analysing their
findings should be minimised by the use of key phrases such as “Why does ...”, “Explain ...”,
“Compare ...”, “Illustrate ...”, “Develop ...”.

SAMPLES OF STUDENT WORK

This is a technique for assessment commonly used by teachers. A careful study of the student’s daily
work provides information on
• level of understanding
• logical thought processes
• difficulties experienced
• need for teaching in a specific area (diagnosis of errors)
• need for consolidation and/or extension work
• amount of work completed
• quality of work completed.
Samples should be collected at regular intervals and dated, forming part of a cumulative file on the
student.

PRACTICAL INVESTIGATIONS
Project work provides the student with the opportunity to apply understandings, knowledge and skills.
Thus the finished project gives the teacher an indication of the student’s level of development. If the
student is given the opportunity to select a project, the teacher is also able to gauge the student’s interests
and ingenuity.

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Project work also provides opportunities for students to display resourcefulness, originality, creativity,
appreciation and perseverance. Some examples follow:
• Design wallpaper based on a repeating pattern.
• Design, make and trial a measuring device.
• Investigate the relationship between height and mass in people.
• Plan and lay out a garden.
• Design and make a board game.
• Set out playground markings according to specifications.

RECORDING STUDENT ASSESSMENT INFORMATION

Teachers are reminded that they are required to twice yearly record each student’s performance and
application in mathematics on the Student Record. Assessment procedures should be designed to assist
teachers with this task. The recording on the Student Record of performance and application of students
in Kindergarten and Year 1 is by comment only. The performance and application of students in Year 2
to Year 6 is recorded by rating and comment in the strands Space, Measurement and Number.
Ideally the system of recording information should be manageable, give a clear indication of student
development in understandings, knowledge and skills, and be available to teachers in the following year.
These records can serve as a basis for reporting on student progress.
Recording of assessment information is carried out at two levels: the class level and the school level.

THE CLASS LEVEL

A number of procedures may be used:
• Test results and checklists can provide information concerning strengths and weaknesses. The
students’ names can be recorded down the page and marks, unit codes or particular
understandings, knowledge and skills from a unit can be recorded across the page.
Checklists are particularly useful in planning teaching for students having difficulties and for
consolidation work. A suitable code can be devised to indicate levels of achievement.
Information for the checklist can be gathered from tests, observations, interviews, questioning,
discussion and samples of students’ work.
• Student records of their own work

Diary of work completed.

Dating the work is a good tracking device and allows children to see evidence of their progress over
time.
• Anecdotal information gleaned from observation, discussion, conference sessions and talking
with other teachers could be recorded using student folders, file cards, clipboard and pad and
desk pad. Students’ folders could contain records of the teacher’s observations and selected
examples of students’ daily work, project work and reports.

45
 Jenny Ari David Jim Kiki Tina

Larri Rhonda Eva Zoe Gordon Anne

Deki Varsh Ian Hue Kim Idi

Geila Con John Linda Bruce Erin

Imran Don Frank Garth Gail Ravi

Desk pad.
Students’ names are recorded on a chart, leaving space to jot observations. This shows at a
glance which student has not been observed recently.
Observations may be rewritten in permanent records, or cut and pasted. Blank peel off stickers
are a convenient way to transfer records from the chart to your record book.

THE SCHOOL LEVEL

Here the purpose is
• to provide a basis for reporting on student progress
• to provide an indication of where each student/group/class is in the school mathematics
program, so that there is an efficient transition from group to group or year to year
• to provide some indication of the suitability of the school Mathematics program.
Recording at the school level may not be as detailed as it is for individual students at the class level.
The nature of records kept will depend on, and should be linked to, the school’s Mathematics
Assessment and Evaluation policies. The record kept by the year supervisor or mathematics
coordinator should indicate the content covered, teaching strategies used and specific matters that need
staff consideration.

EVALUATION OF THE TEACHING PROGRAM

The evaluation process involves
• determining the purpose of the evaluation
• deciding on the focus of the evaluation
• deciding on the information to be collected and methods of collection
• gathering and recording information, both formally and informally
• interpreting the information
• using the interpretation to plan for further action
• taking the action planned.
Some examples of questions that teachers may address when evaluating teaching programs in
mathematics are as follows:
• Does the activity consolidate previous work?
• Is the content appropriate?
• How effective is the teaching approach?
• Is the activity challenging and stimulating?
• Are opportunities provided for students to discuss their mathematics?
• Is the classroom environment conducive to cooperative and supportive behaviour?
• What elements in the classroom are barriers to student learning?

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 • How is student understanding to be determined?
• Are cultural and individual differences recognised and catered for?
• Are the materials available free of cultural or gender bias?
• Are girls and boys equally involved in all activities?
• Is grouping effective for a particular activity?
• Are the resources appropriate?
• Are the materials and equipment accessible and utilised?
• Can school and community personnel be involved in classroom activities?
Evaluation processes enable the teacher to make informed decisions leading to more effective
teaching. The results of evaluation will assist the teacher in
• considering the appropriateness of the program
• selecting content and teaching approaches for class or group activities
• setting student assignments and projects
• grouping the students
• selecting and using resources
• assigning additional work for individual students
• providing opportunities for students to work cooperatively
• pacing the teaching
• providing opportunities for creativity
• recognising other areas where decisions need to be made about teaching and learning
• providing remediation and extension
• reporting on student progress
• involving the community.

EVALUATION OF THE SCHOOL’S IMPLEMENTATION

PLAN
As part of their Mathematics Policy schools are required to develop a Mathematics K–6 implementation
plan (see Managing the School page 5). The Mathematics K–6 school implementation plan is evaluated
to ensure that
• it is consistent with the aims of the Mathematics K–6 Syllabus
• there is a balance of units across the three strands in all classes
• it is consistent with other mandatory Departmental documents.
The evaluation of the school implementation plan may be carried out by the whole school staff or by
a committee which may have teacher, parent and student representation. The evaluation of teaching
programs throughout the school will contribute to the evaluation of the school implementation plan.
The evaluation process allows judgements to be made about the success of the plan and may suggest
areas for improvement. It may provide a basis for decisions about
• modification of existing school policies
• the adequacy of implementation strategies
• staff development needs
• allocation of funds and other resources
• school community links.

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TEACHING/LEARNING UNITS
School plans in mathematics and teachers’ programs must be based on this syllabus (its aims, learning
experiences and content) as well as various school policies and the identified needs of students.
Schools are expected to demonstrate a commitment both in theory and practice to the approaches
embodied in this syllabus, as well as its content. It is anticipated that most students would have some
experience related to all teaching/learning units in this syllabus. Students need not necessarily progress
through the units in the designated sequence as students learn at different rates and in different ways
at various times.
The teaching/learning units are structured to assist teachers in programming. The Main Idea,
Objectives and Content boxes are mandatory. The Teacher Notes, Language, Evaluation,
Resources and Sample Activities boxes contain suggestions which should facilitate the planning of
detailed mathematics experiences for students. Within the Sample Activities for each unit, there is a
potential for approaching the investigations in a variety of ways. Activities should be modified, where
necessary, to suit the needs of students and available resources and should emphasise mathematical
processes as well as content. Activities should be selected to suit the social, cultural and linguistic
needs of the students in the class, school and society and be free of cultural and gender bias. The
Sample Activities are by no means exhaustive, as the heading suggests. Teachers should select ideas
from a variety of sources; one such resource is the Resource Material for Basic Learning: K–6
Mathematics, published by the NSW Department of Education.
Learning experiences should be appropriate to the student’s stage of development. There is a link
between what is set out in this Mathematics K–6 syllabus and the syllabus students will follow at
secondary school. The Mathematics Syllabus for Years 7 and 8, based on the Mathematics K–12
Statement of Principles, recognises that there is a range of beginning points in Year 7, thus providing
a continuum of experiences from primary to secondary school. Teachers may extend students beyond
the material in Syllabus units through a variety of enrichment and extension activities.
The teaching/learning units take into account the across curriculum policies previously documented
and distributed to schools, eg Aboriginal, Multicultural and Girls Education policies. The
teaching/learning units also reflect curriculum perspectives such as Environmental Education. It is
expected that teachers’ programs will incorporate advice contained in these policies and perspectives.
The teaching/learning units contain suggestions for across curriculum links and teachers should take
advantage of opportunities to interrelate learning experiences.
When selecting objectives for students with disabilities and learning difficulties, teachers need to be
mindful of the number of objectives these students can be expected to attain in the time available. Learning
experiences should be very carefully chosen. In some cases, teachers will need to provide additional
learning experiences to ensure that students develop expected knowledge and understandings. In other
cases, learning experiences may need to be simplified. In the case of students with physical or sensory
disabilities, supplementary or alternative learning experiences may be required.
There are many opportunities for linking the various units of the three strands. The teaching/learning
units which follow will be the main source of assistance to teachers in programming. Each unit
constitutes a series of lessons not one lesson. Adjacent units may be combined, in response to the rate
of student progress. The final unit in all sub-strands contains extension material. The Teacher Notes
in the units, as well as the Scope and Sequence Chart, indicate links which can be made across the
strands. Within each sub-strand, the teaching/learning units are arranged in a developmental sequence.
Schools may wish to vary the order and depth of the treatment of the teaching/learning units to better
meet the special needs of particular students. The Teacher Notes and Sample Activities also have
suggestions about links with other curriculum areas.
The Main Idea and Content sections contained in each teaching/learning unit indicate the specific
understandings which the unit material addresses. The Objectives outlined for each unit are written in
terms of specific, achievable, student learning outcomes. Through the Teacher Notes, Language,
Evaluation, Sample Activities and Resources sections contained in the units of each sub-strand, the
Mathematics K–6 Syllabus emphasises the nature of mathematics and how students learn
mathematics.

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 UNIT FORMAT

MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES

General idea on which this unit is Specific learning outcomes to be
based. achieved by students.
CONTENT
The matematical focus of the unit.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

Important teaching points Relevant vocabulary
and considerations which which should be
will affect the success of introduced and used in
the implementation of this teaching/learning
unit. activities.
Samples of student and
teacher language.
Important language
considerations.
Strategies for
assessment of student
learning.
EVALUATION
Questions to encourage
teacher self-evaluation
for effective future
planning.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
Suggested strategies by which students
may achieve the stated objectives.
These strategies should be used
selectively to suit individual student
needs. They are by no means an
exhaustive list of activities for the unit.

RESOURCES

A list of suggested equipment for the implementation of this unit.

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SCOPE AND SEQUENCE CHART NOTES
The following chart is a guide for teachers and schools to help them plan their programs and to ensure
that activities and lesson objectives are appropriate to the needs, strengths and abilities of their
students.

Each of the columns refers to a sub-strand in the teaching/learning units: each number corresponds to
a unit within that sub-strand.

The units are grouped into levels. These levels will generally match the following grade bands:
Level 1 Kindergarten – Year 2
Level 2 Year 2 – Year 4
Level 3 Year 4 – Year 6 and beyond.

This grouping of units in each level indicates the range of units in each sub-strand that is most likely
to be suitable for use with students in these grades. Selection of the units to use with a class should
always depend on an assessment of students within that class. Factors which will guide this selection
include the students’ strengths, needs, previous mathematical experiences and cultural and language
backgrounds. Within any class there will be differences between individuals and groups of students.
Some students may therefore be working on one unit within a sub-strand while their classmates are
working on other units.

The chart is also a guide to the general compatibility of units across strands and sub-strands. For
example, Length units 1–8 are compatible with Temperature units 1–3. Teachers can also see which
sub-strands may be possible to link or integrate with others in their teaching program.

Teaching sequence is indicated by the order of units and the grouping of Units. Generally students
should be familiar and successful with materials, language and activities in each level of a sub-strand
before commencing activities in the following level of the sub-strand. For example: activities in Space
3D Level 1 (units 1–6) should precede the activities contained in Space 3D Level 2 (units 7–11).

Teachers may find that the needs and interests of students suggest a different sequence of teaching, eg
in Space 3D, students may be interested in work on pyramids before looking at other solids.

There are some understandings that are essential before further work in an area can be meaningful. This
is especially true for the Number strand. Teachers will find advice regarding prerequisite understandings
in the Teacher Notes section of the teaching/learning units.

The Scope and Sequence chart shows that in Level 1 the teaching of some units should precede the
introduction of others. For example:
• students should be familiar and successful with the kinds of activities in Numeration 1–4
before they begin any work with Number Operations or Money.
• students will need to have experience with Numeration units 1–4, early units in the
Measurement strand and other Space sub-strands before any work on Graphs.

Teachers should plan appropriate activities for their students based on a balance of the content of each
of the three strands and the component sub-strands in their class mathematics program. Not all students
will have completed all of the units in each strand and the component sub-strands by the end of Year
6. For some students further opportunities to be successful with activities based on earlier units will be
more appropriate.

This document is compatible with the Mathematics Syllabus for Years 7 and 8 and there is some
overlap of activities, as indicated on the Scope and Sequence chart.

50
 SCOPE AND SEQUENCE
SPACE MEASUREMENT NUMBER
3D 2D Position Graphs Length Area Volume Mass Temp Time Num’n Add’n Sub’n Mult’n Div’n Fractions Money

Level Units Units Units Units

Units Units Units Units
1–4

Units Units Units Units Units Units Units Units Units Units
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 to to to to to to to
6 9 3 8 8 3 9
1 1 1 5 1 1 1 1 1 1
& to to to to to to & to &
2 5 9 11 5 6 3 2 3 2
Level
51

7 10 4 3 9 6 10 9 4 10 12 6 7 4 3 4 3
2 to to & & to to to to to to & & to to to to to
11 17 5 4 11 8 12 11 6 14 13 7 11 9 9 10 5

Level

12 18 6 5 12 9 13 12 7 15 14 8 12 10 10 11 6
3 to to & & & & to to & to & & to to to to &
16 25 7 6 13 10 15 14 8 18 15 9 15 12 12 14 7
 SPACE 3D
SUMMARY OF OBJECTIVES
SPACE 3D 1
• build, stack and model 3D objects from the environment
• sort, compare, classify and describe 3D objects
SPACE 3D 2
• make and describe patterns using a variety of objects
• copy and/or extend a 3D pattern
• solve 3D puzzles
SPACE 3D 3
• describe and group 3D objects and informally name them
• recognise 3D objects from drawings and photographs
• represent 3D objects through artwork
SPACE 3D 4
• describe and predict the movement of objects
• make stacking patterns and designs using blocks
• describe changes of shape in objects
SPACE 3D 5
• explore and describe faces, edges and corners of 3D objects
• classify 3D objects according to various properties
• recognise 3D objects from drawings and photographs and
represent them through artwork
SPACE 3D 6
• model 3D objects and investigate the shape of their cross-
sections
• pull objects apart and reassemble them
• describe objects from different points of view
SPACE 3D 7
• investigate and describe the properties of prisms and cylinders
• discuss the faces, edges and corners of prisms
• identify prisms and cylinders
SPACE 3D 8
• investigate and describe the properties of pyramids
• discuss the faces, edges and corners of pyramids
• identify pryamids
52
SPACE 3D 9
• construct models of prisms and compare, discuss, name and
label them
• investigate and describe nets, skeletons and cross-sections of
prisms
SPACE 3D 10
• construct models of pyramids and compare, discuss, name and
label them
• investigate and describe nets, skeletons and cross-sections of
pyramids
SPACE 3D 11
• recognise prisms and pyramids from drawings and photographs
taken from various perspectives
• represent 3D objects through drawings
• construct 3D models from drawings or photographs
SPACE 3D 12
• model 3D solids from isometric drawings
• distinguish different models made from the same number of
cubes
SPACE 3D 13
• identify cones, cylinders and spheres
• construct models of cones, cylinders and spheres
• list the properties of cones, cylinders and spheres
• sketch elevations and projections of cones, cylinders and
spheres
SPACE 3D 14
• describe the packing properties of 3D objects
• discuss the strength, rigidity and function of 3D objects
SPACE 3D 15
• recognise 3D objects from drawings and photographs
• represent 3D objects through drawings
• construct scale models of 3D objects
SPACE 3D 16
• tie and untie various standard knots
SPACE 3D 1
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Objects and shapes can be classified according to their The student is able to
similarities and differences. • build, stack and model 3D objects from the environment
• sort, compare, classify and describe 3D objects.
CONTENT
Classification of objects.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Students should be given time in free and directed
play to explore the many objects around them, in the
classroom, the playground and outside the school.
• Ask the students to bring in a variety of objects from
home, for investigation and discussion.
• When directing activities, the teacher should question
or suggest, rather than tell the students. This will
leave the students free to further investigate objects in
their own way, eg “Which objects roll?” “Why does
this object roll?”
• Language accompanied by manipulation of materials
plays a very important role in developing students’
concepts about 3D objects. Involve the students in
discussing, comparing, classifying and listening to
others in small groups. They can report back to the
rest of the class, using their own language. It is not
always necessary for students to know and use the
formal names of the objects they are investigating.
• Girls may have had less opportunity and
encouragement to construct things and may need
extra time on these activities. Teachers also need to
ensure that all students have opportunities to be
reporters and group leaders.
Build, stack, pack, roll, slide, Ask students to
sort, match, empty, model, bend, • build models using a variety of objects
stretch, big, little, thick, thin, top,
• use their own language to describe the
bottom, side.
objects and constructions
“I built a great big building with
• sort objects and discuss their reasons
boxes.”
for sorting in a particular way.
“I built a car and I used a box
and toilet rolls but the wheels
don’t move.”
“All these things rolled down the
ramp.”
“A brick is shaped a bit like a fat
EVALUATION
book.”
“The orange, the beads and the • Did I have a variety of materials
tennis ball are all ball shaped.” available for students?
“This rubber, the writing pad and • Did I arrange for parents and/or older
the block of wood are all box students to assist with group work?
shaped.”
“The boxes stack on top of each
other but the marbles don’t.”

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
FREE PLAY
Students need to be familiar with materials before using them in
structured or formal situations. Allow groups of students time for
free play with a wide variety of collectable and commercial
materials, on a regular basis. Students may also use free play
sessions to practise teacher directed activities.
OBJECT WALK
Students observe and collect items while on a walk around the
classroom or school grounds and discuss the objects encountered.
The students can then make a class book or wall display of their
collections and observations. Similar objects could be used to
make a mobile.
MODELLING
Students use plasticine, playdough or clay to model a variety of
objects. A theme my be chosen, eg farm animals, my family, my
house. Students should discuss their models and make captions for
displays.
SORTING
Give students a number of different objects and ask them to sort
the objects into groups. Students might need some suggestions
initially but should choose their own categories if possible, eg
rough or smooth, colours, shapes. Ask students to describe their
groups. The same objects could then be sorted in a different way.
RAMPS
Students use a plank or board to investigate which objects roll or
slide. By varying the steepness of the ramp, they could proceed to
a ranking of objects based on slipperiness. Toilet rolls, blocks,
cartons, balls, wooden models of solids and everday objects could
be used. Students could sort into a “rolling” group and a “slipping”
group.
MODELLING WITH SAND
Students make sand models. These can be free form or moulded in
buckets or bowls. Students could compare results of using dry sand
and wet sand.
Students might investigate the effect of running water on sand by
sending water through sand channels and observing patterns when
at the beach.
BUBBLES
Students blow bubbles using wire loops or straws and a detergent
solution. Students observe the shape of the bubbles. Students note
the effects of changing the shape or size of the wire loop. Add dye
to the solution and ask students to observe what happens.
WOODWORK
Give students a variety of wood off-cuts to sort. They may choose
to sort by thickness, mass, colour, etc. After completing and
discussing their sorting, students could glue pieces together to
form models

RESOURCES
Wood off-cuts, glue, sticks, stones, shells, corks, bricks, plastic, containers, boxes, cartons, building blocks, (eg Lego bricks), Unifix,
Base 10 materials, attribute blocks, pattern blocks, pasticine, playdough.

53
SPACE 3D 2
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Objects can be arranged randomly or in patterns. The student is able to
• make and describe patterns using a variety of objects
• copy and/or extend a 3D pattern
CONTENT • solve 3D puzzles.
Patterns with 3D objects.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• The activities in this unit aim at developing the Spread out, stack, pattern, Ask students to
students’ appeciation of the variety of ways in which puzzle, build, construct, design, • make patterns with everyday objects,
objects can be arranged into patterns. sort, group, join, line, row, using appropriate language, eg “The
• Students should begin work on patterns using a arrange, box. stick comes after the leaf.”
variety of three-dimensional objects, including “My pattern is stone, block, • build models that include patterms,
themselves. leaf... stone, block, leaf....” eg “I made a wall with a stripy
• A 3D puzzle can be created simply by a student “I looked at a wall and tried to pattern.”
making a model out of blocks or plasticine and asking make the same pattern with • use a set number of blocks to make a
a friend to copy it exactly or showing a friend how a blocks.” construction and then swap and copy
model is made, by pulling it apart and asking the “This box fits through the their partner’s model.
friend to make it again. triangle hole.”
• Allow free exploration of any of the material, “My group made a pattern with
particularly if it is the first time the students have seen one person sitting then one
standing, one sitting, one EVALUATION
it, eg pattern blocks.
standing.” • Did all the students in the group have
• The acitivities in this unit can be done over several opportunities to discuss what they
weeks or months, depending on students’ had done?
understandings. Each unit is not intended to be one
lesson. • Was the space in the classroom used
appropriately for group work?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
PATTERN WALK
PEOPLE PATTERNS
Ask students to observe their surroundings, eg desks, chairs,
Make patterns using the student themselves. Patterns can be based windows, buildings or plants, and discuss the patterns they see.
on position. They could make models of what they see, using plasticine, blocks
or other concrete materials.

ARRANGING OBJECTS
• Ask students to arrange a set of objects in a sequence or pattern
of their choice. Another student could be asked to copy or
continue the pattern.
• Ask students to build objects such as towers, animals and
buildings using interlocking cubes. Have students describe
what they have built.
POSTING SHAPES
There are several commercial puzzles which develop the ability of
students to post different shapes through the appropriate hole.
These are suitable for students to investigate during free play.
3D FRIEZE
Students wrap ribbons, string, crepe paper or coloured wrapping
paper around toilet rolls, cotton reels, boxes, etc to decorate them.
These can be hung around the school. Students discuss the
difficulties involved in wrapping some shapes and consider wyas
of overcoming such problems, eg folding, cutting.
MAKING PATTERNS
• The teacher lines up various items, eg a leaf, a shell, a stick
and asks students to repeat the pattern.
• Give students a variety of objects and ask them to form a
pattern for their partner to duplicate. Suggest that students
make patterns from left to right, right to left, top to bottom, etc.
• Students give verbal instructions to a partner on the building of
a pattern with concrete materials.
• Have students glue patterns onto cardboard and add captions
for wall displays.

RESOURCES
Lego bricks, Duplo bricks, Unifix, Multilink, block puzzles, posting boxes or balls, Cuisenaire rods, foam rubber shapes, coloured plastic
cubes.

54
SPACE 3D 3
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Shape may be perceived and represented in two The student is able to
dimensions. • describe and group 3D objects and informally name them
• recognise 3D objects from drawings and photographs
CONTENT • represent 3D objects through artwork.
Investigating the properties of 3D objects.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• At this stage, the students are exploring objects in Smooth, rounded, curved, Ask students to
greater detail and refining their observation and straight, edge, sort, group, • group similar objects together and give
classification skills. container, lighter, heavier, reasons for the grouping, eg stationery
• This is the first time that students are asked to longer, shorter, taller, pointed. items, items of clothing
recognise 3D objects from 2D representations such as “I made a group of things that • match a photograph or drawing of an
photographs and drawings. are roller shapes.” object with the actual object
• Emphasis should be placed on students handling, “The carrot and the banana are • make models of something in a picture
discussing and classifying the many objects around both pointy.” or photograph.
them. “I saw the kangaroo in that
• The students’ early attempts at drawing 3D objects picture and made it out of
(such as themselves) may be very imprecise. Accept plasticine.”
“The hose is a curly shape.” EVALUATION
their attempts and encourage group discussion.
“This looks different when I turn • Did I allow enough time for the
• Teachers can model mathematical language while still activities?
it.”
accepting and encouraging students’ informal terms.
• Was I able to cater for individual
• Ensure that students group objects according to size, differences?
shape, length and mass, as well as colour. Encourage
them to develop their own criteria for grouping.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
OBJECT SORT
OBJECTS IN THE ENVIRONMENT
Set up four large containers, such as cartons, and label them, eg box
Students find a flower, a bush or a similar object and describe some
shapes, ball shapes, roller shapes.
of its features. They could try to find other objects which have a
similar shape and make drawings of them. Students go on a hunt to find objects to place in the containers.

MYSTERY BAG
The teacher places a number of objects into a large bag or box, eg a
shell, a ball, a shoe, a pencil. A student reaches into the bag and
feels an object and then describes the shape without actually naming
the object. Other students try to guess the object.
WHAT AM I?
A student describes at least three attributes of an object to the rest
of the class and the other students try to guess which object is being
described.
DRAW A SHAPE
Students are given a piece of paper which they mark into four
sections. Each section can have a picture showing a shape to look
for, eg box shapes, ball shapes, can shapes, curly shapes. Students
find objects that match the shapes and draw them in the appropriate
section.
Students repeat the process by searching through old magazines to
find pictures of objects.
Students could perform a similar sorting process with animals,
choosing their own categories, eg number of legs, those that hop.
PHOTOGRAPHS AND FRIEZES
• Photographs show 3D objects in two dimensions. Ask students
to bring in photographs of themselves and other members of
their family. Ask students to study photographs taken from
different angles, eg of cars.
• If possible, have students take photographs of objects in the
school environment. Otherwise, students could collect and study
photographs from other sources. Have students sort, group and
label their photographs in various ways.
• Students make friezes based on scenes from their neighbourhood
and/or school. Photographs and drawings can be placed on the
frieze.

RESOURCES
Photographs, camera, film, paper, pencils, paint, glue, cartons, boxes, cotton reels, flowers, car sales brochures, items from the natural
environment.

55
SPACE 3D 4
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Objects cna be arranged randomly or in patterns and can The student is able to
be classified according to similarities or differences. • describe and predict the movement of objects
• make stacking patterns and designs using blocks
CONTENT • describe changes of shape in objects.
Investigating the properties of 3D objects.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• In this unit the students will be looking at the way in Straight, curved, flat, round, Ask students to
which objects can move and change their shape. Give stack, balance, roll, slide, twist, • manipulate various materials to
students time to explore and discuss materials freely turn, bend, squash, float, sink, change their shape, eg twisting pipe
before using them in structured activities. mould, flatten, mobile. cleaners around each other to make
• Ask the students to bring particular items to school on “The marbles will stack if I new shapes
a particular day, eg objects that roll, objects that slide, make the bottom ones stick • discuss how different objects move,
objects that bounce. together.” eg a ball, a block
• Exploration of objects can be integrated with “These things roll down the • manipulate and discuss the objects
measurement and number, eg comparing the ramp and those ones slide.” that stack and those that do not stack.
dimensions of objects, measuring stacks, counting the “When Zara lifted the board the
blocks in a stack tower fell over.”

EVALUATION
• Did the activities relate to the
students’ interests?
• Would more or less teacher
supervision aid learning?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
SORTING
STACKING ACTIVITIES
• Students sort objects according to whether they slide or roll.
• Students build a wall with empty cans and describe how they Similarly, they could sort by considering whether objects can
did it. Ask students to suggest other ways of stacking. be bent, squashed, etc. Students discuss their results, noting,
for instance, which objects resume their original shape after
being distorted.
• Students sort objects according to whether they sink or float in
water.

MOVING OBJECTS
• Have students build paper aeroplanes of their own design and
test to see if they fly.
• Students build a cubby using cardboard boxes. • Have students mould, twist or flatten plasticine, playdough or
• Students build stacks using toilet roll centres or balls and clay. Link with craft activities such as pottery.
discuss the difficulties they encounter.
• Students build a tower using margarine containers, blocks, PIPE CLEANERS
boxes or toilet roll centres. Groups decide which material was
Students investigate the shapes that can be made using pipe
easiest to stack.
cleaners, eg curved, straight, curly. Have students join pipe
• Students build vehicles, buildings and animals by stacking cleaners to make animals, people, flowers and patterns.
various objects and glueing them together. Students can then
write captions for their models.
• Have students build walls using blocks. Suggest that they make
windows in the walls.
• Have students stack objects on a board, tilt the board and note
when the stack topples.

RESOURCES
Boxes, lids, margarine containers, plates, pipe cleaners, cans, egg cartons, Lego bricks, Unifix, Cuisenaire, wood off-cuts, string, dowel,
plasticine, clay, playdough.

56
SPACE 3D 5
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Natural and manufactured objects have shape and The student is able to
structure in three dimensions. • explore and describe faces, edges and corners of 3D objects
• classify 3D objects according to various properties
CONTENT • recognise 3D objects from drawings and photographs and represent them
Investigating the properties of 3D objects. through artwork.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• In this unit students will begin to examine various
properties of objects. Though they may be analysing
an object in this way it is still important to emphasise
the perception of the object as a whole.
• The students will need to know the meaning of words
such as face, edge and corner. Use these words
frequently in relation to objects held by students so
that the terms become clear.
• Classification occurs often, both informally and
formally, eg when students select objects to go with
their constructions, pack objects away or when the
teacher directs students to sort objects with particular
attributes.
• In some of the activities the students are asked to
imagine themselves inside an object. Such activities
help to develop skills of spatial visualisation and
should be done often.
• Use incidental and planned opportunities to give the
students experiences in recognising 3D objects from
drawings and photographs. Encourage them to
represent 3D objects through artwork. This also aids
the development of spatial visualisation.
Hollow, solid, curved, straight,
flat, face, edge, corner, sort,
compare, the same, different,
order, large, small, square,
round, triangle, rectangle, sharp,
pointed, bumpy, rough, smooth.
“All the faces are square.”
“This roller has flat round ends
and it is round in between.”
“I’m pretending to be inside a
large pipe.”
“The die is solid. I put six
stickers on it.”
“My box has got squares and
rectangles.”
“This roller shape is hollow.”
Ask students to
• describe the shape of objects in detail,
eg “This box has flat faces, sharp
corners and straight edges.”
• find objects similar to those
illustrated in a picture, eg “This is a
picture of a building because it has
flat faces, sharp corners and straight
edges.”
• draw an object and describe it in
detail, eg “I drew a mug with
roundish shapes for the top and the
handle and straight lines for the
sides.”
EVALUATION
• Did I encourage student discussion
through open-ended questioning?
• Were both girls and boys given
opportunities to handle the materials?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
FACES, EDGES AND CORNERS
• Ask students to rub their hands over the surface of an object,
describing the feel by using such terms as “flat”, “sharp”,
“curved” and “pointed”. Repeat this activity for a variety of
objects.
• Have students examine closed boxes. Ask them to count the
number of corners and the number of edges.
• Take students outside and ask them to find examples of faces,
edges and corners. (Everyday language such as “corner of a
building” is in conflict with formal mathematical language
which would define the meeting of two walls as an edge.
Young students should not be confronted with these
ambiguities. The word “vertex” is used instead of corner in
mathematics but such a word may be too sophisticated and
technical for young students.)
• Give students dot stickers and have them place one on each
face of a variety of objects, then count the faces. Where two
different objects have the same number of faces, eg a triangular
prism and a square pyramid, have students describe how the
objects differ, using informal language.
• Have students count the number of corners and edges for a
variety of objects and compare their results. Have students
write descriptions of everday shapes, using their own language.
IMAGINE
• Have students stand inside very large cartons and feel the
inside surface. Encourage them to describe how the space feels
in terms of the faces, edges and corners.
• Ask students to imagine that they are in a large box. Ask them
to mime certain actions, such as putting their right foot in one
corner, touching one of the top corners, rubbing their feet on
the bottom or running a hand along one of the bottom edges.
• Repeat the previous activity with students imagining that they
are inside small objects such as toilet rolls, balls, cones, etc.
SKETCH IT
Ask students to draw an object placed in front of them. The
teacher could question students about the object and have them
describe in detail what they can see. It may help some students if
they paint dark lines around the edges of their object before they
begin to draw. Have students write a caption and discuss the
activity with other students. Repeat the activity for various objects.
MYSTERY OBJECT
Various objects are placed in a bag. A student or the teacher
describes the properties of a certain object and a student feels in
the bag to find an object with those properties.

RESOURCES
A wide variety of containers including some very large ones, wood off-cuts, boxes, lids, adhesive tape, corks, marbles, toilet rolls,
newspapers and magazines, wooden and plastic blocks, paint, string, glue, streamers, dot stickers, beads, seeds, shells.

57
SPACE 3D 6
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Natural and manufactured objects have shape and The student is able to
structure in three dimensions. • model 3D objects and investigate the shape of their cross-sections
• pull objects apart and reassemble them
CONTENT • describe objects from different points of view.
Investigating the properties of 3D objects.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• This is the first time the students are informally
investigating the shape of cross-sections and nets. As
far as possible, familiar materials should be used, eg
opening out a cereal box to examine its net or cutting
up apples to investigate cross-sections.
• It is not essential for the students to use formal
language at this stage.
• Be aware of group interaction and ensure there is a
balance of contribution from all students.
• When the students are describing what they can see
from different positions, encourage a lot of discussion
and allow many opportunities for sketching various
objects.
• This unit should be integrated with the study of 2D
shapes. Using the faces of 3D objects to make prints
or trace around allows students to focus on the 2D
shapes which result, (eg see Space 2D Units 1 and 2).
Cut through, cut across, shape,
cross-section, fold out, fold up,
round, square, rectangular, oval,
behind, in front of, next to,
beside, on top of, above, below.
“The teacher cut the pear from
the stalk to the bottom.”
“Inside it looked like a scissors
shape.”
“I think it’s like a heart with
seed in the middle.”
“From this side the cupboard’s
skinny.”
“From the front it’s wide.”
Ask students to
• cut and describe the cross-sections of
familiar objects, eg “When I chopped
the banana I saw a round shape.”
• model 3D objects and describe them,
eg “I made a box out of my plasticine
and then I rolled it up to make a ball.”
• pull apart objects to see their shape
and then put them back together
again.
• describe objects from different
positions.
EVALUATION
• Did the students work cooperatively
in small groups?
• Did I use a variety of evaluation
techniques?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
CUT AND PRINT
• Give students fruit and vegetables. Ask them to cut their fruit or
vegetable, not necessarily in half or at right angles to an axis,
and disccuss the shape that is formed. Students then press the
shape onto a paint-soaked sponge and print it onto paper.
Repeat using different pieces of fruit and making different cuts
in the same piece of fruit.
• Give students other objects such as polystyrene pieces, boxes
and toilet rolls. Ask students to predict the shapes that could
result by cutting the object in various ways. Test predictions
wherever possible.
• Students model shapes using playdough, plasticine or clay.
Using a knife or piece of wire, they cut the model and describe
the cross-section. Then they could produce stampings by
pressing the cross-section onto an ink pad or paint-soaked
sponge and printing the shape onto paper.
COMPARING
Ask students to make three objects from plasticine that will give a
round section when cut, eg cone, ball, cylinder.
Ask students to make shapes which give a particular section when
cut.
Students could make prints of the sections and compare them.
PULLING SHAPES APART
Give groups of students boxes of various types. Ask students to cut
carefully along some edges so that the box may be flattened out.
Students discuss and compare results, then draw the net and
discuss other possible forms. Students could then fold the
cardboard into its original form and stick it together.
Repeat the activity with boxes or packets of unusual shape.
POINTS OF VIEW
Students work in pairs, sitting opposite each other at tables, with
objects on the table between them. Each students describes and
draws the objects from his or her own point of view. Then they
move a little way around the table and repeat the process.
They keep moving around until they are in the other person’s
starting position.
This activity can be repeated using a variety of arrangements and
objects.
WHAT CAN I SEE?
Students work in pairs, sitting on opposite sides of a table with a
barrier between them. One student builds a simple model from
cubes, out of sight of the partner. The builder of the model then
gives instructions to the partner in order that the partner can build a
duplicate model. The instructor may not touch and the copier may
not peek.

RESOURCES
Fruit and vegetables, an assortment of boxes and containers, corks, toilet rolls, plasticine, playdough, clay, paper, pencils, paint, Lego or
Duplo bricks, blocks.

58
SPACE 3D 7
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Objects can be classified according to their properties. The student is able to
• investigate and describe the properties of prisms and cylinders
• discuss the faces, edges and corners of prisms
CONTENT • identify prisms and cylinders.
Investigating the properties of prisms and cylinders.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• The “family” of prisms is examined before terms such Face, surface, base, edge, Ask students to
as “rectangular prism” or “square prism” are used. A corners, prism, solid, cylinder, • count the faces, edges and corners of
prism is named according to the shape of its base. All hollow, stack, round, square, prisms and discuss results, eg “This
prisms have two bases which are the same shape and triangle, triangular, rectangle, prism has six corners and five faces”
size. rectangular. • use blocks to construct different types
• The bases of a prism may be squares, rectangles, “Run you fingers over this of prisms and cylinders
triangles or other polygons but the other faces in the prism.” • identify prisms and cylinders from
net are always rectangular. “Show me a base.” collections of everyday objects, eg
• Geometric models of various prisms are useful for “I can feel the top of this “The butter is made like a prism but
activities in this unit. If they are not available, block.” the toothpast tube is not.”
everyday obejcts based on prisms can be substituted. “This cube feels sharp. It’s
• Have students build up a collection of prisms and pointy.”
cylinder of varying shapes and sizes. Most will have “This prism has six faces.”
EVALUATION
rectangular bases but it is also possible to find boxes “This face is curved but that one
is flat.” • Were all students given opportunities
which are triangular nad hexagonal prisms.
“This surface is a rectangle.” to talk about their ideas?
• Students should be actively engaged in handling
“The chocolate box has two • Did the activities challenge the
models and discussing them throught the activities.
triangles and three rectangles.” students?
• In this unit, there is a move from informal language to
Teachers need to stress that the
more formal language, eg from “box” to “prism”.
base of a prism is the shape of
• As many examples as possible of each type of prism the constant cross-section, not
should be provided. necessarily the face on which it
is resting.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
INVESTIGATING PRISMS AND CYLINDERS
CONSTRUCTING PRISMS AND CYLINDERS
Students make prints of the faces and bases of prisms. A chart may
Students build and stack attribute blocks, books or pattern blocks be built up to illustrate the prints obtained from various prisms and
to develop the idea of a prism as an object having a constant cross- cylinders.
section.

Students could build prisms using Base 10 naterial, Cuisenaire

rods, Multilink, Centicubes, Lego bricks, Duplo bricks, pattern
blocks or Unifix.

BLINDFOLD
Students handle and discuss geometric models or everyday
examples of various prisms and cylinders whilst blindfolded. They
count the faces, edges and corners and describe the shape of the
faces. Then they take off the blindfold and repeat the activity,
comparing results.
Students could use a “feely bag” instead of being blindfolded.
SORTING PRISMS
Students sort collections of everyday objects into “objects which
are prisms” and “objects which are not prisms”. Students could
further sort their prisms into categories of their own choosing.
PRISMS IN THE ENVIRONMENT
Students go on a prism hunt, finding and drawing examples of
prisms in their environment. Students could collect photographs of
prisms from magazines and make a prisms book.

RESOURCES
Boxes, packets, containers, blocks, bricks, timber off-cuts, geometric models, Base 10 materials, Cuisenaire rods, pattern blocks,
Multilink, Centicubes, Unifix, blindfold, a bag, paint.

59
SPACE 3D 8
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Objects can be classified according to their properties. The student is able to
• investigate and describe the properties of pyramids
• discuss the faces, edges and corners of pyramids
CONTENT • identify pyramids.
Investigating the properties of pyramids.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Pyramids differ from prisms in that they have only Face, surface, base, edge, Ask students to
one base and all the other faces are triangular. One corner, apex, point, pyramid, • describe and count faces, edges and
end of a pyramid tapers to a point (apex). square, triangle, hexagon, corners of pyramids
• The basic pyramids are the square and the triangular pentagon.
• identify pyramids from collections of
pyramids though students do not need to use these “Run your fingers around this objects.
terms at this stage. pyramid.”
• Cross sections taken parallel to the base of a pyramid “This pyramid has five corners.”
are all the same in shape but are smaller than the base. “The pryamids all have flat
• Students can count faces, edges and corners of bases and pointy tops.”
pyramids as they are handled, with the emphasis on “There are four sides on this
investigation rather than recording at this stage. pyramid.”
“The base is a hexagon shape.” EVALUATION
• Teachers will need to collect sufficient examples of • How much assistance did each
“On my pyramid I painted the
pyramids for students to work in groups. student require?
triangles red and the rectangle
• It is helpful if more than one example of each type of yellow.” • Did discussion between students take
pyramid can be provided. If geometric models are not place?
available, the teacher will need to have cardboard
models prepared.
• Continue to emphasise the students’ perception of
whole objects while they analyse the properties of the
objects.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
PLAYING WITH PYRAMIDS
Provide students with a variety of pyramids, eg having square,
triangular, hexagonal or rectangular bases. Students discuss the
faces, edges, corners and bases, noting the similarities and
differences.
Students stack sets of seriated shapes to form “pyramids”.
BLINDFOLD
Students handle models of different pyramids with their eyes
closed, describing and counting the faces, edges and corners. The
activity may then be repeated with the students having their eyes
open and noting any differences in their descriptions.
Similar activities could be arranged with pyramids being included
with other objects in a “feely bag”.

Although such stacks are not strictly pyramids, they allow students
to explore the idea that the cross-sections parallel to the base
become progressively smaller the further away from the base they
are taken.
Ask students to sort the collection of pyramids according to some
attribute related to size, eg height.
PRINTING WITH PYRAMIDS
Students make prints using the faces and bases of a variety of
pyramids and construct a chart of results.
PYRAMID PAINT
Students choose a model of a pyramid and paint each of its faces a
different colour.
Students investigate how many faces they can touch at once, how
many faces meet at any one corner, etc.
Students could list the colours that meet at each corner and
comment on the possible combinations.
PRYAMID HUNT
Students find examples of pyramids in the real world and make
collections of objects and photographs, eg the Egyptian Pyramids,
glasshouses, drink cartons.

CLASSIFICATION
Students sort models into prisms, pyramids and those that are
neither.

RESOURCES
Wooden, plastic or cardboard models of different types of pyramids, Polydrons, sets of seriated triangular, square and hexagonal bricks.

60
SPACE 3D 9
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
A knowledge of the properties of objects and shapes and The student is able to
the ability to construct them is useful in everyday life. • construct models of prisms and compare, discuss, name and label them
• investigate and describe nets, skeletons and cross-sections of prisms.
CONTENT
Investigating the properties of prisms.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Prisms are named according to the shapes of their
bases.
Rectangular Triangular
prism prism
• The formal names are introduced while students are
engaged in constructing the prisms. It is important
that geometric terms should not be over emphasised at
the expense of understanding the concepts that the
terms represent. It is not necessary for students to
learn formal geometric definitions.
• Models can be made by the students
- folding nets from cardboard or paper
- cutting up boxes and packets to form their nets and
then reconstructing them
- using rubber bands and cardboard shapes
- using clay, plasticine or playdough
- using plastic interlocking shapes (Polydrons).
• Skeletons (or frameworks) of different prisms can be
constructed with various materials.
• While objects in the environment are not exact
prisms, they may be described using terms such as
“looks like a prism”.
Cube, square, prisms,
rectangular prism, pentagonal
prism, hexagonal prism, hollow,
solid, cross-section, inside out,
net, skeleton.
“This box has two squares and
four rectangles. It’s a square
prism.”
“A cube has six squares on it.
It’s a square prism too.”
“This prism is long and thin but
that one’s short and thick.”
“If I cut this here I get a
triangle.”
“The box is hollow but the clay
model is solid.”
Note that not all square prisms
are cubes. Hence these terms
should not be used
interchangeably.
Ask students to
• construct models of various prisms
using a variety of materials and use
their own language to describe prisms
• identify various types of prisms
• predict and then examine the shape of
different cross-sections of prisms
• recognise objects based on prisms in
the natural and manufactured
environment.
EVALUATION
• Did I allow students to use a range of
strategies to solve problems?
• Would students benefit from different
activity groups?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
CONSTRUCTING NETS BY TRACING
NETS
Students may trace templates of regular polygons onto cardboard
Students collect boxes, then cut and fold them to form nets. The or paper to form given nets. These may then be folded into their
nets of various prisms may be compared and discussed. The nets 3D forms, painted and labelled.
can be refolded and the shape made inside out.
MAKING SKELETAL MODELS
Students could consider whether the same figure can have more
than one net, eg consider which hexominoes can be folded to form Skeletons may be made using such materials as toothpicks, straws
a cube. and pipe cleaners.

Students could be given cut-out nets and asked to fold and glue to
form the three dimensional shape. Alternatively, drawings of nets
could be given to students, who then copy the nets using
interlocking plastic squares, triangles and pentagons (Polydrons). Students could study the rigidity of the various models.
The copied net can then be folded and clipped together to form the
3D shape.
INVESTIGATING CROSS-SECTIONS
Cardboard shapes are available which can be joined by elastic
Students make prisms from clay, plasticine or playdough. By
bands to form 3D shapes. Students could investigate these shapes.
carefully cutting the models with a piece of wire or a knife, the
cross-sections may be studied. Students make various sections at
CLAY MODELS right angles to the axis and note the results. They then predict the
Students construct prisms from clay, plasticine or playdough. shapes resulting from cutting at an oblique angle or cutting with a
Students compare and discuss their results. curved blade and perform the section to check their predictions.

RESOURCES
Boxes, packets, paper, cardboard, rubber bands, string, plasticine, clay, playdough, pipecleaners, hole punch, tape, geometric models of
prisms, soft wire, straws, Polydrons.

61
SPACE 3D 10
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
A knowledge of the properties of objects and shapes and The student is able to
the ability to construct them is useful in everyday life. • construct models of pyramids and compare, discuss, name and label them
• investigate and describe nets, skeletons and cross-sections of pyramids.
CONTENT
Investigating the properties of pyramids.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Pryamids are named according to the shapes of their Square pyramid, triangular Ask students to
bases. The faces of a pyramid are triangles. pyramid, pentagonal pyramid, • construct models of pyramids using a
• Pyramids can be constructed by hexagonal pyramid, cross- variety of materials and use formal
- folding nets made from cardboard or paper section. names to describe them
(previously constructed by the teacher) “I think I need four triangles to • select various types of pyramids from
- using plasticine, playdough and clay to make copies make a square pyramid.” a collection of objects
of wooden or cardboard models “If I cut the top off a square • recognise examples of objects which
- using cardboard shapes and rubber bands pyramid it makes a smaller look like pyramids in the natural and
- using plastic interlocking shapes (Polydrons). square pryamid.” manufactured environment
• Skeletons of various pyramids can be made using “There are huge stone pyramids
• predict and then examine the different
toothpicks and plasticine, straws and plasticine, in Egypt.”
cross-sections of pyramids.
straws with pipe cleaners as hinges, pipecleaners and
soft wire.
• Formal naming is introduced during this unit.
Students can label and display a variety of models. EVALUATION
• Did the students have the prerequisite
understandings, vocabulary and skills
for the activities to be meaningful?
• Did all students in the group have
opportunities to participate?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
SKELETONS
CONSTRUCTING PYRAMIDS
Students make skeletal models of pyramids using toothpicks, pipe
• Students construct pyramid models using clay, plasticine or cleaners or straws.
playdough. Using wire or a knife, students can slice models
parallel to the base and investigate the cross-sections. The
truncated solids could then be investigated. Students could
predict the results obtained from taking slices at an oblique
angle to the base and check their predictions
• The teacher provides nets of pyramids which students fold and
stick together. The various forms of the net which fold to give
the same 3D solid could be investigated.
RESEARCH
• Students build pyramids using interlocking plastic shapes such
as Polydrons. With different coloured squares, the task of • Students research the building of the Egyptian Pyramids. A
counting the faces, edges and corners is simplified. wall chart could be produced, showing the number of workers
involved, construction techniques, dimensions, time taken, etc.
• Students use cardboard shapes and elastic bands to build • Students find other examples of pyramidal structures, such as
pyramids. the glasshouse in the Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney. Research
the reasons for a pyramidal shape being chosen, its advantages
and disadvantages, construction difficulties, etc. Drawings and
photographs could illustrate the research in a wall chart.

UNIQUENESS OF BASE
Students handle a variety of models of pyramids and decide
whether the base is unique or whether any face could be the base.
Models of tetrahedrons should be included.

RESOURCES
Paper, cardboard, rubber bands, straws, plasticine, playdough, clay, pipe cleaners, soft wire, hole punch, tape, wooden models of
pyramids, toothpicks, Polydrons.

62
SPACE 3D 11
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
The shape of an object is a property which can be The students is able to
abstracted from the object itself. • recognise prisms and pyramids from drawings and photographs taken
from various perspectives
CONTENT • represent 3D objects through drawings
Investigating the properties of prisms and pyramids. • construct 3D models from drawings or photographs.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Students need to develop the skills of Looking down, looking from Ask students to
- recognising objects and shapes from different the front, looking from the side, • look at a drawing or photograph and
viewpoints, eg looking from above front view, viewpoint, cube, make a reasonable model of the
- interpreting 2D diagrams of 3D objects, eg seeing rectangular prism, square, object using various materials
this cube in 3D or some rhombuses in 2D triangle, circle.
• draw different views of a given object
“The rim of the cup looks like a • identify an object, given drawings
circle.” taken from various viewpoints
“There are eight blocks with
• match drawings with objects.
three red faces and four blocks
with two red faces.”
“That looks like a car when you
- representing 3D objects by 2D drawings. look down on it.”
• Students will have achieved an important objective of
this sub-strand when they can perceive and hold an EVALUATION
appropriate mental image of an object or arrangement. • Did I give students time to discuss
Manipulations of the object or arrangement can then their findings amongst themselves?
be visualised. • Were classroom activities adequate in
• Students continue to develop the ways in which they addressing the unit objectives?
represent objects. Gradually, their drawings will
become more conventional, technically skilled and
realistic. Their skills of visualisation, if practised, will
continue to develop.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
BUILDING MODELS
• Students collect photographs or pictures of everyday objects
from magazines. Students find objects in the photographs
which are based on prisms and model them. Material used may
be papier-mache, blocks, Lego bricks, etc.
• Students build Lego and other models according to instructions
and plans.
SPATIAL VISUALISATION
• Students draw classroom objects from different viewpoints,
eg side, top, front. Grid paper may be used. Repeat for
everyday objects chosen by the students.
• Students are given photographs or various objects and are
asked to draw one of the objects from a different view.
SOLIDS
Students study drawings of solids from various viewpoints, eg top,
sides, and identify the solid by choosing from a range of models.
DRAW IT
• The teacher shows the students a box or packet and asks them
to draw what they think it looks like from some particular
viewpoint.
• The students draw their prediction for the net of the box or
packet. The teacher then cuts and unfolds the box or packet to
form the net and this is compared with the students’ drawings.
SHAPE IN THE ENVIRONMENT
Ask students to draw pictures of everyday objects as they imagine
they would look from various viewpoints, eg a car from directly
above.

FIND IT UNSEEN FACES

Students are given cards prepared by the teacher showing various The teacher gives students drawings of various rectangular prisms
everyday objects as seen from different viewpoints. made from interlocking cubes. The students have to say how many
of the cubes would have three faces, two faces, one face and no
faces visible in the actual model. Have students check by building
the model.
Top view Front view 3 faces - 8 cubes
2 faces - 16 cubes
1 face - 6 cubes
Students have to name the object using as few of the teacher’s
cards as they can.

RESOURCES
Blocks, cups, glasses, geometric models, Lego bricks, models, construction kits, dolls’ house furniture, grip paper, photographs.

63
SPACE 3D 12
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Visual imagery and spatial ability are useful in everyday The student is able to
situations. • model 3D solids from isometric drawings
• distinguish different models made from the same number of cubes.
CONTENT
Investigating the properties of 3D objects.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• 3D games, puzzles and problems provide contexts for Prism, isometric dot paper, Ask students to
developing skills in spatial visualisation, including arrangements, equivalent. • make different arrangements of four
recognising objects and shapes from various cubes
“I can make two models using
viewpoints and rotating mental images of objects and
three cubes.” • solve 3D puzzles
shapes. Building models with cubes, manipulating
“I think there are nine • make models based on isometric
them and fitting them together to make new objects
arrangements. No. these two are drawings.
are worthwhile activities for developing visualisation
equivalent so there are only
skills.
eight.”
• Isometric dot paper contains an arrangement of dots
where the distance between each adjoining dot is the
same. There are two orientations of isometric dot
paper. If the wrong orientation is used, the resulting
drawings will not be credible representations. EVALUATION
• A tetrahedron is a four faced solid, where each face is • Did I allow students to discuss ideas
a triangle. A regular tetrahedron has all faces in their first language?
equilateral triangles and is one of the five Platonic
• Have I allowed sufficient time for
solids.
individuals to consolidate these
important early skills.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
3D PUZZLES
INTERLOCKING CUBES
Using foam puzzles such as the DIME Build-up Blocks, students
• Students investigate the number of different models that can be
can investigate the way a 3D model can be formed by combining
made using two cubes (trivial), then three cubes. They build the
other 3D models.
models and draw the possibilities on isometric dot paper.
• Students investigate tetracubes, ie the different models that can
be made using four interlocking cubes. Students should use
four cubes of the same colour to build their models. Students
could display their models. Some students might be capable of
drawing the various possibilities on isometric dot paper when
they have had more experience with this type of drawing.
• Extend the problem to five cubes. The number of possible
arrangements is far greater. Relate to the polyominoes
investigations in Space 2D, Unit 24

INTERPRETING ISOMETRIC DRAWINGS

The teacher provides drawings of blocks on isometric dot paper.
Students build the model illustrated.

ELEVATIONS FROM ISOMETRIC DRAWINGS

Give students isometric drawings on dot paper and ask them to
draw what the figure looks like directly from the front (front
elevation), from one side, from the other side and from the back.
Students build the figure and check their elevations.

RESOURCES
Centicubes, Multilink, isometric dot paper, DIME solids.

64
SPACE 3D 13
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Objects and shapes can be classified according to their
The student is able to
properties.
• identify cones, cylinders and spheres
• construct models of cones, cylinders and spheres
CONTENT • list the properties of cones, cylinders and spheres
Investigating the properties of cones, cylinders and • sketch elevations and projections of cones, cylinders and spheres
spheres.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• A cone may be regarded as a pyramid whose base is Cone, cylinder, sphere, face, Ask students to
circular. The pointed end is called the vertex. Its net surface, base, edge, corner, • identify cones, cylinders and spheres
consists of a circle and a sector of a circle. height, circular, curved, prisms, from a collection of objects
• A cylinder has a uniform circular cross-section and pyramid, cross-section, top
• count the faces, edges and corners of
may be regarded as a prism. Its net consists of a view, bottom view, side view.
cones, cylinders and spheres
rectangle and two circles. “The sphere has no corners or
• construct models of cones, cylinders
• A sphere is a ball shape. It is difficult to construct as edges.”
and spheres
the net cannot be formed from flat materials. “Your cone is not as tall as mine
but its base is wider.” • describe the properties of cones,
• Students should identify objects based on cones,
“If I cut a sphere, I get a circle.” cylinders and spheres
cylinders and spheres in the natural and built
environment, as well as from drawings and “If I cut a cylinder like this I get • identify cones, cylinders and spheres
photographs. a rectangle.” from drawings and photographs
“The ball looks like a circle • represent cones, cylinders and spheres
• The drawing of shapes with curved surfaces is a high
from above. So does the cone. in isometric drawings and elevations.
order skill which could be related to Art. The
So does the cylinder.”
curvature of a sphere can only be represented by the
“The cone rolls around in a
use of light and shade. EVALUATION
circle.”
• Elevations are “square on” views of objects. The term “The Leaning Tower of Pisa • Were sufficient materials available to
is widely used in architecture. Projections may be looks like a cylinder.” allow all students “hands on”
obtained by placing a light source, such as an experience?
overhead projector, behind objects and tracing around • Were girls and boys equally able to
the shadows on the chalkboard. sketch 3D objects?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
STACKING, SORTING AND ROLLING
• Students stack coins into piles to represent cylinders of various
base diameters.
• Students investigate what they can build by stacking cones,
cylinders and spheres.
• Students sort collections of everyday objects into cones,
cylinders and spheres. They further classify the objects
according to size properties.
• Students join two cones at their bases. Using non-parallel rails,
they can create the impression that the solid is “running
uphill”.
• Students investigate the rolling properties of cones, cylinders
and spheres and write reports of their findings.
ENVIRONMENTAL SEARCH
• Students make collections of cones, cylinders and spheres from
everyday items, eg tins, balls, ice cream wrappers.
• Students look for cones, cylinders and spheres in nature.
• Students look for buildings and storage facilities which based
on cones, cylinders or spheres. Photographs could be taken for
a class display.
NETS AND MODELS
• Students open out packets which are conical or cylindrical to
show the net. Ensure that care is taken when cans are cut and
flattened.
• The teacher provides students with nets which students fold
and stick together.
• Students draw nets and fold to form models of cones and
cylinders.
• Students model cones, cylinders and spheres using clay,
plasticine or playdough.
• Students make conical and cylindrical skeletons using wire or
pipe cleaners.
WRAPPING
Students investigate the problems of wrapping conical, cylindrical
and spherical objects.
CROSS-SECTIONS
Students cut clay models of cones, cylinders and spheres with a
knife or piece of wire and describe the sections obtained. (The
conic sections include some shapes not specifically included in
this Syllabus, such as the parabola, but students could be
encouraged to research such curves as an extension activity.)

ELEVATIONS
FACES, EDGES AND CORNERS
Students draw cones, cylinders and spheres from different
• Students count the number of faces, edges and corners of
viewpoints, as well as in perspective.
cones, cylinders and spheres.
• Students make prints of the face of cones, cylinders and
spheres and write about their experiences. CONE Elevations

RESOURCES
Wooden or plastic models of geometric solids, environmental examples of solids, clay, plasticine, playdough, isometric dot paper,
photographs.

65
SPACE 3D 14
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
It is useful to know the properties of objects and shapes The student is able to
and to be able to construct them. • describe the packing properties of 3D objects
• discuss the strength, rigidity and function of 3D objects.
CONTENT
Investigating the properties of 3D objects.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

The shape of 3D objects is often governed by the purpose Cube, tetrahedron, prism,
which they serve. Commercial packaging is governed by triangular, rectangular,
cost, appearance, strength and packing properties, pentagonal, hexagonal, vertical,
amongst other considerations and regulations. horizontal.
Various commercial puzzles are available which assist “The cubes pack together
students to develop their spatial abilities, eg Rubik’s without leaving empty space.”
Cube, Instant Insanity, Soma Sube. “Gas tanks are curved to make
them stronger.”
Ask students to
• explain the factors determining the
shape of some everyday items
• estimate the number of items of a
given type that will pack into a given
enclosed space
• write about the choice of packaging
for some consumer products.

EVALUATION
• Were parents invited to send packets
and other resources?
• Was sufficient opportunity given for
students to discuss their ideas
amongst themselves?
• Did I allow enough time for students
to solve problems before I
intervened?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
PACKING PUZZLES
A QUESTION OF SHAPE • Give students pictures of stacks of cubes and ask them to state
Students write about or discuss the functional nature of common the number of cubes in the stack.
shapes. They may wish to pose their own problems of this type.
Why are wheels circular?
Why are plug holes circular? Could they be any other shape?
Why are most jars cylindrical?
Why are some bottles not cylindrical?
Why aren’t milk cartons spherical?
Why are doors rectangular?
Why are the wings of birds curved?

PACKING PROPERTIES
Students investigate the packing properties of various common
shapes, eg cube, cylinder, sphere. Blocks may be used for cubes,
drink cans for cylinders, marbles or balls for spheres, and so on.
Have students write about their discoveries. • Ask students to state the number o cubes that cannot be seen in
Students are then given various solids and are asked to predict the a stack.
problems associated with packing them, eg hexagonal prisms, • Ask students to solve such 3D puzzles as the Soma Cube
cones. puzzle. Students may like to make similar puzzles of their own
from wood off-cuts.
STRENGTH AND RIGIDITY • Give students logic puzzles based on the sides of a cube.
Students make cardboard models of various common shapes and
devise ways of testing the strength of the shape and its rigidity. B Y B Which colour is
They then write about their findings. G G R opposite R?
R B W

RESOURCES
Interlocking cubes, blocks, containers, packets, cans, balls, marbles, commercial puzzles and solutions booklets.

66
SPACE 3D 15
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
The shape of an object is a property which can be
The student is able to
abstracted from the object itself.
• recognise 3D objects from drawings and photographs
• represent 3D objects through drawings
CONTENT • construct scale models of 3D objects.
Investigating the properties of 3D objects.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Scale is the proportion between an object and the
representation of an object. It can be expressed as a
ratio, eg 1 : 50.
• To avoid confusion, the scale of a model refers to
comparisons of linear measurements. If a 2D shape is
enlarged in the ratio 1 : 2 then its area is enlarged in
the ratio 1 : 4. Hence a square which has its side
length doubled has its area quadrupled.
• A tracing produces a 1 : 1 scale drawing. This is a
useful starting point for introducing the concepts of
scale.
• Photocopiers and enlargers can produce copies of
drawings in different sizes to enable students to
investigate scale.
Scale, representation, enlarge,
reduce, enlargement, reduction,
microscope, enlarger, telescope.
“My model has twice as many
blocks as your model.”
“Ten centimetres represents one
hundred kilometres on the
map.”
“The real ship is four hundred
times longer than this model.”
Note that the word “scale” has
different meanings in different
contexts. Students from non-
English speaking backgrounds
could become confused unless
this is pointed out to them.
Ask students to
• look at a drawing or photograph of a
3D object and make an exact scale
model to represent it
• draw simple plans to a certain scale
and then enlarge or reduce them
• draw plans to scale and then construct
models from the plans using
Centicubes or Base 10 blocks.
EVALUATION
• Did I invite students to bring scale
models of their own to school?
• Did I relate the unit to real problems
and activities?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
ENLARGEMENTS
• Students bring photographs and enlargements to school.
Students compare the original and the enlargement, noting that
the shapes have not changed but everything is bigger in the
same proportion.
• Students trace over drawings to make duplicates which
described using terms such as “1 : 1 copy”.
• The teacher places a simple drawing on the overhead projector
and a student traces over the image on the board. The overhead
projector is then moved closer and to one side. A student traces
over this smaller image. The size and shape of the two images
may be compared and discussed. Repeat the activity by moving
the overhead projector further from the board.
AREA AND VOLUME
• Students draw a rectangle on grid paper and count the number
of squares enclosed. They then double the side lengths and
draw a new rectangle. students predict the new area and check
by counting.
• Students build a rectangular prism using Centicubes. They then
double the side lengths and build a new prism. They compare
the number of cubes in the two prisms and attempt to
generalise. They test their generalisations by creating further
models.
MAPS AND DIRECTORIES
Students measure distances on maps and street directories and
multiply by the scale factor to determine the actual distances
involved.
MODELS
Students bring scale models to school and investigate the scale
used by measuring the model and comparing with the actual
lengths.
When visiting museums, have students note scale models and,
where possible, determine the scale.
PERSPECTIVE DRAWING
As an extension activity and as a link with Art, have students
create enlargements using lines of perspective meeting at a centre
of enlargement. In the example below, the student could double the
distance of each point of the triangle from the centre and hence
create a triangle which is enlarged by a scale factor of two.

Centre

RESOURCES
Lego bricks, Duplo bricks, Centicubes, wooden blocks, Base 10 material, pictures, photographs, isometric dot paper, square grid paper.

67
SPACE 3D 16
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
It is useful to know the properties of objects and shapes,
The student is able to
and to be able to construct them.
• tie and untie various standard knots.

CONTENT
Investigating topology.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Knot tying is a useful, practical activity which be Knot, figure of eight knot, Ask students to
integrated into Art and Craft programs. thumb knot, double knot, • tie a range of simple knots
• Knots are possible because of the shape formed by granny’s knot, clove hitch,
• untie some simple tangles
part of the cord when it is moved in certain directions. weaver’s knot, round turn and
two half hitches, tie, untie, • recognise some standard knots by
It can thus be considered a spatial activity.
tighten, tighter, Moebius Strip. name
• In tying most knots an end is put through a loop. A
• state which knot would be suitable for
selection of simple knots can be demonstrated for “To make a granny’s knot, you
a given application.
students. Students should then practise each knot, put right over left then right
preferably using thick cord such as window sash cord. over left again.”
• Children who are Scouts or Guides can be called upon “If I pull it, it gets tighter.”
to serve as resource people for this unit. “I think that I will get a big
circle when I cut the strip.”
• The applications of the various knots and the
characteristics of the knot that make it suitable should
be investigated and discussed. EVALUATION
• Paper ring puzzles can be fascinating and often • Was I willing to acknowledge the
produce surprising results. Work relating to the superior knowledge of knots of some
Moebius Strip comes from the same part of of the students?
mathematics as the study of knots, ie topology. • Did I encourage students to help each
other rather than depend on the
teacher for help?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
APPLICATIONS OF KNOTS
INVESTIGATING KNOTS
Have students research where certain knots are used, eg which
Students investigate some of the standard knots and practise tying knots are used by sailors, truck drivers, rock climbers. Have
them. students explore some Macrame designs noting which knots are
used.

MOEBIUS STRIP
Students take a ribbon of paper, give one end a half twist and join
the two ends.
Thumb knot Double thumb knot
• Have students draw a line down the centre of the strip. They
will note that the strip has only one side.
• Ask students to predict what would happen if they cut the strip
along the line they have drawn. Have students cut along the
line to check their predictions.
• Have students make a strip with a full twist in it and repeat the
Weavers knot
previous activities.
Clove knot • Have students research the practical applications of the
Moebius Strip, eg in factories where large belts drive
Figure of eight knot
machinery.

PAPER RINGS PUZZLE

Students cut two paper strips, each about 5 cm x 30 cm. They draw
a line down the centre of each join each strip to form a ring. Tape
together and the two rings at right angles. Ask students to predict
Reef knot what would happen if the rings were cut along the previously
drawn lines. Students cut and check their predictions.
Round turn and two half hitches

RESOURCES
Cord, fishing line, string, rope, adhesive tape, scissors.

68
 SPACE 2D
SUMMARY OF OBJECTIVES

SPACE 2D 1 SPACE 2D 14
• print and trace around 3D objects to represent the shapes of the • investigate angles using a variety of materials
faces • construct and compare angles
• sort and classify 2D shapes
• explore shapes through body movements and games SPACE 2D 15
• make tessellations using tiles and blocks
SPACE 2D 2 • make tessellations through flipping, sliding and turning
• make shape patterns using cutting, tearing, pasting, drawing • describe how patterns are made through flipping, sliding and
and painting turning
• cover the surfaces of objects with other objects
• order two-dimensional shapes according to size SPACE 2D 16
• determine the angle properties of shapes
SPACE 2D 3 • reassemble a 7 piece tangram
• manipulate shapes and discuss symmetry
• recognise symmetry in the environment SPACE 2D 17
• investigate transformations of shape using geostrips
SPACE 2D 4 • make shapes, through paper folding
• make patterns using 2D shapes
• recognise and name simple 2D shapes SPACE 2D 18
• make and complete jigsaws and puzzles • construct, describe and name polygons
• classify polygons according to attributes
SPACE 2D 5 • design patterns involving polygons
• make and identify symmetrical patterns
SPACE 2D 19
SPACE 2D 6 • explore and classify angles
• change shapes through stretching, twisting, bending and • appreciate the need for a formal unit to measure angles
shrinking
• investigate shadows of objects SPACE 2D 20
• identify and describe horizontal and vertical lines and surfaces
SPACE 2D 7 • use lines in pattern making
• make 2D shapes using various materials
• state the properties of 2D shapes SPACE 2D 21
• solve 5 piece tangram puzzles • show simple perspective in his or her drawing

SPACE 2D 8
• make symmetry patterns through flipping, sliding and turning
• make shapes through tessellation
• investigate shapes that tessellate
SPACE 2D 9
• identify straight and curved lines
• describe and draw a variety of lines
SPACE 2D 10
• construct angles using a variety of materials
SPACE 2D 22
• measure angles using the degree as a formal unit
• construct angles using a protractor
SPACE 2D 23
• identify shapes that have turning symmetry
SPACE 2D 24
• make all possible combinations of a small number of identical
geometric shapes
• construct tessellations using pencil and paper

SPACE 2D 11 SPACE 2D 25
• classify and formally name 2D shapes • construct circles, triangles, squares and rectangles and examine
• construct 2D shapes using geostrips, geoboards, grid and dot their properties.
paper

SPACE 2D 12
• recognise parallel lines in the environment
• construct lines and regular and irregular shapes using pencil
and paper

SPACE 2D 13
• state the number of lines of symmetry for a given shape
• complete a pattern to give a symmetrical result

69
SPACE 2D 1
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Shape may be perceived and represented in two The student is able to
dimensions. • print and trace around 3D objects to represent the shapes of the faces
• sort and classify 2D shapes
CONTENT • explore shapes through body movements and games.
Classification of two-dimensional shapes.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Space is a strand of informal, imaginative and
investigative activities. The sub-strands of 3D, 2D and
Position should be integrated by the teacher during
work in the Space strand. The activities in this unit
can be done over several weeks or months depending
on the students’ understandings.
• Encourage in the students an awareness of and
curiosity about the objects, shapes and patterns all
around them. Allow the students time to explore
materials and shapes through tearing, cutting,
painting, drawing, writing and pasting.
• Have the students place a particular shape in different
positions so that they can see that the shape does not
change because of its position.
• Use 3D objects to print the 2D shapes of their faces.
These include objects like fruit and vegetables and
wooden blocks. Work in this unit can be integrated
with the art and craft program.
• Students should talk and write about their work. They
can make large class books or smaller individual
books about their discoveries.
Print, matches, does not match,
large, small, curved, straight,
soft, round, square, circle,
triangle, oblong, rectangle,
compare, same as, not the same
as, sort.
“I made a fat cat. I tore a big
circle out and I tore a little
circle for his head.”
“It’s a triangle because it goes
up to a kind of point.”
“The sides on this shape are all
the same.”
“I made star shapes and moon
shapes.”
“We used finger shapes and foot
shapes to fill in bigger shapes.”
Ask students to
• describe pictures they have made
using their own language, eg “My
hand prints like a star.”
• sort and classify 2D shapes and
justify their choices, eg “All these
shapes are round but those aren’t.”
• pretend to be various shapes such as
stars, triangles and squares, with parts
of their bodies.
EVALUATION
• Did I group students so that they
were all encouraged to participate?
• Did the activities provide
opportunities for discussion and
cooperation?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
SORTING AND CLASSIFYING
PRINT IT
• Give a small group of students a collection of shapes. These
• Students can investigate how they can print all the faces of can be made of paper and include both regular and irregular
various objects, such as fruit, vegetables or stones. Encourage shapes. Each student, in turn, sorts the shapes and the other
discussion about the shapes made and the ways students found students guess the way the shapes are being sorted.
to show these.
• Ask the students to sort a collection of blocks, into two groups.
• Students can cut some of the objects and print the faces made. Although these are 3D objects students will be concerned with
Encourage students to talk or write about their pictures and their surface shape. Students sort the blocks according to one
display them with a caption. attribute and are asked to describe both groups. For example,
• The activity can be repeated with regular objects, such as students might say “This is a group of round things and this a
boxes, rods and pattern blocks. group of not round things.”

SHAPE BOOK TRACE IT

Students tear or cut up a variety of shapes using a range of
materials. The shapes do not have to be regular. These can be
glued into a class or personal book and a caption added. Students
can also cut pictures from magazines and paste them into a book.
Students and write about the shape of these pictures, eg “The
watch is round.” “The flower has a long stem.”
SHAPE HUNT
Students cut a large shape from a piece of paper, eg a triangle,
square, oval or circle and search for other pictures that are similar
to the chose shape. These are glued onto the large shape and can
be displayed.
Working in pairs, students can trace around the faces of various
objects. Include regular and irregular shapes.
PICTURES
Provide students with various paper shapes of different sizes. The
students make designs using a particular shape or by mixing the
shapes. Students might like to bend, twist and glue the paper
shapes to make models for mobiles.
HUMAN SHAPES
Many dances and games involve students forming themselves into
circles or squares. Encourage students to form other shapes either
individually or in groups. Hold up a picture of a shape and ask the
students to make the shape either individually or as a group.

RESOURCES
Pattern blocks, wrapping paper, paint, paper, crayons, textas, pencils, magazines, newspapers, fruit and vegetables, fabric, wool, string,
shells.

70
SPACE 2D 2
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Shape may be perceived and represented in two The student is able to
dimensions. • make shape patterns using cutting, tearing, pasting, drawing and painting
• cover the surfaces of objects with other objects
CONTENT • order two-dimensional shapes according to size.
Relationship of 3D objects to 2D shapes.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Patterns involve a repeated design using shapes, Pattern, print, square, triangle, Ask students to
colours, numbers, lines, etc. circle, oblong, rectangle,
• make and describe patterns using a
• Handwriting patterns can be integrated with the work diamond, match, order, straight,
wide variety of materials, eg blocks,
being done with shape. curved, cover, fit together,
paints, pencils, leaves and gumnuts
trace, outline, gaps, spaces,
• Continue to relate 3D objects to 2D shapes through edge. • cover a variety of surfaces with mixed
printing the faces of the objects, eg box faces, objects and describe the results, eg
footprints in the sand. “My pattern has circles and
cover the top of their desk with large
squares in it. It goes circle,
• Activities which involve the covering and wrapping of and small boxes and round containers
square, circle, square.”
objects help develop ideas of surface areas and the 2D and discuss the fit
“This box makes square shapes
shape of faces. on the paper. I made • order similar shapes of various sizes.
• When students cover a surface such as the top of a diamonds.”
desk with shapes they are exploring how well shapes “I found diamond shapes in the
fit together, or tessellate. Later, the students will fence. There are holes between EVALUATION
specifically look at tessellation as a property of the the round shapes.”
“What comes next in your • Did I provide adequate space,
shape or shapes concerned.
pattern?” resources and time for students to
• Ordering 2D shapes by size involves conservation of complete the activities?
area. Students might focus on the lengths of one side
• Were all students encouraged to
of the shapes when doing this rather than the sizes of
discuss what they had done?
the shapes.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES ORDERING SHAPES BY SIZE

PICTURES
Students select a number of pieces of fabric and wool. Older
students can be asked to cut these. Using these, the students create
a picture by gluing the pieces together. These can be labelled and
displayed.
BODY PUZZLE
Working in small groups, students trace around a student who is
lying on a large sheet of paper. Students can paint the body shape
in a variety of colours. When the paint is dry, the student cut the
body shape into three of four pieces and mix them up. The
students can try to put the shapes back together and have other
groups try this.
HAND AND FOOT PICTURES
Students can make pictures from their hand and foot prints. This
can be done as a group picture or individually. The prints can be
cut out and arranged to make the pictures.
When students have had plenty of experience sorting shapes, give
them paper cut outs of similar shapes of various sizes and ask
them to order these by size.
RUBBINGS
Using crayons or chalk, students make rubbings of various
surfaces around the school, eg leaves, brick walls, bark. Students
discuss their patterns and these can be displayed.
COVER IT
Ask students how they could cover the surface of an object with
smaller objects without leaving any spaces. Students try this in
small groups and discuss their attempts with the rest of the class,
eg cover a desk with envelopes.
MAKING PATTERNS
Students can make patterns in many ways, using a wide variety of
materials. They can make patterns by using blocks, by cutting and
pasting paper shapes, by drawing pictures and by handwriting.
Students can also print patterns using objects that they collect from
home or from the playground. Students can discuss and describe
their patterns and write captions for them.

SHAPE WALK
On a walk around the school ask students to describe the various
shapes they see, eg “These leaves look round.” “I can see diamond
shapes on that car.”

RESOURCES
Pattern blocks, paint, paper, crayons, pencils, chalk, textas, fruit and vegetables, leaves, sticks, buttons, fabric, wool, string, ribbon, felt,
cardboard or plastic shapes, envelopes.

71
SPACE 2D 3
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Shapes can be symmetrical or asymmetrical. The student is able to
• manipulate shapes and discuss symmetry
• recognise symmetry in the environment.
CONTENT
Recognising line symmetry.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• A shape is said to have line symmetry if both parts Matches, does not match, Ask students to
match when it is folded along a line of symmetry, ie almost matches, the same as,
• fold paper shapes and pictures in two
one part is the mirror image of the other. almost the same as, not the
and discuss whether they match
same as, fold along this line,
• Encourage the students to look for symmetry in the
symmetry, symmetrical, not • sort and group shapes into those that
natural and manufactured environment. Investigate
symmetrical. match when folded and those that do
leaves, flower petals, lolly wrappers, etc.
not
“The shape I cut out isn’t the
• Develop the idea of folding shapes to investigate
same on both sides.” • predict whether shapes will match
whether they match. Let the students experiment with
“We made a blob shape that’s when folded.
different ways of folding. Can a leaf be folded so that
symmetrical because the sides
it matches?
match.”
• Ask the students to predict whether shapes will have “The top and bottom of the EVALUATION
symmetry. The students can test the shapes by folding jumper don’t match but the
them to test whether they match. sides do.” • Did I ask parents to assist with
“We traced around Asher and activity groups?
we could fold the tracing down • Did I encourage student language
the middle so the two sides through careful questioning?
match.”
“I made a symmetrical pattern
by cutting folded paper.”

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES MATCHING BLOBS

Students fold a piece of art paper and place blobs of paint along
MATCHING BODY PARTS
the fold line. Students fold the paper over again, carefully
Ask students to examine a doll or stuffed toy and find parts that smearing the paint and then unfold the paper. Ask students to
match. Using a length of string have students show a line of that discuss the results and describe their pictures. They might like to
separates the matching parts. Discuss this line with the students predict the sort of shapes that will be made.
and name it, using the term “line of symmetry.”
SYMMETRY SEARCH
Working in pairs the students can repeat the task using each other
Students observe objects in the playground and say whether they
instead of the dolls. Students should also try this task on
think they are symmetrical or not. They then test their estimations
themselves while looking in a mirror. Students can discuss their
by holding a string along the line of symmetry and checking that
findings with the whole class.
each half is a mirror image of the other. Students discuss and write
• One student lies on a large sheet of paper while another about their observations.
students traces his or her body shape. Students investigate how
this can be folded to show the parts that match. FOLDED PATTERNS
Students fold a piece of paper in half and cut shapes out of it. The
• Students look for pictures of faces (front views) and cut them
paper is then laid out onto a contrasting piece of paper and glued
out. The pictures can then be folded in half to determine lines
down.
of symmetry. Repeat this for other items pictured in magazines.
Students can sort pictures into those that are and are not
symmetrical.

CLOTHING
Have students investigate various ways of folding items of
clothing. Discuss these and ask students which folds show a line of
symmetry. Students can trace around the clothes and cut out the
outlines. These can be folded to show lines of symmetry and
displayed.
Students can repeat the activity using more folds and discover the
results. Students can make a paper doll chain by fanfolding the
paper before cutting the shape.
BODY AWARENESS
Students can make prints of hands and feet and put these side by
side to show the mirror image. Students can further investigate
symmetry with their bodies by copying movements made on one
side of their body on the other side.

RESOURCES
Paint, string, a full length mirror, pencils, clothing, coloured paper, scissors, magazine and newspaper pictures.

72
SPACE 2D 4
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Objects and shapes may be arranged randomly or in The student is able to
patterns. • make patterns using 2D shapes
• recognise and name simple 2D shapes
CONTENT • make and complete jigsaws and puzzles.
Arranging shapes.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• The activities in this unit are concerned with the Red, blue, yellow, green, Ask students to
development of shape recognition, the classification orange, purple, black, white,
• make a large pattern or picture with
of shapes and related language. triangle, rectangle, oblong,
the pattern blocks
• Pattern blocks are suggested for use in this unit. square, circle, diamond,
hexagon, next to, beside, • make and describe a variety of shape
Although they are three dimensional, students will be
before, after, above, below, sort, patterns
perceiving their outlines and naming them, using two-
dimensional language. arrange, pattern, tangram, • explore and complete simple three
jigsaw pieces, size, position, piece tangrams.
• The activities in this unit can be integrated with art, number, repeat, first, next, last.
craft and handwriting programs.
“My pattern is diamond,
• The idea of pattern can be developed in a variety of hexagon, square, diamond,
ways. Students can consider, for example, colour, hexagon, square.”
shape, size, position and number shapes. These “I cut the square into three EVALUATION
attributes can also be combined to make a more pieces and made a kangaroo.” • Did I encourage cooperation in group
complex pattern, eg shape and colours, or shape, “I made a circle, cut it up and work as well as individual effort?
colour and size. Patterns in more than one direction put it back together again.”
can be made using a grid or matrix. “Kristine used the triangle • Did students have opportunities to
blocks to cover the rhombus discuss their work during the
• The use of jigsaws and three piece tangrams helps to
shape.” activities and after the work was
develop skills of recognition, visualisation,
“Our group found diamond displayed?
classification and naming of 2D shapes in an active
and enjoyable way. shapes on our clothes and on a
teacher’s car.”

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
PICTURES OR PATTERN
Students collect a variety of objects with appealing shapes, from
home or from the playground, eg leaves, petals, lids, sticks, fabric.
Students can sort these into a number of groups and then select the
objects they need to make a picture or a pattern.
ONE SHAPE
Students choose a pattern or attribute blocks of one shape only and
use them to make a picture.
PATTERN BLOCKS
• A Student closes her or his eyes and selects three pattern
blocks from a container and tries to identify the shapes.
• Give a small group of students some pattern blocks and cards
showing the outlines of groups of the blocks. Ask the students
to find out which blocks were used to make each outline.
Using Make these
REPEAT IT
Using pattern or attribute blocks, students make patterns in a
variety of ways, eg based on colour only, based on shape only,
based on size only or combinations of these attributes. Students
can begin a pattern and ask other students to add to it or describe
the pattern. Patterns can then be made with other materials
including leaves, shells, buttons and sticks.
JIGSAWS
After experiences with ready-made jigsaws and discussions about
them, students can make their own and share with others. This can
be done by cutting a picture from a magazine and then cutting it
up into a small number of pieces.
TANGRAMS
Students cut squares into three pieces and use them to make
pictures or designs. They swap with each other, discuss,
reassemble, trace around and write about the new shapes. This can
be repeated beginning with a circle or triangle instead of a square.

MATRIX PATTERNS
Students can work out simple
matrix patterns for each other
and gradually increase the
level of difficulty.
SHAPE HUNT
Students choose a shape and look for similar shapes in the room.
Discuss the shapes students find and ask them to draw these.

RESOURCES
A variety of paper (including foil, light cardboard, wrapping paper), pattern blocks, attribute blocks, a variety of cardboard
and ceramic tiles, 5 x 5 grids (matrix) large enough for blocks, magazines.

73
SPACE 2D 5
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Shapes may be arranged in asymmetrical or symmetrical The student is able to
patterns. • make and identify symmetrical patterns.

CONTENT
Investigating symmetry in patterns.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• The students should have experienced the introduction
to symmetry in Unit 3. This work should be
completed before commencing these activities.
• A shape is said to have symmetry if both its parts
match when it is folded along a line of symmetry.
Each part is the mirror image of the other.
• In this unit, the students will be applying their
developing knowledge of symmetry to pattern
making. Mirrors can be used to repeat elements in
symmetry patterns.
• As well as exploring reflections using mirrors,
students can use an aid called “Mira mirror” which is
made of red perspex.
Pattern, mirror image,
reflection, slide, symmetry,
symmetrical, not symmetrical,
match, does not match, next to,
edge to edge, above, up, down,
sideways, diagonally, left, right.
“If I put a mirror next to my
pattern, I can see it again the
opposite way.”
“The mirror shape is
backwards.”
“This shape is balanced on each
side.”
Ask students to
• make a symmetrical pattern by
folding and cutting paper
• continue a symmetrical pattern made
with pattern blocks
• identify symmetrical and non-
symmetrical patterns.
EVALUATION
• Did the activities or problems used
relate to the students’ interests?
• Was I able to cater for individual
differences?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
REPEAT IT
Students can investigate making symmetrical patterns by folding
and cutting paper. The paper can be glued onto one side of a piece
of art paper and the cut out glued next to it. The patterns can be
repeated by cutting more than one piece of paper at a time.
Students can find out how many lines of symmetry there are in
each pattern.
POTATO PRINTS
Students cut shapes into potatoes or select two objects to print
with, eg a leaf and a block. They press the object onto a sponge
soaked with paint and then press it onto paper. Students now put a
mirror or “Mira” (a piece of red perspex) at the end of the two
prints and make the next two prints according to the image they
see.

BLOCK PATTERNS
Students make a shape using two blocks and put a mirror beside it
and continue the pattern they see along the page. If a “Mira” (a print reflection
piece of red perspex) is used students can see the pattern reflected
as well as being able to see through it to continue the pattern.
Students can repeat their print until they come to the edge of the
paper. These patterns can be displayed.

blocks reflection

• Students can investigate making a different pattern using the

same two blocks. Students can increase the number of blocks
in their pattern and try making symmetrical patterns without
using the mirror.
• The students can draw the blocks and the mirror image. They
can colour, write about and display their patterns.

RESOURCES
Leaves, shells, pattern blocks, Lego bricks, small mirrors or shiny silver cardboard pieces, Mira mirrors, vegetables, fabric.

74
SPACE 2D 6
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
The shape of objects may be transformed as a result of The student is able to
actions on them. • change shapes through stretching, twisting, bending and shrinking
• investigate shadows of objects.
CONTENT
Investigating topology.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• In this unit the students will be investigating topology Inside, outside, stretched, bent, Ask students
or “rubber sheet geometry”. Topology is concerned blown up, let down, deflated,
• describe the changes in shape through
with those geometric properties which do not alter inflated, crease, crumple,
stretching, twisting, bending and
when the shape of an object is changed, eg if any scrunch, flatten, shadow,
shrinking, eg “I can make the face on
shape is drawn inside a square on the surface of an projector, outline, trace.
the balloon long and skinny. The eyes
inflated balloon there is no way that shape can be
“The snake gets really skinny get long and skinny too.”
twisted or stretched to make it go outside the
when I stretch it.”
boundaries of the square. • describe the different shadows they
“I can squeeze my balloon to
see and make, eg “I can make my
• In topology the relative positions of things are make the face big but the nose
hand shadow fat or skinny.”
important, together with the fundamental ideas of stays in the middle.”
inside, outside, surface and shape. “At lunch time my shadow’s
very small but in the afternoon
it’s longer.”
EVALUATION
• Were the activities practical enough?
• Did the students enjoy and gain
understandings from the activities?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
BLOW UP
Students draw a simple shape or picture on a balloon and partially
inflate it. Encourage them to draw something that has a shape
inside a larger shape. The students stretch their balloons,
investigating and describing what happens to the drawings. Repeat
the activity using different shapes and pictures.
STRETCH IT
• Ask students to draw a shape onto a piece of elastic or rubber.
Students explore changing the shape by stretching the elastic.
They describe and discuss what happens. Ask questions about
the relative position of various points of the drawings, eg “Can
you make the spots on the snake jump out? Why not?”
• Students can try the same sort of activity by drawing on stretch
material. Ask students to draw a face on the stretch material
and make it look sad or happy. Students can try changing other
drawings.
SCRUNCH IT
Students draw a picture on a smooth piece of paper or foil and
scrunch it up. They discuss whether the shape will have changed in
any way when they unfold the paper or foil. Students observe and
describe the shape.
PAPER STRETCH
Students can investigate ways of making paper “stretch” by
folding and cutting. One method is to concertina fold a piece of
paper a few times and make partial cuts starting alternatively from
either side of the paper.
Students can use these to make paper
toys, such as puppets, that will bounce
and stretch. Students can discuss which
method gave the best result.
SHADOW FUN
Students can try to make their own shadow look like an animal or
another shape. They could do this in various ways. Students might
combine to form a group shadow. Students can cut out shapes,
such as wings, from cardboard and attach these to make their
shadow look like a particular animal or bird.
• Students can try making only part of their shadow visible by
standing partially in the shadow of a building.
• Students can try to make their shadows long, thin, short or thick.
SHADOWS INSIDE
Students can work in pairs to make a silhouette using an overhead
projector. Students can try to trace the shadows of their partner’s
head and other body parts. Students can also make shadow puppets
using the overhead projector or another fixed light source. This
could be integrated with work on shadow puppets from other
countries.

RESOURCES
Balloons, stretch fabric, foil, attribute and pattern blocks, cardboard, paint, overhead projector, screen, thick elastic or rubber strips.

75
SPACE 2D 7
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Objects and shapes may be classified according to The student is able to
similarities and differences. • make 2D shapes using various materials
• state the properties of 2D shapes
CONTENT • solve 5 piece tangram puzzles.
Investigating the properties of 2D shapes.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• The students at this stage are refining their awareness Corner, side, shape, square, Ask students to
of 2D shapes. They should continue to investigate triangle, rectangle, oblong,
• create different 2D shapes using a
shapes in their environment and group them according circle, oval, diamond, hexagon,
geoboard and rubber bands and name
to their similarities. sharp, blunt.
the shapes formed
• Regular shapes have all sides equal and all angles
“All these shapes have corners
equal. • sort a collection of regular and
but the round ones don’t.”
• The concept of angle developed in later units is based irregular 2D shapes according to the
“All my shapes have four
on early ideas of “corners” investigated in this unit. number of sides or corners
corners and four sides.”
• A simple 5 x 5 geoboard may be constructed by • reassemble a 5 piece tangram into its
“These triangles all have three
hammering an array of nails into a piece of board, original shape.
corners but their sides are not
approximately 15 cm x 15 cm.
the same length.”
“My shape has four corners but
one goes inside.”
“This shape has six sides.”
“Some corners are sharp and EVALUATION
some are blunt.” • Did students have enough resources
for the activities?
• How did I encourage students to use
Rubber bands are then used to make different shapes their first language?
on the nails. Thin, coloured, rubber bands may be
most useful.
• Identifying and describing shapes in the natural and
manufactured environment consolidates the knowledge
of shapes developed during the previous units.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES BISCUIT SHAPE

GEOBOARDS
• Ask students to use the geoboard (pegboard) and elastic bands
to find out the smallest number of nails needed to stretch the
elastic band into a shape.
• What kinds of shapes can be made with 3, 4, 5, or 6 nails?
Students can describe and record the shapes they make.
• Using the geoboards and coloured elastic bands, the students
can make pictures and record these on dot paper. These could
be displayed or made into a class book.
SORTING SHAPES
Give students a collection of irregular and regular cut-out shapes
with three sides, four sides, five sides, etc. Ask students to sort the
shapes and comment on them, eg “These shapes have three sides
and these don’t.” The shapes can be regrouped and sorted again so
that students develop their knowledge of the properties of these
shapes. When students have finished sorting, the shapes in any one
group can be arranged to form a picture. Students can write
captions to go with pictures and these can be displayed.
Students can make biscuits of different shapes and bake them in an
oven. The students describe what happens to the shapes when they
are cooked. They can group the biscuit shapes and then eat them.
TANGRAM FUN
Have the students cut a square of cardboard into five pieces.
Students describe the shape of the pieces they have made.
• Students can make pictures using
the five pieces. They can trace around
these and remove the pieces.
Then they ask a friend to
reconstruct their picture.
• Students can reassemble a friends’ 5 piece tangram into the
original square.
• Students can make 5 piece tangrams starting with other shapes
such as a circle or hexagon.
• Working in small groups, students can illustrate a story using
their 5 piece tangrams to make pictures of animals or objects in
the story.

MOBILES
Students can make a variety of shape mobiles from wire, paper
and cardboard. These may represent a particular shape, eg six
sided figures, or different shapes.

RESOURCES
Shapes made from cardboard/felt/plastic/paper, geoboards, rubber bands, string, ribbon, wool, streamers, plasticine, clay, pattern blocks,
attribute blocks.

76
SPACE 2D 8
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Shapes can be moved in certain ways to make The student is able to
symmetrical or asymmetrical patterns. • make symmetry patterns through flipping, sliding and turning
• make shapes through tessellation
CONTENT • investigate shapes that tessellate.
Investigating the properties of 2D shapes.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• To flip a shape is to reflect it about a line. To slide a Symmetry, symmetrical, not
shape is to move it along in any direction. To turn a symmetrical, matches, does not
shape is to rotate it about a point. match, gaps, no gaps, pattern,
flip, slide, turn, tessellate,
repeat, all over, design, cover,
pattern blocks, triangles,
squares, circles, hexagons.
slide
“I covered the desk top with
squares and there are no spaces
left.”
flip turn “I made a house shape using
squares and triangles.”
• The mathematical terms are reflect (flip), translate “I slid the blocks along and
(slide), and rotate (turn). It is not necessary for kept tracing them to make a
students to use these terms. A tessellation is formed by pattern.”
the repetition of one or more shapes in such a way that “I think Khalid made his
they fit together without leaving gaps or overlapping. pattern by turning a square and
• The students will be able to experiment with tracing it.”
tessellating a shape to make a new shape. “Katerina’s pattern has slides
and flips in it.”
• Sliding can only produce a symmetrical pattern if the
object being moved is itself symmetrical. Students
should be led to discover that the direction of the slide
has to be at right angles to the line of symmetry of the
object.
Ask students to
• flip, slide and turn shapes and
describe the results
• combine flips, slides and turns to
make patterns and describe the
patterns produced after tracing the
shapes
• make new shapes through tessellating
other shapes and describe their work
• cover surface with shapes and
describe shapes that do/do not
tessellate.
EVALUATION
• Did the students have the fine motor
skills for tracing shapes?
• Did I organise older students or
parent helpers for activity groups?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
MAKING SHAPES
FLIP, SLIDE AND TURN Students explore making shapes from other shapes. They can
• Discuss the action of flipping with students. Students can describe their new shapes and use these to make pictures.
investigate flipping objects. They can discuss the problem of
flipping when one object is on top of another object and can try
flipping more than one object at a time.
• Students can make a sliding pattern, tracing the object(s) as
they are moved. Students can try the same slide in a different
direction.
• Students select a shape and turn it slightly and trace it. They school desk house space ship
continue until the shape is in its original position. Students
discuss the picture that they make. Students can investigate the different shapes that can be used to
make the same picture. Some student can make a picture using
only one shape while other students try a combination of shapes.
Students can compare their pictures and comment.

• Students combine the movements of flipping, sliding and
turning in a variety of ways to create many patterns.
TESSELLATION
Students work in groups. Each group selects one type of shape, eg
squares, circles, ovals, triangles. They place them side by side to
see they cover a surface without leaving any gaps. Students discuss
their findings and group the shapes according to those that
tessellate and those that do not.

Students can make tiling patterns using pattern blocks and trace
around the shapes to draw the patterns.

RESOURCES
Pattern blocks, coloured paper, art paper, cardboard, ceramic tiles, fabric, templates.

77
SPACE 2D 9
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Lines can be used to represent shapes. The student is able to
• identify straight and curved lines
• describe and draw a variety of lines.
CONTENT
Straight and curved lines.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• The study of lines should be linked closely with the
students’ work on shape. Discuss which shapes are
made up of straight lines and which shapes are made
up of curved lines. When lines meet, they can enclose
a space and form a 2D shape. Develop ideas of open,
closed, inside and outside.
• The students can investigate examples of lines in their
environment, eg electricity lines, lines on paths,
gutters, broken lines on the road. The students can
begin to group the lines according to their own
classification. This may include straight lines, lines
that are not straight, curved and broken lines.
• Freehand drawing of lines should take place before
using a ruler.
• This work can be readily integrated with the students’
handwriting and art work.
Straight, wavy, curved, zigzag, Ask students to
up and down lines, across lines,
• identify and describe types of lines in
sloping lines, slanting lines,
different situations
crossed lines, broken lines,
crossing, joining, paths, closed, • describe and group lines according to
open, inside, outside, forward, whether they are straight or curved
backward, left, right, turn. • draw straight lines and curved lines.
“My pattern’s made of lines that
go across and lines that slope.”
“I painted between the zigzag
lines.”
“When my lines crossed over,
they made some shapes.”
EVALUATION
“Geila was the robot and I gave
her instructions to walk a • Did I provide students with a variety
triangular path. I told her to turn of places in which to find different
around the corners.” lines?
• Were there appropriate resources for
students to create various line
patterns?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
UP, DOWN AND ACROSS
Students can explore horizontal and vertical lines by climbing up
and down ladders, ropes, etc and finding other “lines” that go up
and down, eg flag pole, telegraph pole. Students look for “lines”
that go across, eg across the monkey bar, lines in the playground.
LINE HUNT
Students look for all types of lines inside and outside of the
classroom. Encourage discussion as the students are looking for
lines. Students can describe the lines that they find and draw or
photograph them.
MAKE A LINE
Working in small groups students can investigate how many
different lines they can make. Students can paint, draw or rule the
lines. Students can make lines using plasticine, string or wool.
Have a sharing time for groups to report and show their work.
Students can discuss if some of the lines are similar and decide
how they could group the lines they made, eg curved lines, straight
lines, zigzag lines, wavy lines, lines that cross over.
Discuss the shapes made by lines that cross over.
Students could also investigate making different types of lines on
computers.

SLOPING LINES HANDWRITING

The students can make sloping lines and discuss these. Ask the Students can look at the way letters are made and find out how
students to find sloping lines, eg the school roof, wire supports for many types of lines they need to make letters. This can be done for
the flag pole. numbers and digits on the calculator.

WALKING THE LINE ROBOTS

Students can make lines in the playground in a variety of ways,
with chalk, string or rope, markers or planks. In turn, students
walk, hop or crawl along the line. Students describe the way they
went, eg “I went along the curvy part, down the slope and
followed the zigzag line.”
Students work in pairs. One student takes the role of robot and the
other student is the director. The students draw a line on the
ground to make the path the robot will follow. The path can
include straight, curved and zigzag lines. The director gives
instructions, which the robot must strictly obey, to make the robot
follow the line that has been drawn.
Students can then swap roles.

RESOURCES
Pencils, paper, textas, string, rulers, sticks, plasticine, rope, magazine, wooden planks, chalk, straws, popsticks, playground equipment,
LOGO, painting/drawing software.

78
SPACE 2D 10
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Angle is the amount of turning between two lines about a The student is able to
common point. • construct angles using a variety of materials.

CONTENT
Constructing angles.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Angles have been introduced in Unit 7 as the corners Sharp corners, blunt corners, Ask students to
of shapes. Students have talked of sharp corners or point, sharp points, blunt
• construct various angles using plastic
blunt corners and have counted and compared them. points, angle, lines, arms, angle
or cardboard strips and compare them
This may need revision before proceeding with work wheel, sharp, sharper, sharpest,
in this unit. forward, backward, turn, repeat, • find angles in the environment
• The idea of angle as an amount of turn is developed geostrip, cardboard strip.
in this unit. Activities first focus on angle as the “Our group joined some strips
meeting point of two lines, with a sharp or blunt to make sharp and blunt
shape produced. Students should manipulate angles.”
geostrips, Meccano or cardboard strips to gain an “Rebecca made a sharp point
understanding of the variety of angles that can be and matched it with a corner in
formed. the storeroom and a tree
• The term “point” has more than one meaning. It can branch.”
mean the meeting place of the two lines, the quality “These two angles are the same
of the shape we think of as pointed, (eg pointed hat), even though the lines are
land that is described as a point and a way we use our different lengths.” EVALUATION
fingers (eg point to the word). “A lot of things have angles that
• How much assistance did each
are square corners.”
• The term “arms” may be introduced to describe lines student require?
making up an angle. • Were the activities appropriate and
• Develop the idea that the length of the lines (or arms) enjoyable for the students?
of an angle makes no difference to the amount of turn
between the lines.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
ANGLE WHEEL
STRIPS
Students construct an angle wheel by cutting two identical circles
Students join geostrips, Meccano or cardboard strips. The term of different coloured paper. Slits are cut to the centres of each
angle can be introduced and related to the amount of turning of circle.
one of the two strips.
A small amount of turning is a small angle and a large amount of
turning is a larger angle. Students join two geostrips and arrange
them so that one covers the other. The top strip is then rotated to
make an angle. Students then find “corners” around the room that The circles are then overlapped, with slits together. The lower right
the angle will fit around or into. Discuss which types of angle are part of the top circle is slipped under the upper right part of the
common and which are not. bottom circle to make the wheel.
MATCHING ANGLES
Students make angles from pairs of geostrips of different lengths.
Ask students if they can find out which angles are the same.

Students use the wheel to make different angles.

ROTATING LINES
Students take two sheets of clear plastic and draw a line on each
using a ruler. By placing the two sheets so that the ends of the
lines are together they can form large or small angles. The lines
can be crossed to form more than one angle and the plastic sheets
manipulated to explore relationships between the angles.
EVERYDAY TURNS
Ask students to give examples of where they see angles. Students
might suggest railway boom gates, doors, windows that open
outwards. Students can find pictures of them or take photographs
to display with a description of the angles formed. Examples
where students can identify the amount of turning made to form
the angles will help their understandings.
LOGO
Students can investigate angles on computers using LOGO.

RESOURCES
Geostrips, Meccano, cardboard strips, paper fasteners, overhead projector, clear plastic sheets, angle wheels, LOGO.

79
SPACE 2D 11
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Shapes may be classified according to the number of The student is able to
sides they have. • classify and formally name 2D shapes
• construct 2D shapes using geostrips, geoboards, grid and dot paper.
CONTENT
Classification and construction of 2D shapes.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• The activities in this unit build on many of the Three sided shape, four sided Ask students to
activities in previous units, especially Units 4 and 7. shape, five sided, round shape,
• make and name a range of different
• Two-dimensional shapes lie in a plane and consist of triangle, circle, square,
closed boundaries of straight or curved lines. shapes using geostrips, geoboards and
rectangle, quadrilateral,
• Many contrasting examples of the same 2D shape rubber bands.
rhombus, pentagon, hexagon,
should be encountered by students during the geoboard, geostrip. • discuss the properties of the shapes
activities. The triangle could be represented in a while constructing them, eg
number of ways. “This square has four sides the
“Quadrilaterals have four sides and
same.”
four corners.”
“Every one of these shapes has
four sides.”
• Regular and irregular shapes should be studied. “A hexagon has six corners.”
“The square is inside the
triangle.”
“You need four geostrips to
make a rectangle.” EVALUATION
• Shapes which jut in and those with curved sides
“A rhombus looks like a square
should be discussed. • Were the concrete materials
that has been pushed over.”
appropriate for the activities?
“I need three geostrips to make
a triangle.” • Were there sufficient materials for
each student in the group to
• Classification involves sorting things on the basis of
participate fully?
certain generalisations, eg 3 sided, 4 sided, 5 sided
shapes. Students should be encouraged to invent their
own groupings, eg shapes with long sides and shapes
with short sides, shapes with sharp corners and shapes
with blunt corners.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
MAKING AND NAMING SHAPES
Ask students to sort various paper shapes and name the groups.
Introduce mathematical terms when students show that they need a
name for a group they have made, eg quadrilaterals, (four sided
figures). These names can be written onto the paper shapes and
displayed.
GEOSTRIPS
Ask students to use geostrips or similar material to find out the
smallest number of sides needed to make a closed shape. Students
can make various shapes using geostrips and push, bend and twist
these to discover which are stronger or more rigid. Discuss any
changes to the angles.
SHAPES INSIDE SHAPES
Ask students to investigate drawing shapes inside other shapes, eg
“Can you make a square inside a triangle, inside a square?”
Ask students how far
they could keep going
inwards or outwards.
GEOBOARDS
Students can construct their own 5 x 5 geoboards. Ask the students
to make shapes using one rubber band, two rubber bands and three
rubber bands. Students can show their shapes to a friend and
discuss them. They can decide what is the least number of sides a
closed shape needs. Have students draw their geoboard shapes on
dot paper and label them. These drawings can then be displayed.
GEOBOARD PROBLEMS
Students can use their geoboards and rubber bands to try to solve
problems such as the ones listed here.
• How many different sized squares can be made on a 5 x 5
geoboard?
• Make as many different triangles as you can. Can you make a
triangle with all sides equal, two sides equal, no sides equal?
• Make a star using several rubber bands. What shape is best for
making a star?
• Can you make five different quadrilaterals?
• How many nails will be inside the biggest hexagon you could
make? Try it and compare your answer with a friend’s answer.
• Make shapes like these.

Students can record the shapes by drawing them on dot paper.

RESOURCES
Geostrips, geoboards, rubber bands, coloured paper circles, squares and rectangles, scissors, cardboard strips, paper fasteners, hole punch,
isometric or square dot paper.

80
SPACE 2D 12
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Lines in a plane may be parallel or they intersect at a The student is able to
point. • recognise parallel lines in the environment
• construct lines and regular and irregular shapes using pencil and paper.
CONTENT
Lines and points of intersection.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• The idea of pattern as something involving repetition Direction, point, parallel, Ask students to
will need to be developed in the activities. regular, irregular, circle, square,
• identify parallel and non-parallel lines
• Through activities and discussions students will begin triangle, rhombus, trapezium,
in the environment
to understand that for everyday purposes parallelogram.
• construct examples of lines and
- most lines have beginning and endings, though we “Show me a curved line.”
various regular and irregular 2D
could imagine them going on forever “These flowers look like
shapes using pencil and paper.
- curved lines can take many shapes circles.”
“The window is a rectangle.”
- the shortest path between two places is a straight “The letter A is made from
line three lines.”
- the direction of lines can be indicated by arrows “The edges of the path are
drawn on them. parallel.”
“The double white lines on the
• Two or more lines are parallel if they lie in the same
road don’t meet.”
plane and do not meet regardless of how far they are EVALUATION
extended in either direction. Two parallel lines are
• Did the students work cooperatively
always the same distance apart.
in small groups?
Parallel lines need not be the same length.
• Were girls as well as boys given
opportunities to participate and be
group leaders?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES TREASURE ISLAND

SHAPES AND LINES Students draw the outline of a large island on a large piece of
paper or cardboard.
Students can go on a shape hunt to find and identify shapes in the
natural and manufactured environment. Students can look for
repeated shapes that form patterns, eg brick work, lattice work,
tiles. Ask students about the lines in these patterns. Discuss which
lines meet and which do not. Examples of the different line
patterns can be drawn or photographed. Students’ drawings can be
displayed and captions added.

PARALLEL LINES
Ask students to try and make two lines that do not cross over and,
if extended in either direction, still will not cross over. Discuss the
angles that are formed where lines do cross and introduces the
term “point” for the place where the two lines meet. Students can
contrast this with the lines that do not cross over and the term
“parallel” can be introduced.
• Ask students to fill a page with a pattern based on parallel
lines.
• Give students examples of parallel lines of different lengths.
• Have students find examples of parallel lines in the
environment, eg road markings, railway tracks, lattice work.
• Ask students to create a patten on a LOGO screen using only
parallel lines.
Students use string to make two wavy lines and one straight line
from a base camp to the treasure. Discuss this is the shortest path
and why. Students can look at paths around the school and find the
shortest way between two places. A “treasure” could be hidden at
school. Students try to find the treasure using a prepared map.
STRAIGHT LINES
• Students can explore arrangements of three straight lines.
Students can discuss and compare their arrangements and see if
they have made all possibilities of the lines meeting at least one
other line. Some students may enjoy trying this with four lines.
Students can make the arrangements with toothpicks and glue
these to black paper to be displayed.
• Students can classify all the capital letters according to the
number of lines in their construction. This could be repeated
with other numeration systems. Greek and Chinese characters
are particularly suitable for this. Roman and Egyptian numerals
can also be used.

RESOURCES
LOGO, paper, cardboard, pencils, crayons, string.

81
SPACE 2D 13
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Objects and shapes may be symmetrical or asymmetrical. The student is able to
• state the number of lines of symmetry for a given shape
• complete a pattern to give a symmetrical result.
CONTENT
Investigating line symmetry.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Symmetry is a basic shape concept. It is present both Sides, corners, the same as, Ask students to
in the natural and manufactured world and can be a matches, balances, line of
• make symmetrical patterns and
source of aesthetic pleasure. Students can develop the symmetry, line symmetry, half,
pictures using paper cut-outs, pattern
concept of symmetry informally, through physical axis, reflection.
blocks, geoboards and pegboards
manipulation of objects.
“Show me how you can fold
• discover lines of symmetry by folding
• Line symmetry is the type of symmetry most familiar this rectangle so you get two
paper shapes and counting the lines
to teachers. This is also called reflectional or mirror sides the same.”
of symmetry
symmetry. In line symmetry two parts match along “I can fold the square four
each side of a dividing line (or axis). ways.” • create pictures or collages which
“This side of the triangle does demonstrate a knowledge of
• Line symmetry can be investigated by using paper
not balance the other side.” symmetry.
cut-outs, paper folding, pattern blocks, mirrors, Mira
“Now my side matches with
mirrors and geoboards.
your side. Each half is the
• Use questioning to encourage the students to visualise same.”
lines of symmetry for many different shapes and to “A regular shape with twenty-
imagine the folding and matching shapes, eg “How one equal sides must have
could you fold one of the letters in your name so that twenty-one lines of symmetry.”
it shows all the lines of symmetry?” EVALUATION
“A circle has lots of lines of
symmetry.” • Did I ensure that each student could
participate in discussion?
• Did I allow students to use a range of
strategies to solve problems?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES PATTERN BLOCKS

• Students build designs and look for axes of symmetry with a
REGULAR SHAPES mirror or Mira.
• Students build designs and then repeat the design upside down or
Give students regular geometric shapes, ie shapes which have beside the first design and then find the lines of symmetry. This
equal angles and sides of equal length. Ask students to find all the can be varied by placing the repeated design next to a corner of
lines of symmetry and record these in a table. the original design and finding the new axes of symmetry.

Shape No. of sides No. of lines of symmetry

3 3

4 PICTURE MAKING
5 •
IRREGULAR SHAPES
Students fold irregular shapes to determine the lines of symmetry.
Students could begin with triangles, which have one, three, or no
axes of symmetry.
SYMMETRICAL PATTERNS
Students can try making symmetrical patterns using paper cut-outs,
pegboards, pattern blocks and geoboards. For example, students
could make a design on one side of a geoboard and reflect it on the
other side. Students can make an arrangement of blocks and ask a
friend to make a reflection of it.
• Students can make symmetrical collages using leaves, grass
and twigs. Alternatively these can be drawn or painted.
Students can make half pictures and use a mirror to reflect
these and show symmetry. These pictures could be completed
using a Mira mirror.
• Students draw half a picture on dot or grid paper and ask a
partner to draw the reflection with the help of a mirror. This
could also be done on a computer screen using LOGO or a
drawing program.
ALPHABET FUN
Students cut out and fold capital letters in different ways to
investigate their symmetry. They then glue the symmetrical letters
onto one sheet and the non-symmetrical letters onto another sheet.
Students can classify these letters according to the number of lines
of symmetry.
SYMMETRY HUNT
Students investigate symmetry in the world around them, in 2D
shapes and 3D objects, eg insects, flowers, wallpaper, flags.

RESOURCES
Mira mirrors, pattern blocks, mirrors, geoboards, pegboards, grass, leaves, twigs, paint, LOGO, drawing/painting software.

82
SPACE 2D 14
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Angle is the amount of turning between two lines about a The student is able to
common point. • investigate angles using a variety of materials
• construct and compare angles.
CONTENT
Constructing and comparing angles.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• This unit builds on previous activities, especially Narrow, wide, sharp, blunt, Ask students to
those in Unit 10. arms, pointed, angle, tester,
• fold sheets of paper and trace
• All types of angles should be constructed by the square, corner, straight angle.
different angles with a pencil
students using geostrips and geoboards or drawn as a “This arm is yellow but I’m
• produce different angles by rotating
result of the paper folding activities. going to make the other arm
the arms of two joined geostrips
• The straight angle will need special attention and red.”
“I can make this angle much • compare angles by measuring them
discussion, though the term need not necessarily be
bigger.” with folded paper shapes
used. Formal naming of angles is left till later. At this
stage, it is the concept of angle that is of greater “This angle hasn’t got a point. • make angles on a geoboard from
importance, rather than the labelling of different It looks straight.” diagrams on paper or on a dot grid on
angles. “My angle tester has four the chalkboard.
square corners.”
• Students will need to manipulate the geostrips to “Here’s a sharp angle.”
develop the idea of angle and the straight angle. “This is a blunt angle.”
Where geostrips are not available, cardboard strips “Here’s a large angle.”
and paper fasteners can be used. Make holes with a “This is a small angle.”
hole punch to facilitate smooth turning. “This angle is the same as that EVALUATION
• The testing of angles with folded pieces of paper one.”
• Was there sufficient time to complete
(angle testers) should include all types of angles in the the activities?
immediate environment, not just right angles.
• Did I cater for individual differences?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
ANGLE TESTER
MAKING ANGLES
Students can make an angle tester by folding paper as shown.
Students construct different angles with geostrips and draw them Students can decide on the size of the angle they make.
on paper. The strips can be moved from the overlapping position to
the fully extended position. The idea that all of the arm positions
make angles needs to be developed. Students can describe these as
small or large angles. Students could also represent these angles
using LOGO on a computer screen.

GEOBOARD ANGLES
Ask students to find angles around the room that are larger,
Students construct different angles on geoboards using elastic smaller or the same size as their testers, eg doors, paths, tree
bands. A separate elastic band is used for each angle. branches. Results can be recorded by means of a chart of table.
• Students can make wide and narrow angles.
• Ask students to make an angle with three nails between the My angle Smaller Same Larger
arms.
• Using one angle as a referent, students make bigger and
smaller angles.
• Students make angles to match ones drawn on dot paper and
draw angles they have made on dot paper.
• Students make an angle which looks like the corner of a SQUARE CORNERS
square.
Students can investigate square corners. Ask students to make an
• Ask students to make the same angle, but with arms of various
angle tester with square corners. Students can compare each
lengths.
other’s testers and decide if they are the same. Students can repeat
the investigation in the “angle tester” activity for square corners.

RESOURCES
Geostrips, geoboards, coloured rubber bands, cardboard strips, paper fasteners, hole punch, dot paper, LOGO.

83
SPACE 2D 15
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Identical shapes can be arranged in patterns. The student is able to
• make tessellations using tiles and blocks
• make tessellations through flipping, sliding and turning
CONTENT • describe how patterns are made through flipping, sliding and turning.
Investigating shape and pattern.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• The activities in this unit build on previous activities, Flip, slide, turn, tessellate, Ask students to
especially those in Unit 8. tessellations, turned over, turned
• identify those shapes which will
• Identical shapes are said to tessellate if they fit around, moved along, square,
together without gaps or overlaps. tessellate and those which will not
circle, rectangle, trapezium,
quadrilateral, regular shapes, • fill in shape outlines using tiles or
irregular shapes. blocks without leaving any gaps
“The circles leave gaps but the • flip, slide and turn shapes to make
squares don’t.” different arrangements of identical
• Shapes that fit together well are very useful in tiles or blocks
“I can move this square along to
everyday life and can make interesting investigations,
here.” • describe how shapes fit together to
eg bricks and floor tiles.
“When you flip a shape, it’s still form various designs
• Flips, slides and turns alter the position of shapes but
the same but backwards.”
leave their form and size unchanged. • identify tessellations in the
“Flip a circle for me.”
A flip is a reflection about a line, “The triangles have been turned environment.
as in a mirror image. to make a hexagon and this
A triangle can be flipped over. shape has been repeated.”
A slide is a translation Students’ descriptions of EVALUATION
in position. The tessellations will become more • Did all the students participate in the
triangle is moved or slid along. formal as they apply those activities and in group discussion?
A turn is a rotation about a point. geometric terms they have
• Did the students enjoy the activities?
The triangle is turned around. learned in previous units to
these patterns.
• Some computer software has the facility to flip, slide
and turn graphics.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
TESSELLATION
Students use bathroom tiles, foam blocks, cardboard shapes and
pattern blocks to investigate shapes which will and will not
tessellated, eg triangles, squares and rectangles will tessellate
while circles and pentagons will not. In constructing tessellations
students can investigate flipping, sliding and turning the shapes.
OUTLINES
Give students outlines of large shapes and have them cover these
with tiles or pattern blocks without leaving any gaps. Students can
try this in various ways and discuss whether one or more shapes
were needed. They can discuss if they used any repeating patterns
to do this and then count the number of shapes they used. They
can create their own outlines by fitting together tiles or pattern
blocks and tracing around them.
FITTING TOGETHER
Students choose any two tiles or blocks and test to see whether
they will tessellate or not, eg a hexagon and two triangles will
tessellate. The shape that tessellates is the new shape formed by
the combinations of the tiles.
Students could trace the outline of
the two tiles together and use this
outline to draw a tessellating
pattern.
• Students construct a shape from
three identical tiles or blocks and examine whether the new
shape will tessellate.
• Ask students to find and sketch tessellations in their
environment, showing the shape that tessellates. This may be a
combination of smaller tiles that forms the repeating pattern.
These examples can be shown on a class notice board. Students
can collect pamphlets from brick and paving companies to add
to the display.

FLIP, SLIDE AND TURN

Students make frieze patterns using tiles and blocks by flipping,
sliding and turning these. Ask the students to write descriptions of
how their pattern was made and to work out how a friend’s pattern
was made.

“I kept turning my shape and sliding it along.”

RESOURCES
Ceramic tiles, cardboard tiles, paper shapes, pattern blocks, painting/drawing software, LOGO.

84
SPACE 2D 16
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
A knowledge of the properties of objects and shapes and The student is able to
the ability to construct them is useful in everyday life. • determine the angle properties of shapes
• reassemble a 7 piece tangram.
CONTENT
Investigating tangrams and puzzles.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• The activities in this unit build upon previous
activities, especially those in Units 4 and 7.
• Tangrams are of Chinese origin and are about 4 000
years old. The traditional tangram was formed by
cutting a square into seven pieces.
• As the number of pieces in a tangram increases, so
does the difficulty of constructing standard geometric
shapes. There is, however, more scope for making
pictures with the pieces when more pieces are
available.
• Templates of shapes can be used to make assembling
the pieces easier. If a square is cut into pieces, the
pieces can be re-assembled on a tracing of the original
square.
• At this stage the tangrams should be constructed
accurately and photocopied or duplicated for students
to cut out. Cardboard or white paper can be pasted
onto a coloured background for display. Puzzles can
also be cut from wood or plastic.
• Tangram pieces can be placed on the overhead
projector for demonstration purposes. Large floor sets
can also be made.
• There are many books available which give examples
of tangram activities.
Flip, slide, turn, tangram,
pieces, small, medium, large,
parallel, parallelogram,
trapezium, rhombus.
“That looks like the letter L.”
“My shape is bent.”
“If I put this here, I’ll make a
square.”
Ask students to
• construct shapes using grid paper and
re-assemble them to form new shapes
• cut out and assemble 3, 4 and 7 piece
tangrams to make a given design
• assemble tangram pieces on templates
• use a selection of tangram pieces to
construct squares, rectangles,
parallelograms and trapeziums.
EVALUATION
• Was classroom and other space used
appropriately?
• Were there enough materials for all
students in the group?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
SHAPE TEMPLATE
PUZZLE SHAPES
Students trace around shapes they have made with various tangram
Students draw shapes like those below on two centimetre grid pieces, to create shape templates which can be used as puzzles by
paper. other students.

TANGRAM PICTURES
Students use tangram pieces to reproduce pictures supplied to
them by the teacher.
Each shape is cut out and then further cut into three or four pieces.
The pieces are then reformed to make their original shape.
Students can investigate which shapes are easier to reassemble.
• Students explore the construction of new shapes using the
pieces of each original shape.
• Ask the students to make a
square from this shape by TANGRAM TRICKS
cutting along the broken line Students can try using some
and reassembling the pieces. 1
or all the pieces to make 4
TANGRAMS other geometric shapes.
6 2
Students cut out the parts of 5 and 7 piece tangrams (as shown 5
below) and use them to form various pictures of animals, people, 3 7
vehicles, etc.
• Make a square using only pieces 1 and 2.
• Using pieces 4, 5 and 6 make these shapes.

RESOURCES
Coloured paper, grid paper, cardboard, tangrams.

85
SPACE 2D 17
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
The shape of objects may be transformed as a result of The student is able to
actions on them. • investigate transformations of shape using geostrips
• make shapes, through paper folding.
CONTENT
Investigating transformation of shapes.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Teachers will need to demonstrate carefully the Hexagon, octagon, rectangle, Ask students to
various techniques of paper folding to the students. rhombus, push, pull, changes,
• make different shapes using four
does not change, rigid, not
• Paper circles may need to be prepared in advance for geostrips, then sketch them on paper
rigid, non-rigid, bending,
the activities. Coloured paper will make the finished
folding, creasing. • make squares, rectangles, triangles,
result more attractive.
rhombuses and hexagons by folding
“If I fold these flaps I’ll get a
• Encourage students to make their own investigations paper shapes
square.”
and predictions before cutting the paper.
• predict what shapes will be formed
“A rhombus is a diamond.”
• If geostrips are not available, students can use when folded paper is cut in certain
cardboard strips and paper fasteners. A hole punch “A geostrip put from corner to ways.
should be used to make holes with smooth edges to corner means the square can’t
ensure easy movement of strips and fasteners. move.”

EVALUATION
• Did I encourage student language
through open-ended questioning?
• Were the students challenged by the
activities?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
FOLDING CIRCLES
RIGID AND NON-RIGID Students can experiment by folding paper circles and making other
Ask students to make some shapes using three geostrips and some shapes.
using four geostrips. Have students describe and name the shapes. Ask students to make
Students can try pushing, pulling and bending the models. • a square
Students comment on what happened to the shapes, noting which • a rectangle
were rigid and which ones could be pushed out of shape. • a triangle
• a hexagon
• an octagon.
Ask students if the shapes they made have equal sides and equal
angles. Students can find ways to investigate this.

CUTTING AND FOLDING SQUARES

• Students can experiment with the shapes which are not rigid,
Ask students to cut and fold squares in different ways and predict
adding geostrips to make them rigid. The students can record
the shape that will be formed.
their results and report their findings to the whole class.
• Students can repeat the activity with more than four geostrips.
Ask them to predict which shapes will be rigid.

MAKING A SQUARE
Students can investigate how to make a square from a rectangular fold cut
piece of paper by folding and cutting. When they have done this,
students can try making a rhombus that is not a square.

fold fold fold and cut

RESOURCES
Geostrips, Meccano, cardboard strips, hole punch and paper fasteners, scissors, paper squares/rectangles/circles.

86
SPACE 2D 18
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Shapes may be classified according to the number of The student is able to
sides, angles, diagonals and symmetries. • construct, describe and name polygons
• classify polygons according to attributes
CONTENT • design patterns involving polygons.
Investigating the properties of polygons.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• A “polygon” (Greek “many angles”) is a closed shape Polygon, square, triangle, Ask students to
with three or more angles and sides. rectangle, rhombus, trapezium,
• use geostrips to construct different
• Polygons are named according to the number of sides, hexagon, pentagon, heptagon,
polygons and then show the diagonals
eg quadrilateral - four sides. Students have been octagon, diagonal(s), rigid,
overlap, quadrilateral. • use 2D shapes in art and craft
introduced to some of these terms in Unit 11. The
activities
terms “heptagon” (seven sides) and “octagon” (eight “The square has two diagonals.
sides) can be introduced in the context of activities. So does this rectangle.” • draw polygons by tracing around
“If a shape has six sides it has everyday objects and by using a
• In making patterns with shapes, some students will
six corners.” pencil and a ruler
experience difficulties in distinguishing the outline of
individual shapes. Students can trace over these “When the squares overlapped • describe the attributes of given
shapes with a finger to help overcome this problem. they made a diamond and a polygons, in terms of the number of
triangle.” sides, angles and diagonals.
• The term “diagonal” will need to be introduced in this
unit. Diagonals are straight lines drawn from one
corner of a polygon to another, non-adjacent corner.

EVALUATION
• Did I encourage students to discuss
their findings?
• Were the available resources used
efficiently?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
DIAGONALS
PROPERTIES OF POLYGONS
Students can explore diagonals by joining two, three or four
Encourage students to examine and name all the parts of various geostrips of equal length at their centres and then join the ends of
polygons, including regular and irregular polygons. Ask them to these with other geostrips. Students join two or more geostrips of
find the lines of symmetry for each polygon and find which are different length at their centres and use geostrips to join the ends
regular polygons. The term “diagonal” can be introduced in this of make various polygons.
context. Angle testers can be used to compare the size of the
angles and find out which shapes have equal angles. Students can
decide how to record this information. This might be as sentences,
eg “The square has four axes of symmetry and four right angles.”
“This triangle has three sides and three angles.”
“This quadrilateral has an angle which is larger than a right angle.” Students can discuss various questions during this investigation.
A chart with headings like those below can be made to display • What is the relationship between the number of sides and the
their findings. number of diagonals?
• Which shapes are the strongest? What happens if the diagonal
geostrips are removed?
NAME NO. OF NO. OF TYPE OF LINES OF • Does a triangle have any diagonals?
SIDES ANGLES ANGLES SYMMETRY
ART AND CRAFT
Students can make overlapping patterns of polygons using a
variety of media, eg collage, crayons, detergent paint mix, string
EVERYDAY SHAPES
and wool.
Students collect everyday objects, eg coasters, cartons, blocks, tins,
boxes. Have students trace around the faces of these objects and
sort these shapes into groups. Students discuss which is the most
common shape. Students can photograph, draw or list other
examples of polygon shapes, eg road signs.

RESOURCES
Pencils, paper, boxes, cartons, blocks, common geometric shapes, geostrips, geoboards.

87
SPACE 2D 19
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Angles can be ordered according to their size. The student is able to
• explore and classify angles
• appreciate the need for a formal unit to measure angles.
CONTENT
Classification of angles.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Students need many varied experiences to fully
develop their concept of angle.
• The classification of angle can occur through
measuring angles with an angle tester (square corner)
which can be referred to as a right angle.
- Angles tested that are less than a right angle can be
named as acute angles.
- Angles larger than a right angle but less than a
straight angle can be named as obtuse angles.
- Angles that are larger than a straight angle but less
than one revolution can be named reflex angles.
Square, corner, right angle, Ask students to
triangle, acute angle, obtuse
• create angles with geostrips and order
angle, straight angle, revolution,
them according to size
reflex angle, angle tester, paper
cut-outs. • measure angles with paper cut-outs
(leading to the need for a formal unit
“This corner is square. It’s a
to measure angle)
right angle.”
“Six of my cut-outs fit inside • state whether an angle is a reflex,
that angle.” acute, obtuse, right or straight angle.
“I used seven paper cut-outs of
this angle but Wilyana only
used six.”

EVALUATION
obtuse angle acute angle reflex angle • Did students have the prerequisite
knowledge and skills for the activities
The term “straight angle” can also be introduced.
to be meaningful?
• Did all students in each group
participate actively?
straight angle

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES GEOBOARDS

GEOSTRIPS
• Using two geostrips joined to make a square corner (right
angle) as an angle tester, students find angles around the
classroom that are right angles, acute angles, obtuse angles and
straight angles.
• Ask students to measure angles in the room with geostrips. this
can be done by joining two geostrips and opening them out so
that they wrap around the angle or fit into the angle. Students
remove these and trace around the strips to reproduce the angle
on paper. These diagrams should be labelled and can be
ordered in increasing or decreasing size.
• Students measure straight angles with their angle tester and
find out how many right angles make a straight angle.
• Using geostrips, groups of students can make right angles,
acute angles, straight angles and obtuse angles and then report
to the class on these.
Using geoboards, students copy angle designs made by the teacher
or other students. Students can then describe the kinds of angles in
the design.
ANGLES IN CLASS
Students investigate ways of comparing the sizes of various angles
in the classroom. One way of doing this is to make a number of
identical paper cut-out angles and test to see how many of these fit
inside the angle which is being measured. Groups of students can
do this, each group using a different sized angle. Students can
decide how to record the results to share with the rest of the class.
no. of
Angle
cut-outs
door
5
swing

ANGLE DISPLAY desk 10

Students make different angles using angle wheels (see Unit 10) corner 6
and display these with headings naming the type of angle shown.

acute angle • Students can repeat the activity measuring different objects and
right angle
estimating before measuring. Encourage students to record
straight their estimates as well as the measurements.
obtuse angle • Students can use geostrips to wrap around angles and then
angle trace the outlines onto paper. The paper cut-outs can then be
used to compare the sizes of these angles.
The shaded part of the first three angle wheels shows reflex angles. • Students from different groups compare their results and
discuss the need for a standard unit of measure.

RESOURCES
Geostrips, angle wheels, angle testers (folded paper), geoboards, paper cut-outs.

88
SPACE 2D 20
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Lines may be arranged randomly or in patterns. The student is able to
• identify and describe horizontal and vertical lines and surfaces
• use lines in pattern making.
CONTENT
Investigating patterns of lines.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• In earlier units students have investigated objects Plumb line, plumb, vertical, Ask students to
which will roll down slopes using balls, rollers, horizontal, slope, sloping,
• identify horizontal and vertical lines
blocks, etc. The concepts of “vertical” and diagonal, flat, spirit level.
and surfaces in their environment.
“horizontal” are first introduced by investigating
“The top of the table is sloping “The door frame is vertical. The table
different surfaces.
because that marble rolls along top is horizontal.”
• A surface on which a ball will not roll may be said to it.”
• describe line patterns in the
be horizontal. Students may test for this using balls, “That floor is horizontal
environment, eg ripples on a pond,
marbles or rollers. To investigate whether a surface is because the marble won’t roll.”
waves at a beach, trees in a pine
vertical a “plumb line” may be used. this can be “That tree looks vertical but it’s
plantation
constructed from a length of thread or fishing line, not.”
weighted at one end. “I repeated that line on the • make effective patterns using a
screen to make the pattern.” variety of different types of lines.
• Students will realise during their activities that many
surfaces which appear to be horizontal or vertical may
not really be so at all.
• After students have spent time testing for vertical,
horizontal and sloping surfaces they can represent
their findings with pencil and paper, using tables and
sketches. EVALUATION
• Did the activities relate to students’
interests and experience?
• Were parents involved in the
activities?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES LINE PATTERNS

• Students can find patterns of lines in the natural environment,
HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL SURFACES eg ripples in a pond, waves at a beach, strata of sedimentary
Ask students to identify surfaces which go across and those that go rock. Students can sketch these and write a description.
up and down. Students may name these as horizontal and vertical. • Students investigated parallel lines in Unit 12. This work can
If they do not, these terms can be introduced. Students can discuss now be extended. Students can find examples of these lines in
ways to test whether they are really horizontal or vertical or if they the manufactured world and label them as horizontal or
are sloping. A plumb line can be used to test vertical surfaces and vertical.
a ball can be used to test horizontal surfaces. Students might also • Students can compare the line patterns they found in the
suggest using a spirit level. manufactured world and in the natural world. Most of the line
Students can record the results of their investigations in the form patterns found in the natural world will not be parallel. There
are some, however. For example, the faces of some crystals can
of a table.
be parallel. Students can now describe parallel lines more fully.
Vertical Horizontal Sloping
MAKING LINE PATTERNS
the walls the floor the ramp Students create patterns using crayons, pencils, textas, paints or
the door table top the roof drawing and painting software on a computer. The students can
show their pattern and describe it. The lines could be thick, thin,
Students can also draw pictures of these and label them. curved, straight, wavy, parallel, intersecting, horizontal, vertical or
diagonal.
BUILDING
Students can investigate why horizontal and vertical lines are
important in building.
• Parents involved in the building trade could be interviewed.
• An excursion to a building site might be arranged and students
could ask the builders questions. TEXTURES
• Students can examine a spirit level and make one.
Students can make line designs that involve textures, trying to find
• Students can make models of house frames and investigate why
different ways to do this. They could glue string or wool to paper,
the frames have diagonal supports.
draw lines in sand and carve lines in clay or plasticine.

RESOURCES
Balls, fishing line, spirit levels, sinkers, wool, string, clay, plasticine, painting and drawing software.

89
SPACE 2D 21
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Three-dimensional objects may be represented by two- The student is able to
dimensional images. • show simple perspective in his or her drawing.

CONTENT
Investigating shadows and perspective.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• In previous activities students have been developing
their knowledge of 2D shapes and their properties. By
this stage they have investigated flipping, sliding and
turning shapes. They should realise that when this
occurs the size of angles and the length of sides do
not alter, ie the properties of the shape remain the
same.
• Activities in which shadows are projected enable
students to investigate the change in the properties of
shapes which may be caused by certain actions. This
enables students to develop their spatial thinking more
fully and be aware of changes in the shape of objects
in their daily lives.
• Shadow (projective) geometry had its origins in the
work of the Renaissance artists who struggled to find
a way to represent the 3D world on 2D canvas. The
key to the representation was found in the principles
of projection, leasing the use of perspective by artists.
• Students should realise that shadows are formed by
blocking a light source. The position of the light
source determines the direction of the shadow.
Quadrilateral, parallel,
projector, projection, tilting,
identical, similar, acute, obtuse,
right angle.
“I thought I’d get a square
shadow but it was a rectangle.”
“When you’re a long way away
the stick seems really small.”
“The angles on the cube are
right angles but they sometimes
look smaller than that.”
“If you turn this block you can
only see part of this side.”
Ask students to
• demonstrate that the position of a
light source, eg a flashlight, will
determine the direction of the shadow
• draw two or more objects to show
their relative positions
• hold objects and shapes in front of a
screen and predict and verify the
shapes of the shadows
• make shadows using whole body
movements.
EVALUATION
• Did I make the best use of the
available resources?
• Was there enough time allowed to
complete the activities?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
SHADOWS AND SUNLIGHT
On a sunny day, go outside and ask the students to investigate
shadows.
• Students try to make their shadows as long as possible and as
short as possible.
• Working in pairs, students trace around their partner’s shadow
on large sheets of paper. These can be cut out and displayed in
the classroom.
• In groups of three or four, students move around in a given
space without bumping into each other’s shadows.
• Small groups of students can try to arrange themselves so they
cast a shadow that looks like a “monster shape”. These
shadows can be traced on large sheets of paper or
photographed.
• Students can investigate and make a sundial.
SHADOWS WITH TORCHES
Students can use a fixed light source such as a torch lamp or
overhead projector to investigate shadows.
• Students can make shadow pictures with their hands and these
can be traced onto paper.
• Students can investigate the shadows of a cardboard square
held at various angles to the light source and report their
findings.
• Using a collection of geometric shapes, students cast their
shadow onto a curved surface. This can also be done using
everyday objects, eg pencils, rulers, blocks and casting their
shadows onto round objects, eg a bin.
PERSPECTIVE
• Students tape or colour three adjoining edges of a cardboard
box and place it on a bench. Ask students to imagine
themselves viewing the box from different positions and then
imagine the position of the taped corners. Students can draw
the box from a number of positions and comment on these. Ask
the students if the angle on the corner changes depending on
where you are.
• Students set up a vertical stake near a straight path or wall.
They photograph the stake from a variety of heights and
distances, which are measured and kept for reference. Students
should include at least two or three photographs taken from the
same distance but different positions. Students can sketch these
and comment on how the photographs will look.
• Using the photographs from the previous activity and their
records, students comment on the effects of distance on the
apparent size of the stick. Students compare the photographs
and comment on the apparent position of the stick.
PICTURES
Have students examine pictures showing objects at a variety of
distances. Ask them to comment on how they know which objects
are more distant. Students can look at a scene outside the
classroom and discuss the relative sizes of objects in the distance.
Students can try sketching these to begin to develop the skill of
showing distant objects in their artwork.

RESOURCES
Butcher’s paper, flashlight, overhear projector, cardboard, pencils, rulers, blocks, books, vases, buckets, boxes, slide projector,
wooden sticks, cameras, film, photographs.

90
SPACE 2D 22
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
A knowledge of the properties of angles and the ability to The student is able to
construct them is useful in everyday life. • measure angles using the degree as a formal unit
• construct angles using a protractor.
CONTENT
Investigating the properties of angles.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• The need for a formal unit in measuring angles has Degree, protractors, compasses, Ask students to
been developed in Unit 19. Activities from this unit acute, obtuse, quarter turn,
• name the various types of angles
may need to be revised prior to commencing work three-quarter turn, circular,
here. semi-circular, reflex, angle, • estimate the size of various angles in
horizontal, vertical, line, degrees, eg “That angle is about 145
• The degree is the unit used for measuring angles. In
segment, intersection, intersect, degrees.”
ancient times, the Babylonians had 360 days in their
year and a base 60 number system. Hence the choice bisect, vertex. • measure angles to the nearest five
of 360º as a complete rotation. “This angle is greater than a degrees using a protractor
• Circular or semi-circular protractors can be used to right angle but less than a • construct various angles using a
measure angles. straight angle.” protractor, estimating before
“That angle is about a quarter measuring.
• Students should estimate the size of angles in degrees turn.”
before measuring them. “A right angle is ninety
• Measuring and constructing angles to the nearest five degrees.”
degrees is sufficient at first, with greater accuracy “A full turn contains three
being aimed for later. hundred and sixty degrees.”
• Teachers should ensure that pupils measure angles
whose arms are not always in horizontal positions.
• Students will need to relate using the protractor with
EVALUATION
the amount and direction of turning of one of the arms • Did students have the prerequisite
of the angle. knowledge and understandings for the
activities to be meaningful?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
PROTRACTORS
DEGREES
• Review the activities from Unit 19 and ask students to make Show students how to use protractors to measure angles.
and label acute, right, obtuse and straight angles. Ensure that students are aware of
• Introduce the term “degree” as the amount of turn. - the scale around the edge
Make various angles with two geostrips and explain - the hole in the centre as a starting point
- a no turn angle contains no degrees - the reason for two sets of numbers
- a full turn angle contains 360º - the largest angle that can be measured
- a half turn angle contains 180º - lining up an arm of the angle being measured with the zero
- a quarter turn angle contains 90º degree line on the protractor, not its bottom edge.
- a three quarter angle contains 270º. • Working in pairs, students estimate the size of various angles
Introduce the symbol for writing the term “degree” as well as the and check their partner’s estimates.
written word. A chart can be made by students and displayed as a • Students replicate various angles in the room using geostrips,
reference. copy these onto paper and measure the angles.
ANGLE NAME NO. OF DEGREES • Ask students to construct various angles using a protractor.
acute angle between 0° and 90° MAKE A PROTRACTOR
Students can investigate various ways of making a protractor.
straight angle 180°
Some students might try to make a protractor that can measure
angles larger than a straight angle.
obtuse angle between 90° and 180°
ANGLING
right angle 90° Students work in pairs. One student draws a line on paper and
marks the line with a dot. The other student then chooses an angle,
reflex angle between 180° and 360° eg 50º. Each student uses a coloured pencil to mark a point
through which he or she thinks the other arm of the angle will
pass. The angle is then constructed with a protractor and the
full turn angle 360° student whose estimate is closer is the winner.

RESOURCES
Protractors, geostrips, LOGO, simulation software that use bearings.

91
SPACE 2D 23
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Objects and shapes may have turning symmetry. The student is able to
• identify shapes that have turning symmetry.

CONTENT
Investigating turning symmetry.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• In previous activities, students have investigated line “When you trace it, it’s still the Ask students to
symmetry. Shapes can also have symmetry as they are same.”
turned. Turning symmetry is investigated through • produce accurate tracings of different
“I turned this shape and
simple activities. This is formally referred to as shapes and rotate the tracings on top
matched it three times.”
rotational symmetry. of the original shape
“Those two hands overlap.”
• A shape is said to have turning symmetry if a tracing “This tracing fits on top of the • count the number of times the shape
of the shape matches it after the tracing is rotated part hand.” and the tracing match before one full
of a full turn. turn is completed.
There is no need for teachers to
use the terms “turning
symmetry” or “rotational
symmetry” with the students.
Teachers should model the
language of turning, rotating,
tracing and matching. Full turns
and part turns can be discussed
This tracing matches the original shape again after during the activities. EVALUATION
part of a full turn.
• Did students enjoy the activities?
• To investigate rotational (turning) symmetry, students
trace a shape and pin the tracing to the shape through • Did I use open-ended questions to
its centre. The tracing is then rotated around the pin. facilitate discussion?
As it is being rotated, the number of times the tracing
and the original match is counted.
• Some shapes only match when a full turn is
completed. For our purposes, these shapes are not
considered to have turning symmetry.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
INVESTIGATIONS
ROTATING SHAPES
Students investigate objects or shapes in the environment that have
Give students a variety of cardboard shapes. turning symmetry. Students can collect pictures of things like
wrought iron patterns, company logos, Islamic designs and
Japanese crests. These could form part of a display or report on a
topic students are investigating, eg buildings in our town.

Students investigate the number of times the shapes and a tracing
of the shape match in one full turn.
• Students investigate whether any capital letters have turning
symmetry.
• Students can draw shapes of their own on grid paper. They
predict how many times a tracing will match their shape if the
tracing is rotated one full turn and then check their prediction.
PATTERN BLOCKS
Ask students to make shapes that will match one, two, three, four,
five or six times when rotated.
COMPUTERS
Students can explore turning symmetry and patterns through
computer graphics. The LOGO computer language and its
simplified version TURTLE can be used by students to do this.
Ask students to make a design and “spin” it.
There are also computer programs which enable the user to make
and rotate graphics, eg drawing software.
SHAPES
Cut-outs of various polygons can be investigated for turning
symmetry.

Students start with a central shape and build around this. The
shapes can be traced and objects rotated to match the tracing.

RESOURCES
Pattern blocks, cardboard templates, tracing paper, LOGO computer language, TURTLE computer language, painting/drawing software.

92
SPACE 2D 24
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
A knowledge of the properties of objects and shapes and The student is able to
the ability to construct them is useful in everyday life. • make all possible combinations of a small number of identical geometric
shapes
CONTENT • construct tessellations using pencil and paper.
Patterns and tessellation.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Attractive posters may be produced by students using Curve, symmetry, tessellate, Ask students to
their knowledge of flips, slides and turns and applying tessellation, triangular, square,
• construct patterns with grid paper,
their skills in pattern making. hexagonal, grid, grid paper,
using flips, slides and turns
• Students should be encouraged to make their own polyominoes.
• create designs and cooperate to
creative patterns. Pattern work is usually motivating “These circles look like
combine these to form attractive
and enjoyable for them, having much aesthetic appeal. teardrops.”
tessellations
• The artistic work of M.C. Escher can be a subject for “I drew a star inside that
hexagon.” • construct curved shapes which will
discussion by the students.
“If I slide this I can make a new tessellate
• Students should have opportunities to explore shape pattern.” • complete simple shape puzzles, eg
puzzles. One of these is polyominoes where students “The flip pattern and the turn find all the pentominoes.
find all possible shapes that can be made from a given pattern are the same.”
number of equal squares which must join along a “If I flip this shape it’s the same
complete side. This puzzle can be done with triangles. as that one.”
The shapes formed are called polyiamonds. “That shape looks like a
butterfly.” EVALUATION
“These two shapes make a
rectangle.” • Were parents asked to participate in
the activities?
• Did the activities challenge the
students?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
TESSELLATION
PATTERNS
Students can try tessellations with curved shapes. This can be done
Students can draw a shape on grid paper and by flipping, sliding by changing a circle shape or modifying a square shape.
and turning the shape and repeating this, create a pattern.

The basic pattern.

The pattern is slid

along and reproduced.

This is repeated.

The four pieces make

another basic pattern.

PUZZLES
Using plastic or paper squares, students can investigate how many
arrangements of squares are possible if each square must touch the
edge of another square.
Students could begin by finding all the possible arrangements for 3
squares and then try 4, 5 or more.
Two possible combinations
of three squares

Students may ask if touching corners counts. For this puzzle,

polyominoes, it does not. Students can try the same kind of
puzzles with triangles.

RESOURCES
Grid paper (square, triangular, hexagonal), coloured pencils, coins, scissors, sticky tape.

93
SPACE 2D 25
MAIN IDEA
A knowledge of the properties of objects and shapes and
the ability to construct them is useful in everyday life.
CONTENT
Construction of 2D shapes.
TEACHER NOTES
• Many students will have had informal experiences
with geometric instruments and developed their own
methods of construction prior to investigations in this
unit. The teacher’s aim should be to refine these
construction methods through a problem solving
approach, posing questions such as
- “How many ways can you find to draw a square?”
- “How do I draw a triangle within a circle?”
• Formal lessons in which the whole class proceeds step
by step through certain construction activities should
be avoided, in favour of more informal methods. Not
all students will be ready to proceed at the same point
in time or at the same rate.
• Mathematical terms should be introduced in the
context of the activity as the need arises.
• Students can be asked to construct familiar shapes or
logos, such as the Aboriginal flag which combines
both rectangles and circles.
• The angle sum of squares, rectangles, (quadrilaterals),
triangles, and hexagons can be investigated in this
unit by measuring these shapes.
• A square is a rectangle with all sides equal.
SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
CIRCLES
Students work in small groups and discover how to draw a large
circle in the playground. Make available a range of materials,
ropes, stakes, chalk, tape measures, etc. During this work,
encourage students to talk, and model language for students, eg
radius, diameter, circumference.
CIRCLE DESIGNS
Students can investigate drawing circular designs using a pair of
compasses. They can write an explanation of how to make the
design and have a friend try to replicate it.
TRIANGLES
Ask students to construct triangles using protractors, rulers and set
squares. Students can cut these out, tear the corners and arrange
them to form a straight angle. Students discuss why this works.
Students can sort their triangles and the terms “equilateral”,
“isosceles” and “scalene” can be introduced.
RESOURCES
Pencils, ruler, paper, pairs of compasses, a builder’s peg, rope, twine, chalk, builder’s crayon or marker, spirograph, set square.
OBJECTIVES
The student is able to
• construct circles, triangles, squares and rectangles and examine
their properties.
LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT
Circumference, radius, Ask students to
diameter, centre, isosceles,
• construct triangles, squares and
equilateral, scalene, intersect,
rectangles using pencils, rulers,
intersection, arc, parallel,
protractors and set squares
perpendicular diagonal.
• examine the properties of the figures
“My circle has curved patterns
during their activities, eg the sum of
in it.”
the various angles
“That triangle has equal sides.”
“I used a protractor to make my • design your own flag or logo.
circle.”
“The angles add up to one
hundred and eighty degrees.”
“Your triangle has a right
angle.” EVALUATION
“Draw a line parallel to another • Did I encourage peer tutoring during
line.” the activities?
“Draw two diagonals and find
the centre of the rectangle.” • Were the available resources used
effectively?
• Did the students feel enough
confidence in the construction
techniques to attempt their own
designs.
PROPERTIES OF RECTANGLES
Students can investigate constructing rectangles using rulers and
set squares or protractors. Students can describe these and report to
the whole class on the method they used. The whole group can list
the properties of the rectangles they have made and this can lead to
a working definition of these shapes.
Students can check the following properties of rectangles.
• There are two sets of parallel lines.
• Four angles are equal (90 degrees).
• Each set of parallel lines is equal in length.
• The diagonals are equal in length.
• There are at least two lines of symmetry.
Students can check these additional properties of squares.
• The four sides are identical in length.
• There are four lines of symmetry.
CONSTRUCTION
Students can investigate constructing the Aboriginal flag and other
well-known designs or logos. They could be asked to write a series
of directions for use by other students. Alternatively these
directions could be available to the students. They should then be
encouraged to design their own flags or logos and to write down a
series of direction so that other students could make exact copy.
94
 POSITION
SUMMARY OF OBJECTIVES

POSITION 1 POSITION 5
• participate in movement games of turning and direction • investigate and describe informal grids
• follow directions • construct simple maps and plans
• give and describe directions • complete mazes and dot-to-dot puzzles

POSITION 2 POSITION 6
• describe the position of an object in relation to themselves • use and describe dimple coordinates to specify position
• describe the position of an object in relation to other objects • draw simple routes on a grid

POSITION 3 POSITION 7
• describe the position of an object in models, pictures and • use a compass to find north and hence the other three major
sketches compass points
• construct models from memory, photographs or sketches • determine the direction north, south, east or west given any
• draw a sketch from a model major compass direction
• find and name the direction half way between any major
POSITION 4 compass directions

• draw a path on a sketch to show a route followed

• follow a route marked on a plan
• follow and give simple directions

95
POSITION 1
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
A relationship between objects can be expressed in terms The student is able to
of position. • participate in movement games of turning and direction
• follow directions
CONTENT • give and describe directions.
The language of position.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• In this unit, the students will be involved in position
and directional activities using the language outlined.
The concepts developed in this sub-strand are
important for many other topics in mathematics.
Spatial relationships, graphs, map work and setting
out of algorithms are some of the areas involving the
language of position. Many of the activities will be
incidental and integrated into other programs of work
such as P.E., Dance and Drama.
• The students will be discussing movements like
walking, hopping and skipping along, over or under
objects. They will also be describing the turns and
directions they make, eg turning left or right.
• The students should be encouraged to recall and
describe their movements and directions to each other,
as well as to follow or describe the movements of
other people.
• There are many songs, poems, stories and rhymes that
can be used to teach and reinforce the language of this
sub-strand in an informal way. Retelling and role-
playing are worthwhile activities to link with these
activities.
Above, across, along, around,
after, back, back to back,
before, behind, below, beneath,
beside, between, bottom, centre,
close, down, far, first, forward,
further, further away from,
from, here, high, in, in front of,
inside, into, last, left, low,
middle, near, next, next to, on,
onto, on top of, out, outside,
over, past, right, right around,
round, side by side, sideways,
there, through, top, turn, under,
underneath, up, upside down.
“I crawled over the sand.”
“Voula walked backwards from
the tree.”
“I turned and walked two steps.
Then I turned around and
walked two more steps. Now
I’m back where I started.”
“I rolled the hoop to Nicholas
and he rolled it back to me.”
“We played skipping and I
jumped in with Xiao Tan.”
“I climbed through the tyres.”
Ask students to
• move to different positions and
describe their actions to others, eg “I
skipped to the bubblers then walked
back to the line.”
• change directions and describe their
actions to others, eg “I walked
forward and turned left.”
• follow the directions of others, eg
“Bilal, walk to the monkey bars and
climb over them. Then turn around
and run back to me.”
EVALUATION
• Did the students have enough
opportunities to practise the language
of position in a play situation?
• Did I encourage both girls and boys
to be leaders in group activities and
games?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES FOLLOWING DIRECTIONS

OVER AND UNDER
Students can play various games focusing on the concepts of over
and under.
• Play a variation of “leapfrog” where students crawl under one
person and jump over the next.
• Arrange the class desks and some chairs into a circle. Students
can go under the desks and over the chairs.
• Encourage the students to invent their own games involving
under and over.
FOLLOW THE LEADER
This game can be played incidentally while walking from one
location to another. The leader should be encouraged to walk in
and out, over and under, around, left and right while the class
follows.
Encourage students to discuss the pathways and movements. More
language can be drawn out of the games by having the leader call
out the movements for the players to follow. Students should have
experience of being the leader. Teachers can also be the leader and
use this as an opportunity to model the language of position.
OBSTACLE COURSE
Encourage students to cooperate in setting up an obstacle course
using a variety of P.E. equipment, eg ropes, hoops, witch’s hats,
tables and chairs. Students can invent ways to complete the
obstacle course and describe the path and movements they used.
Students can try to copy the path that another student used.
Play a game where students are given directions to follow that will
lead them back to their starting position.
Use direction such as these.
Take two steps forward.
Turn to your left.
Take two forward.
Turn to your left.
Take two steps forward, etc.
Students can mark the place they begin from with chalk and see
that they end at the same place. After students have played the
game a few times they can take turns at calling the directions.
TURN AND TRACE
Students work in pairs and the teacher calls directions, eg walk
forward, turn left, walk forward. On student carries out the
directions while their partner traces their path on the playground
with chalk. The students discuss the path and then swap roles.
One of the students can then give the directions.
Students could also try doing this with toy robots.
ROBOTS
Students take turns being robots that cannot turn without direction.
Students can use the LOGO commands to tell their “robots” to
move. Robot task cards with letters representing commands can
also be made and used for this activity, eg FD 10, RT 10. BK 10.
DANCE
Most folk dances require students to be able to follow directions.
Some have this language within the words to the dance.

RESOURCES
Playground equipment, hoops, witches’ hats, bench, chairs, tables, ropes, balls, beanbags, whistle, tambourine, bells, margarine
containers, plasticine, masking tape, chalk, programmable electronic toy robots.

96
POSITION 2
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
A relationship between objects can be expressed in terms The student is able to
of position. • describe the position of an object in relation to themselves
• describe the position of an object in relation to other objects.
CONTENT
The language of position.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Students need many experiences in describing the
space in which they move and the relationships
between themselves and objects around them.
• The development of the language of position should
be treated informally through a variety of everyday
experiences including games, stories or news times.
• Many students may be able to describe the position of
an object in relation to themselves, but not in relation
to another object.
• Although the students may have an understanding of a
particular concept, they may not be able to verbalise
it. For example, they may be able to follow an
instruction to place an object in front of another
object, but may not be able to describe the relative
positions of the objects using the phrase “in front of”.
• The development of the concepts of left and right and
the associated language will need many experiences
over a very long time. It may be helpful to students to
provide them with an aid in the initial stages, eg a
mark on one hand or a band around one wrist.
Above, across, along, around, Ask students to
after, back, back to back,
• describe the position of an object in
before, behind, below, beneath,
relation to themselves, eg “The tree is
beside, between, bottom, centre,
next to me.”
close, down, far, first, forward,
• describe the position of an object in
further, further away, here,
relation to another object, eg “The
high, in, left, right, in front of,
inside, into, last, low, middle, ball rolled under the building.” “The
near, next, next to, on, onto, on bins are next to the canteen.”
top, turn, under, underneath, up,
upside down.
“Put the glove on your left
hand.”
EVALUATION
“The paper is in my right
hand.” • Have I provided opportunities for
“Sit beside the tree.” students to become familiar with the
“Antonia hopped over the seat.” names of the materials used in this
“Put the ball under your chair.” unit?
“The hoop rolled through the • Have I ensured that all students have
door.” an opportunity to be involved in the
“I took the orange juice out of activities?
the bag and put it in the fridge.”
“The tree is on your right.”

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES FARMYARD TOYS

LEFT AND RIGHT Have toys such as farm or zoo animal sets for students to play
with. Encourage them to make a model of a farm or zoo, etc and
Have a left day or a right day. then to discuss their model with a friend, their group, the class or
• Students tie something around body parts on the left side or teacher. Students may also like to use constructive toys in the
right side. construction of their model.

• Students pass a ball or a bean bag along a line or around a
circle to the right or the left.
• Students catch a ball using the right or left hand only.
• Students kick a ball using the right foot or left foot.
• Students move using the left hand or foot or the right hand or
foot, eg hop on the left foot, stir the cake with right hand.
• Have a dressing race.
• Play O’Grady Says, focusing on left and right, eg jump to the
left, put your right hand on your head.
STORIES AND SONGS
Read stories and poems to the class that involve position language.
Encourage students to retell these using their own language orally
or in writing. Include songs and rhymes that use position language
in your music and movement program.
Students can make up their own stories and rhymes. Felt pictures,
magnetic board pictures and puppets could be used in retelling the
stories.
FIRE ON THE MOUNTAIN
This game needs an odd number of players. Students make two
concentric circles, facing each other.
One student stands in the centre and chants “There’s a fire on the
mountain! Run, kids, run!” The students turn to their left and run
around their circle.
When the centre student calls “Fire’s out”, all students, including
the centre one, try to find a partner. The left over goes into the
centre.
SMALL TOYS
Provide students with many opportunities and the equipment to
make models with construction toys and to play imaginative games
using small toys, eg cars, animals, furniture, figures. This can also
be done while playing in the sand pit. They may choose do this
individually or in a group. Encourage students to tell a friend or
the group what is happening in their model or game. In many of
these types of games, students will give each other directions using
the language of position.
This type of activity provides the opportunity for the teacher to
interact with students informally, to listen to their language and to
model the language being developed for position.

RESOURCES
Bean bags, shoes, socks, gloves, farm toys, soft toys and dolls, cutlery, toy furniture, felt or magnetic board, nursery rhyme or story
pictures to use with board, Lego bricks, blocks, small toys.

97
POSITION 3
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
A relationship between objects can be expressed in terms The student is able to
of position. • describe the position of an object in models, pictures and sketches
• construct models from memory, photographs or sketches
CONTENT • draw a sketch from a model.
Modelling and sketching the position of objects.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Students should be given many opportunities to make Beside, chart, direction, Ask students to
models of various areas and to discuss these models. drawing, left, map, model, next
• make a model of a farm, park or
to, path, plan, picture, right,
• Students need to model an area of the school with playground using toys, blocks, etc.
route, sketch, turn.
concrete materials before they make sketches which
• draw a sketch of a part of the model
show the relative positions of the main objects in that “I built our classroom with
area. blocks and I put all the desks • describe their model or sketch using
inside.” appropriate position language.
• At first, students should choose one part of the model
“This is where you go up the
and sketch it. When they have had enough experience
stairs to the treehouse.”
at doing this they can make simple sketches of the
“The bars are behind the
whole model.
climbing frame.”
• At this stage the sketches will concentrate on the “I drew the house, so it has to
relative position of objects. Over time the students’ go next to your picture of the
mapping skills and understandings will be refined,
EVALUATION
barn.”
leading to the development of scale drawings. Accept “I could make the road go up • Did I encourage the students to
students’ models and sketches and encourage them to the hill in the sandpit.” visualise an area of the school before
try different ways of making them. modelling it?
• Students may discuss size relationships, especially if • Did I integrate the unit of work with
making a model as group activity, eg “I built the other curriculum areas?
tractor for our model but I made it too big. It’s bigger
than the house.”
• Being able to describe the relative positions of objects
in a picture or diagram requires interpretation of a
two-dimensional representation.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
MAKE A MODEL
Students make a model of a farm, or other subject they choose,
using small toys, junk materials, etc.
The students describe what they have made in terms of the
positions of the objects making up the model, eg
“The horse yard is next to the stable.”
“I put two horse in the stable.”
“The farmhouse is to the left of the stable.”
Students can trace with their fingers around the farmyard to
describe how they would go to feed each animal, eg “I start at the
back of the house and walk to the shed where the food is kept.”
This activity should be done both as an individual task and as a
group activity.
PICTURE TALKS
• Use large clear photographs, drawings or magazine pictures.
Working in groups of as a class, the students describe the
picture in terms of where objects within it are. The positional
sentences that students use can be written on cards and then
attached to the picture.
• Students can cut pictures from magazines and glue them onto
paper to make a picture story. They can write a story about
their picture and/or add position words or phrases to parts of
the picture. They can then discuss their picture and display it.
SKETCH IT
After they have completed a model, ask the students to imagine
that they are a giant or in an aeroplane. Ask them to describe what
they can see when looking down on the model. Encourage students
to discuss their model in terms of the position of objects in relation
to other objects. Individual students are then asked to sketch just
one part of the model, eg the shed, the house, the wheat field.
Others may sketch a different part. It may be necessary to discuss
how to divide up the task first. The students then place their
sketches together and organise them into the same positions as the
objects are in the model, eg “The house is to the left of the shed,
so my sketch has to go here.”
MODEL FROM MEMORY
Take students for a walk around the school, encouraging them to
observe all the major items.
On their return to the classroom, students list what they have seen.
Then, in small groups, students use a variety of small and large
boxes and cardboard to represent the objects they have listed.
These can be painted and decorated to look like the objects they
represent, eg the office block with the doors and windows painted
on. The group can then arrange their pieces in the appropriate
arrangement. When they are satisfied with their model, the group
can present it to the class. Repeat this activity using a variety of
locations and construction materials.

RESOURCES
Small toys (including animals, figures of people, cars, dolls’ house furniture), Lego bricks, blocks, construction toys, small and large
boxes, photographs, drawings, magazines, pictures, cardboard, clay, playdough, plasticine.

98
POSITION 4
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
A relationship between objects can be expressed in terms The student is able to
of their position. • draw a path on a sketch to show a route followed
• follow a route marked on a plan
CONTENT • follow and give simple directions.
Modelling and sketching the position of objects.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Before attempting this unit, students should have had Backwards, beside, chart, Ask students to
many experiences of making models and drawing direction, drawing, forwards,
• walk a route marked on a model or
simple sketches of their models. left, map, model, next to, part,
sketch of an area
• It is important that the students actually walk their path, plan, picture, right, route,
sketch, turn. • draw a path on a sketch to show the
paths, as well as showing them on a model or sketch.
route they took
• The students should be encouraged to use the “I think your sectret place is
behind the fish tank.” • follow oral or written directions to
language of position they encountered in Position 1, 2
“When you get to the seats, walk a route or mark it on a map.
and 3 to describe their paths and the direction they
took. turn left and keep walking.”
“I made a plan of all the rooms
• Besides following directions, the students should have in our flat.”
opportunities to give each other directions in oral, “Samilah and I drew a chart of
diagrammatic and written forms. our walk.”
• There are many incidental opportunities during the “I went forward about ten steps
EVALUATION
school day for the students to give and follow and then turned around the
directions that use the language of position. corner of the building.” • Have I encouraged students to use a
Some examples are variety of recording methods?
- playing games • Did I utilise areas outside the
- taking messages to another class classroom?
- moving furniture
- showing visitors to another classroom.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
MYSTERY WALK
SHAPE PATHS Prepare signs with various directions on them.
Draw a variety of shapes on the playground and make a stencil
showing the position of these for students. The students work in
Turn Left
pairs. One student draws a route on the stencil from a given
Here Straight
starting point in any direction around the shapes, returning to the
starting point. Their partner walks the route drawn on the map. ahead
15 steps
Students may then swap roles.

DOT PATH Turn right here Go back

2 steps
Draw dots on the playground that are easily seen.
Students draw a route on their stencil, using arrows that go from
one dot to another.
The students swap maps and take turns in walking, running, These signs are placed outside the classroom so that the students
hopping, or skipping along the route shown on their new map. will follow a particular route by following the signs. On returning
to the classroom the students describe their walk and what they
SECRET PLACE passed or saw on the way. Some activities to follow this walk are
listed here.
Each student secretly decides on a place in the classroom that is
• Using boxes or blocks, the students can make a model of their
“theirs”. They then make a simple sketch of the classroom and
walk. Then, with their fingers, they can trace the path they
draw in a route from their desk to their secret place. They should
took.
add arrows to the path to show the direction. They can make the
• Large scale maps of the model can be made by using masking
route as complicated as they wish. The students then swap maps
tape to outline a plan on the floor.
and try to find their partner’s secret place. This type of activity
• Students can make a sketch of their large map and mark in the
could also be done in other places in the school, eg a group of
route they took.
students could hide a “treasure” in the playground and then make a
• Students can write about their mystery walk and display their
treasure map for others to follow.
work or make a big book.
• Students can investigate international road safety signs.

RESOURCES
Stencils to match playground and chalkboard maps, direction signs, simple map of the school.

99
POSITION 5
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
A relationship between objects can be expressed in terms The student is able to
of their positions. • investigate and describe informal grids
• construct simple maps and plans
CONTENT • complete mazes and dot-to-dot puzzles.
Informal grids and mazes.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• The concept of location, ie determining the position
of an object in relation to oneself or another object, is
important in terms of students’ growing awareness of
direction and mapping.
• The students will need to be able to describe the
position of a particular object within an area, eg “My
classroom is the third room on the left of the
corridor.”
• In this unit of work, the student will be investigating
informal grids to help them describe the location of a
particular object.
• It is important that the students have many
experiences in the use of informal grids, eg the book
is on the third row, second from the end, before they
move to the more formal grids of maps and
directories.
• At all times, the students should be encouraged to
describe their activities, write about them and display
their work.
First, second, third...tenth, row,
middle, top, last, grid, maze,
square, location, position.
“My school bag is on top of the
bench at the end.”
“Karen’s tote tray goes in the
hole fourth from the left.”
“My sister’s classroom is next
to the office.”
“KB is between KH and the
canteen.”
“When I tried to get through the
maze I made lots of wrong
turns.”
“The book is third from the left
on the bottom shelf.”
Ask students to
• describe the position of an object or
themselves on an informal grid using
position language, eg “The book is on
the middle shelf.”
• complete and describe mazes, eg “I
walked forward and turned left but it
was a dead end so I had to go back
and turn right.”
• discuss informal grids in the
environment, eg game boards, letter
boxes outside blocks of flats, garden
plots.
EVALUATION
• Did the activities challenge the
students?
• Did I utilise the local area?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES INFORMAL GRIDS

ICE-CUBE TRAY
An ice-cube container is given to each pair of students. Describe
the position of a bead or counter to be placed in the ice-cube tray,
eg “Put the bead in third from the left in the top row.” The students
find that position in their ice-cube container and place a bead or
counter there. Students check their results and discuss these.
The students can repeat the activity in pairs. One student describes
the location of the bead to their partner who places a bead in the
correct position.
TOTE TRAYS
• Ask students to describe the location of their tote trays, eg “My
tote tray is fifth from the left and it’s in the second row.”
• Hide an object in a tote tray and give its location for a student
to find. That student then hides the object and gives its location
for another student to find.
SIMPLE PLANS
Take students for a walk and ask them to find as many informal
grids as possible, eg bookshelves, cupboards, pigeon holes, fences,
lattices, windows on buildings. The students can draw simple maps
or plans of informal grids they discover and mark the location of
an object, then discuss these drawings. The students may say, “The
bird was sitting in the fourth hole in the second row of the fence.”
The map can then be given to another student to use to locate that
place. The maps can be displayed with captions added to them.
There are many opportunities in the classroom and playground to
focus students’ attention on grids, eg games boards, calenders,
timetables, sewing designs and tiled floors.
• Ask students to describe the position of various objects in
different informal grids, eg “The book is on the top shelf,
second from the end.”
• Students could play draughts or noughts and crosses using
other students as the pieces and give directions to the “pieces”
about where to move.
• Students can play a game of “Bean Bag Toss” and name the
grid or space into which the bag has fallen.
PAPER GRIDS
Each student or pair of students in a group has a grid stencilled on
paper. They place counters or tokens on the spaces nominated by
the teacher, group leader or partner. Students could draw obejcts in
nominated squares on their grids. These could be designed to form
a picture or pattern. Students might discuss quicker ways to
describe the position of the objects and this can lead into work on
coordinates.
AMAZING
Set up a maze using boxes, buckets, benches, bins, P.E. equipment,
etc. Ask students to walk through the maze and record the
directions they take.
When students have completed the maze, they relate their
directions for another student to follow.
Students may like to plan a maze on paper and set it up in the
classroom using construction materials.

RESOURCES
Ice-cube trays, beads, counters, map of school, board games, calender, timetables, grid paper, bean bags, egg cartons, ice-cream
containers, boxes, benches, buckets, bins, activity books, dot-to-dot puzzles, simple mazes.

100
POSITION 6
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
A relationship between objects can be expressed in terms The student is able to
of position. • use and describe dimple coordinates to specify position
• draw simple routes on a grid.
CONTENT
Using coordinates to describe position.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• In the previous unit of work the students have been First, second...tenth, row, Ask students to
exploring grids in the environment. They have column, top, middle, last, grid,
• state the position of a given point on
discorvered how to locate an object or their own map, plan, square, space,
a grid in terms of coordinates
position, using simple grids. location, direction, route, path,
coordinate, plot. • plot a point at given coordinates
• In this unit, the students will be using coordinates to
describe positions on simple grids. To avoid later “My desk is the last one in the • find a place on a map or directory
confusion, coordinates should always refer to the second row.” given its coordinates
intersection of grid lines rather than to spaces. “Marika’s story is the first one • state the coordinates of a given place
displayed in the bottom row.” on a map or directory.
4
“My grid has five rows and ten
3 columns.”
“I plotted the tree on my map
2
of the garden.”
1 “Smith Street is at B7 on Map
A B C D E F G H I J K
41.”
EVALUATION
This still allows spaces to be specified by coordinates.
• Did I integrate this unit with a unit on
Z
Y the local area in Social Studies?
X • Did students work cooperatively in
1 2 3 4 5 6
groups?
• Students will need to know the conventional way of
reading coordinates, ie across from the left and then
up or down, eg 4 Y.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES MAP OF THE SCHOOL

CLASSROOM GRIDS The teacher produces a school plan or map with grid lines
• Students make small grids and describe the position of objects superimposed. Students find places on the plan, given coordinates,
on the grid in informal terms. and give the coordinates of various parts of the school.

The apple is in the
middle of the top row.
• Students arrange desks in rows and columns. Each line
(column) of desks is given a name or colour. Each desk in the
line is given a number, starting with 1 at the front. Students
give a grid position for each class member. This could lead to
games in which students are identified by their grid position.
THEATRE PLANS
For school performances in the assembly hall, have students draw
a seating plan and number the seats using coordinates. Students
produce numbered tickets and distribute them. On the day of the
performance students show people to their seats.
GAMES
Many games involve the use of a coordinate system, eg chess,
Battleships. Discuss the conventional way of giving chess board
coordinates. Have students play computer chess in which the
moves are entered in coordinate form. Some computer adventrue
games involve students using grid coordinates.
STREET DIRECTORIES
• The teacher produces a simple map of a town with grid lines
superimposed. Students find places on the map, given
coordinates. Students give the coordinates of particular places
on the map.
• Students use a page of a street directory or a map of the town
in which they live. Ask students to give the coordinates of
- the place where they live
- the school
- the post office.
Ask students to state what is shown on the map at certain grid
positions.
Ask students to state what building or physical feature exists at
certain grid positions, “What would we find if we walked to
A7?”
ROAD MAPS
Students study road maps and give the grid positions of towns,
mountains, etc. Given the name of a town, they find its grid
coordinates and hence find it on the map.

RESOURCES
String, masking tape, butchers’ paper, rope, blocks, 2cm grid paper, coloured paper, small toys, computer chess game, computer adventure
games, board games such as Draughts.

101
POSITION 7
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
The student is able to
A relationship between objects or shapes can be
• use a compass to find north and hence the other three major compass
expressed in terms of their position. points
• determine the direction north, south, east or west given any major
CONTENT compass direction
Investigating aspects of position, focusing on mapping. • find and name the direction half way between any major compass
directions.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• When introducing the four compass points north, Compass, compass points, Ask students to
south, east and west, begin by using the students’ north, south, east, west, north-
• show north using a compass
body turns. west, north-east, south-west,
south-east, northerly, southerly, • find north on a map
• By now, students should be familiar with right angles.
westerly, easterly. • show any of the four major compass
Students should come to understand that the angle
between adjacent compass points is a right angle. “The weather report said that directions, or the intermediate
the winds tomorrow will be directions, given a particular compass
• The students should investigate examples of direction
easterly.” direction.
terms being used in real life, eg road maps, maps of
“The point of the compass
the world. They can find out what these terms mean
shows north.”
and how they are used by different people, eg pilots,
“Canberra is roughly south-west
ship’s captains.
of Sydney.”
• Investigate the names of towns and areas that use
compass point terms in their names, eg North West
Cape, South Australia.
• Conventionally, the side edges of a map run north - EVALUATION
south. • Did I use the school grounds for
• Wind direction is named according to the direction activities?
from which it is blowing. • Did I link this unit with story themes
• Link this unit with work in Social Studies. about sailing and navigation?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
BODY TURNS
Mark the four major compass directions on the ground. Have
students face north. Ask them to turn to the left or right in quarter
turns and state in which direction they then face.
Given north, ask students to face in a particular compass direction.
MAPS
• Give students navigation charts and road maps. Ask them to
find north on the chart or map and hence find other directions.
• Ask students to find places on a map which are in a given
direction from a given starting point, eg find a town which is
due north of Parkes.

USING A COMPASS ORIENTEERING

• Have students find north, using a compass and hence draw an
arrow pointing north in the playground.
• Having drawn an arrow pointing north, have students add the
other three major compass directions.
BURIED TREASURE
The teacher hides a mystery object and gives a simple compass
directions and a number of paces from a starting point to enable
students to find the object. Link with the Measurement Strand and
give lengths instead of paces.
INTERMEDIATE POINTS
Ask students to head in a direction which is half way between
north and west. Ask students to suggest a name for the direction.
Ask students to add the four intermediate compass points to their
compass roses in the playground.
Link Mathematics and Physical Education by conducting an
orienteering event.
WEATHER
Students research the dominant weather patterns of their area,
noting the direction of prevailing winds at various times of the
year. During the day, students determine the direction of the wind
and note that the sun is in a northerly direction at midday.
FINER POINTS
As an extreme activity, students could be asked to suggest names
for directions half way between north-west and west, etc. Ask
students to research compass directions and compass bearings.
Ask students to research the term “magnetic north”. Ask students
to find out in which direction cricket pitches are laid and why. Ask
students to suggest direction factors that should be taken into
account when planning a house.

RESOURCES
Compasses, maps, atlases, navigation charts, computer adventure games that involve using north, east, south and west.

102
 GRAPHS
SUMMARY OF OBJECTIVES

GRAPHS 1 GRAPHS 4
• compare groups using pictorial representations • construct and interpret column graphs

GRAPHS 2
• compare groups using objects to represent other objects
• read and interpret graphs made from objects
GRAPHS 3
• compare groups represented by tally marks
GRAPHS 5
• construct and interpret picture graphs
GRAPHS 6
• interpret and draw line graphs
• interpret pie graphs and bar graphs.

103
GRAPHS 1
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Groups of objects can be represented pictorially. The student is able to
• compare groups using pictorial representations.

CONTENT
Pictorial representation of groups of objects.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Units in the Measurement and Number strands on
comparing objects and comparing groups are
prerequisites for this sub-strand.
• This unit should be studied concurrently with Graphs
2. Work with graphs is most meaningful when
integrated with work in the Measurement and Number
strands, or subjects such as Social Studies and
Science.
• A graph is a way of recording information so that it is
more easily interpreted.
• The term “pictorial representations” is used to
describe photographs or drawings of people, animals
or things.
• Teachers should continue to use comparison situations
that arise naturally within the school, eg favourite
foods and TV programs. Include ideas suggested by
students.
• During comparison activities teachers should develop
the idea of organising the information in a way that
can be readily interpreted.
• Through their own discussions and listening to peers
and teachers students can develop the appropriate
language of comparison.
• Teachers should be sensitive to students’ anxieties and
individual differences when collecting personal
information for graphs.
More, most, less, least, row, Ask students to
column, compare, prefer, graph.
• use photographs of class members to
“There are more photos in this compare two groups, eg curly hair,
group than that group.” not curly hair
“This group has most things in
• use photographs or drawings of
it. This one has the least.”
people or objects to compare three
“There is nothing in this group.”
groups, eg preferences for fruit, pets,
“Most people in our class have
hobbies
wavy hair.”
“More people have dark hair • explain a graph which compares four
than light hair,” or more groups.
“I prefer kiwi fruit to mangoes.”
“Most people in my class like
mangoes more than kiwi fruit.”
“Out of strawberries, kiwi fruit
and mangoes, I like mangoes
best.”
EVALUATION
“Nammi likes mangoes the least
of all these fruits.” • Did I take into account the students’
“There are more pictures of interests when comparing groups?
strawberries than of kiwi fruit.” • Did I model the appropriate language
“This row of pictures is longer during activities?
than that row.”

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
BIRTHDAYS
SHOES Each student receives a candle and places it on a table against the
Students compare the number of students wearing rough-soled label of the name of the month of his/her birthday. The candles can
shoes and the number wearing smooth-soled shoes. Students form then be arranged and taped to a chart for display throughout the
into two groups. Each student removes a shoe, and shoes from
each group are matched one-to-one in two lines. The longer line is
seen to be the group which is larger.
So that students can put their shoes back on, each shoe in the line
is replaced by a picture or drawing of a shoe. Students note that
the longest line of drawings now represents the larger group of
year.
students.
EYE COLOUR
WEATHER
Students receive a stencil of an eye which they colour according to
Students record the weather each day for a month, deciding each
their own eye colour. Similar colours are grouped and placed in
day whether the weather is best described as sunny, rainy, cloudy,
lines. Students discuss the relative sizes of the groups and write
or windy and placing a picture on a calender each day to represent
the weather. At the end of the month, the pictures are removed and
grouped, allowing students to decide what type of weather
predominated for the month.

Sunny

Rainy

Windy

Cloudy

statements about the commonest and least common eye colour in the class.

104
RESOURCES
Colour photographs of each student, paper squares OBJECTIVES
approximately 6 cm x 6 cm, coloured pencils, crayons,
mirrors, fruit and/or other types of food, calender, The student is able to
• compare groups using objects to represent other objects
• read and interpret graphs made from objects.
CONTENT
Comparing groups of objects that represent other objects.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• This unit could be studied concurrently with Graphs 1. Largest, smallest, a little bit Ask students to
• The notion of representing an object with another bigger, next largest, more than,
• collect data about pets, birthdays, etc
object is abstract and often difficult for students. the same as, less than, equal to,
and make a graph using blocks or
similar, different from,
• In this unit, each object used in a three-dimensional other materials
compare, least popular, most
graph represents one object in real life except in the popular, favourite, row, stands • read and interpret a labelled graph
case of things that are used in pairs, eg shoes. One for, column, survey, sort. made with objects.
object can also represent an idea such as one person’s
preference. “Every time I saw a green car
pass this fence post I put a
• Encourage discussion over which objects are most block in the margarine
suitable for constructing graphs, eg marbles have container. In five minutes I saw
disadvantages because they roll around. six green cars. Rae saw seven
• By carrying out various surveys, students can develop red ones.”
simple ways of recording. Some methods include “Instead of using blocks I
- placing blocks or counters in a line coloured in a square on paper EVALUATION
- colouring in squares on grid paper each time a person wearing • Did I emphasise the skills in reading
- circling dots. sneakers walked past this line.” and interpreting graphs?
These lead to the use of tally marks in later units. “Each paintbrush stands for a
pair of sandals.” • Were the students able to gather data
• Teachers should emphasise the skills of reading and effectively?
“We made our blocks into rows
interpreting the information by means of careful
and put them side by side.”
demonstration and questioning.
“The red car row is longer than
the green car row.”
“The sneakers column is the
longest.”

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES PETS

CARS
Students carry out a traffic survey and record the number of cars in
each category by placing a block or Centicube in an ice cream
container. At the conclusion of the survey, the sizes of the groups
could be compared by stacking the blocks in columns. Students
label the columns and make statements about the results.
Students record how many dogs and cats they have at home by
placing a counter in a container to represent each dog and a
Centicube to represent each cat. When all students have recorded
their pets, the materials are lined up in two rows, matching one-to-
one. Students make statements about the relative sizes of the
groups.

Red cars Green cars
PREFERENCES
Students are surveyed regarding preferences, eg food preferences
such as favourite ice cream flavour. Counters, Centicubes or pieces
of coloured paper could be used to represent the various
preferences, eg all students who prefer chocolate place a brown
counter in a bucket to vote for that flavour. When all votes are in
the container, materials of the same colour are grouped and placed
in lines to allow comparison of the sizes of the groups.
Repeat the activity using other materials, surveying preferences of
food type, TV channel, etc.
INTERPRETING GRAPHS
• Give students graphs where there are more than two categories
and ask them to state which group has the fewest items and
which one has the most.
• Students make their own graphs and swap with another student.
Each student tells the student who made the graph what
information the graph conveys.
• Students work with their own graphs or those provided by the
teacher. They write down the number of items represented by
each column.
LANGUAGES
Students record any language other than English that they can
speak by placing a piece of paper of a particular shape on a graph.
GREEK
FRENCH
VIETNAMESE

RESOURCES
Blocks, marbles, matchboxes, stones, paper, paintbrushes, counters, Centicubes.

105
GRAPHS 3
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Groups of objects can be represented by tally marks. The student is able to
• compare groups represented by tally marks.

CONTENT
Comparing groups of objects by representing them with
tally marks.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• This unit could be studied concurrently with Graphs 4. More than, the same as, the Ask students to
same number as, less than,
• After students have had experience with using • predict the comparative size of groups
equal to, different from, least
concrete material and pictures to represent objects, of people in the class in different
popular, most popular, sort,
they may progress to the more abstract concept of categories, eg those who walk to
symbols, category, tally,
recording numbers progressively using tally marks. school and those who come to school
arrangement.
This may be linked to previous units by first using by car or bus
headless matches or toothpicks to represent objects. “That means that more people
• record the results of a survey or
The tally mark is then simply a drawing of that in this class are first or only
experiment, using tally marks.
representation. children in their families.”
“More people have sports bags
• The common method of tallying involves making up
than anything else.”
to four vertical strokes and bundling these with a
“Not as many people have cases
cross stroke for the fifth.
as backpacks.”
or or “The crossed tally marks are
groups of five.” EVALUATION
• Counting the bundles of five could be linked to the • Were open-ended questions used
Multiplication sub-strand. during the activities?
• Several activities in previous units could be extended • Did I encourage the students to
to incorporate tallying. discuss different graphs?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES FAVOURITES

WRITTEN RECORDINGS Conduct class surveys in which each student receives a toothpick
or headless match. Students place a headless match on a table
• Conduct class surveys in which each student places a cross on against a particular choice. The matches are placed in lines and
a chart against a particular category. For example, students then regrouped to make counting easier.
could record they type of footwear they have on that day.
FAVOURITE VEGETABLE
SANDALS SNEAKERS SHOES
BROCCOLI
X X X
CARROTS
X X X
EGGPLANT
X X X
ZUCCHINI
X
X TOTALS

X BROCCOLI 3

CARROTS 14
• Students could record the results of traffic surveys by placing
crosses or strokes against each category. EGGPLANT 1

CARS ZUCCHINI 6

TRUCKS
EXPERIMENTS
BUSES Students record the results of simple experiments using tally
marks, eg recording HEAD or TAIL for twenty tosses of a coin.
• Students could discuss the difficulty of counting long lines of
strokes and suggest ways to make them easier to count.

RESOURCES
Dice, Centicubes, toothpicks, headless matches, rubber bands.

106
GRAPHS 4
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Information may be represented by column graphs. The student is able to
• construct and interpret column graphs.

CONTENT
Column graphs.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• This unit could be studied concurrently with Graphs 3. Least popular, most popular, Ask students to
• Column graphs are a useful means of recording sort, category, predict, bar
• construct column graphs based on
information and are used widely in the Measurement graph, column graph, key,
surveys of their choice, eg types of
strand. Column graphs are also useful in recording arrangement.
clothing worn by class members.
results during simple probability activities. “In our class, seven people like
• ask each other questions about their
• Columns may run vertically or horizontally. The term playing elastics best at
graphs.
“bar graph” is reserved for divided bar graphs and playtime, five like marbles, six
like team sports like cricket or • Observe students’ oral or written
should not be used for column graphs with horizontal
netball and nine like chasings.” interpretations of other students’
columns.
“More people in this class like graphs.
• In this unit, the students draw graphs for the first time running games than the other
instead of working with paper shapes or blocks. activities.”
“The tallest group is the group
that likes running games best.”
“The most popular playground
activity is handball.”
“The shortest column is the
number of people who play ice EVALUATION
hockey.”
“I threw fifteen dice and got • Did I encourage students to make
four fives.” displays of graphs around the room?
“I thought I’d get at least two • Was the data collected relevant to
sixes but I didn’t.” students’ interests?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
PROBABILITY
PLAYGROUND GAMES
• Students throw 15 dice simultaneously and record the number
Students collect data from class members on their favourite of dice showing each number. The information is then recorded
playground games, chosen from a list which may include such on a column graph. Student groups compare their graphs and
games as marbles, chasings, elastics and handball. Students record discuss differences. Ask students to suggest what the average
the information in a table using tally marks and draw column result would look like.
graphs on grid paper in both horizontal and vertical forms.
• Students throw a handful of dice as in the previous activity and
record the result by building a 3D model out of dice. They then
ACTIVITY TALLY NUMBER
draw this model and label it using the conventions of a column
Marbles 3 graph.

Chasings 7

Elastics 5

Handball 9

• Students throw two dice sixty times and record the total shown.
Marbles They then draw a graph of their group’s results. Groups
compare their findings with other groups and discuss
Chasings similarities and differences. Combine all results to give a class
result and discuss any pattern which emerges, eg symmetry,
Elastics bell shape.

Handball WEATHER
Marbles

Chasings

Elastics

Handball

Link with Social Studies by having students draw column graphs

of average rainfall or average temperatures.

RESOURCES
Grid paper, coloured pencils, overhead transparencies, dice, felt pens.

107
GRAPHS 5
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
A single symbol may represent several objects. The student is able to
• construct and interpret picture graphs.

CONTENT
Picture graphs.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• In graphs involving large numbers, one symbol cannot Key, picture graph. Ask students to
represent one real object. A key is used for
“There are three pictures • represent data by drawing a picture
convenience.
alongside Bo’s name. Each one graph to show findings from surveys
represents one thousand sheep of favourite games, TV programs,
= 100 people so Bo must have three thousand foods, etc.
sheep.”
• state the number of items represented
by a given number of diagrams in a
It is thus possible to represent 350 people in a picture
picture graph.
graph by using a small number of diagrams.

EVALUATION
• Did I encourage cooperation in group
work as well as individual effort?
• Did I use classroom space
appropriately?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
COUNTING SHEEP
TRAFFIC SURVEY
In country areas, ask several students how many sheep or own
Students watch traffic pass a point near the school for about fifteen many head of cattle they have on their property. Ask students to
minutes and record the types of vehicles, eg cars, trucks, buses, suggest a suitable key and have them construct a picture graph. A
motor bikes. From the tally marks, students build a picture graph drawing of a sheep could be copied and suitably cut.
using rubber stamp impressions of a car (or truck) to represent one
vehicle. Kerri
In the case of a busy road, the number of stamps involved might be
inconveniently large. By appropriate questioning, encourage Rupert
students to suggest that one stamp could stand for more than one
vehicle. Bo

SOCIAL STUDIES LINK

Find examples of picture graphs in books and ask students to
translate the information shown into numerals. Population statistics
in Social Studies books are sometimes displayed in picture graphs.
BIRTHPLACE OF PARENTS
Students conduct a class survey on where their parents were born.
Students may decide, having looked at the data, that a scale is not
necessary when constructing the picture graph.
Combine the information from several classes and ask students to
select a suitable key, now that the numbers involved are greater.
RESEARCH
Ask students to construct picture graphs based on information
from books and newspapers, eg
- car production for major brand names
- populations of major Australian cities
- price of telephone calls per minute from the school to various
other places.
Ask students to suggest the advantages and disadvantages of
picture graphs.

RESOURCES
Large sheets of paper, coloured paper, scissors, felt pens, overhead projector transparencies, rubber stamp of a vehicle.

108
GRAPHS 6
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Information may be represented by a variety of different The student is able to
graphs. • interpret and draw line graphs
• interpret pie graphs and bar graphs.
CONTENT
Pie Graphs, line graphs and bar graphs.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• This unit is intended to be an informal introduction to
line graphs, pie graphs and bar graphs. Students
should not be required to draw any graphs in this unit,
except for simple line graphs. Interpretation of pie
graphs (sector graphs, pie charts) should be limited to
finding simple fractions of the whole or giving
relative sizes of categories. Measurement of the
angles is not required.
• Line graphs should be used where meaning can be
attached to the points on the line between the plotted
points. If such interpolation is not meaningful, then a
column graph would have been a more suitable
representation.
• Pie graphs and bar graphs are used to show how a
total is divided. Bar graphs should not be confused
with horizontal column graphs.
• Student collected data can be entered into a database
or spreadsheet which has graphing abilities. From the
database or spreadsheet different types of graphs can
be easily generated for comparison by students.
Pie graph, bar graph, line
graph, points, sector, portion.
“Half the circle represents the
students who play cricket.”
“The portion of the bar labelled
‘food’ is bigger than the portion
labelled ‘fares’.”
“The lines joins temperatures
taken an hour apart so we could
guess from the graph what the
temperature was at half past
five.”
Ask students to
• draw a line graph from simple data
• give the value of a variable by
reading a plotted point from a line
graph
• give an estimate for the value of a
variable by reading from a line graph
• state what fraction of a total is
represented by reading from a line
graph
• state what fraction of a total is
represented by a given sector of a pie
graph
• state what fraction of a total is
represented by a given portion of a
bar graph
• compare the sizes of categories
informally as shown on a pie graph or
bar graph.
EVALUATION
• Did I take advantage of students’
developing skills in graphing to
integrate with activities in Social
Studies and Science?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES PIE GRAPHS

LINE GRAPHS The teacher provides students with pie graphs and students collect
• Students fill a cup with sugar and weigh the sugar using
pie graphs from sources such as newspapers. Ask students to
Centicubes or masses. Having recorded the mass, they refill the
discuss the relative sizes of the sectors. Ask students to state
cup and find the mass of two cupfuls, then three and so on.
absolute quantities only where diameters and quarter circles are
They then draw a line graph on a grid.
involved.
600

500
Squash
400 Cricket
Other
300 Soccer

200

100 BAR GRAPHS

0 The teacher provides students with examples of bar graphs and
1 2 3 4 5 students collect examples from such sources as newspapers. Have
Ask students to determine from the graph how much they think students discuss the relative sizes of the portions. In simple cases,
two and a half cups would weigh, how much seven cups would students could measure the lengths of the portions and find what
weigh and how many cups would be filled by a kilogram of fraction of the total bar each portion represented.
sugar. Students check their estimates by weighing.
∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴
• Students record the temperature in the classroom every hour ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴
∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴
while another group records the temperature every half hour, Clothing Food Entertainment Fares
∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴
∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴
for a day. Each group draws a line graph. The group measuring ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴
∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴

every hour estimates the half-hourly temperatures from their

graph and compares with the actual recordings taken by the
other group.

RESOURCES
Sugar, cups, a balance, masses, Centicubes, thermometer, database software, graphing software.

109
 LENGTH
SUMMARY OF OBJECTIVES

LENGTH 1
• use materials to make a long or short construction
• describe objects in terms of length
• describe distances informally using such terms as “near” and
“far”
LENGTH 8
• recognise a metre length
• estimate and measure to the nearest metre
• estimate and measure to the nearest half metre

LENGTH 9
LENGTH 2 • recognise the need for a unit smaller than the metre
• compare directly the lengths of two objects

LENGTH 10
LENGTH 3 • estimate the length of objects in metres and/or centimetres
• compare indirectly the lengths of two objects which cannot be • measure the length of an object in metres and/or centimetres
moved using a ruler
• investigate the reciprocal relationships between lengths, eg • relate 100 centimetres to one metre
long/short
• describe relative distances using such terms as “nearer” and
“further” LENGTH 11
• measure objects in metres and centimetres
• record measurements in metres and centimetres using decimal
LENGTH 4 notation
• select objects which are about the same length as a given object • use other devices to measure objects
• compare the lengths of objects by direct or indirect comparison
• compare distances between objects
LENGTH 12
• recognise the need for a unit longer than the metre
LENGTH 5 • record measurements in kilometres
• order a group of three objects according to length using direct
and indirect comparison
• order the distances between three objects LENGTH 13
• recognise the need for a unit smaller than the centimetre
• estimate and measure the lengths of objects in millimetres
LENGTH 6
• measure linear dimensions of objects, people and distances with
informal units
• measure curves with informal units
• measure perimeters

LENGTH 7
• measure the length of an object using informal units and
discuss results
• make and use standard, informal measures
• recognise the need for a standard unit of length

110
LENGTH 1
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Length is the measure of an object from end to end. The student is able to
• use materials to make a long or short construction
• describe objects in terms of length
CONTENT • describe distances informally using such terms as “near” and “far”.
The attribute of length.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Provide opportunities for all students to explore and Tall, short, long, wide, thick, Ask students to
experiment with a wide variety of materials through thin, fat, shallow, deep, long,
• sort objects into long and short
stacking, building and joining activities. straight, curved, low, high,
groups
close, near, far.
• Encourage students to use their own language to
• describe the constructions they build,
describe, report and share with others what they are “I made a long snake using
eg “I built a tall house. It has long,
doing and what they have done. plasticine.”
narrow windows.”
“The piece of streamer is as
• Relate work in length to other areas of Mathematics
long as the pencil.” • discuss the location of rooms in the
and other areas of the curriculum.
“Lauren made a tall tower using school in terms of whether they are
• Students from non-English speaking backgrounds blocks.” near or far from the students’ present
may need to be given extra support by providing “Julio built a long wall that is position.
meaningful practice with the language of length in a two blocks high and one block
variety of contexts. Students may know the word “fat” EVALUATION
thick.”
but not the word “thick”. • Did all students participate actively?
Concepts such as big, tall, long
• In planning activities, consider that some students and high are often confused by • Were incidental daily happenings
may be self-conscious about their height or size. young students. Activities that used in developing the language of
help students differentiate length?
between these may be incidental • Did I give all students an opportunity
or planned and will need to be to ask questions?
done on many occasions over a
period of time.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
BUILDING
Provide students with a variety of materials, eg sticks, straws,
leaves, Lego or Duplo blocks and allow them to construct and
arrange.
TIE, CUT AND DRAW
• Cut a length of string into shorter pieces.
• Tie pieces of skipping rope together to make one length.
• Unroll the garden hose, rope, ball of string, extension cord, etc
to investigate its length. Discuss whether the length changes
when it is unrolled.
• Draw a long line, short line, long straight line, short curved
line, etc.
• Use a painting/drawing program to “draw” thick, thin, long,
straight, curved lines on a computer screen.
SORTING AND NAMING
• Have students take turns in sorting objects into categories.
Ensure that a sorting into the categories “long” and “short”
occurs.
• Name and describe objects that are deep, high, long, thin, etc in
the playground, classroom and home. Name and describe tall,
short, etc objects in pictures, photographs and magazines.
GAMES
Play guessing games.
“I am a tall animal with a long neck. What am I?”
“I spy with my little eye something near the door that is short and
thin.”
Games like Hopscotch, Cat and Mouse, Drop the Hanky and
Punchinello help the student to develop language related to
perimeter and area.
STORIES
Read stories about long and short people and animals. Encourage
students to make up their own stories which they can combine into
class books.
INCIDENTAL ACTIVITIES
Use opportunities that arise during the day to describe objects as
being short, tall, fat, long, thin, thick, high, low, near and far.
• On an excursion say “Let’s walk to the tall tree.”
• After a story ask “What did the witch look like?”
• During a game ask students to throw a ball high.
• Ask students to take three short steps when dancing.
• Discuss the location of rooms in the school in terms of whether
they are near to or far from the classroom.

RESOURCES
Popsticks, pipe cleaners, string, rope, matches, timber off-cuts, fabric, Lego bricks, Duplo bricks, Unifix, sticks, straws, leaves, blocks,
painting/drawing software.

111
LENGTH 2
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
The lengths of objects can be compared. The student is able to
• compare directly the lengths of two objects.

CONTENT
Comparison of two lengths.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Focus the students’ attention on the need for a
common starting point. The teacher should
demonstrate the activity, where necessary, to make
sure that the student has two objects lined up at the
same starting point, eg comparing the lengths of a
shoe and a pencil. Draw students’ attention to the
dimension being compared, eg length, width, height.
• After students have had experience with comparing
objects, provide ample opportunities for all students
to be involved in estimation activities, eg estimating
which is the longer - a pencil or a ruler.
• There are several relationships of comparison.
one : one
one : many
many : one
many : many
This unit focuses on one : one comparisons.
Tall, taller, short, shorter, long, Ask students to
longer, wide, wider, thin,
• compare lengths from the same
thinner, fat, fatter, straight,
starting point, eg students choose two
straighter, low, lower, high,
streamers of different lengths and
higher, thick, thicker, about the
paste them onto a sheet of paper
same, as tall as, not as tall as,
width, length. • describe objects as being shorter,
longer, wider, deeper, thicker or
“The shoe is bigger than the
thinner than another object
pencil.”
• compare directly the lengths of two
“The shoe is a bit longer.”
objects, eg by laying one piece of
“Is the pencil shorter than the
paper on top of another to see which
shoe?”
“Let’s compare the length.” is wider, narrower or longer. Observe
whether students use the same
Ensure all students become
starting point.
familiar with vocabulary related
to the resources being used, eg
streamers, dowel sticks.
Consider whether the student EVALUATION
may be focussing on “bigness” • Did students discuss their work?
(size) as an attribute of the shoe
and not its length. • Did I allow sufficient time to
complete the activities?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
FRIENDS AND FAMILY
COMPARING
Find a friend taller than you.
Look for and talk about objects that are longer, shorter, taller, Find another friend shorter than you.
wider, near and far in the classroom and outside. “Is there anyone about the same height?”
STARTING POINT Show results in a drawing.
Repeat the activity using family members.
Compare the heights of two students when both are standing on
the floor and when one is standing on a chair. Discuss this LENGTH HUNT
comparison. Find objects which are
Have a group of students arrange themselves for the start of a race. - taller than this stick
Discuss whether or not they have organised a “fair start”. - deeper than this plant pot
Cut a streamer the same length as a desk. Check to make sure the - not as long as your pencil
streamer extends from one end to the other along the edge of the - shorter than your little finger
desk. Compare other desks. Repeat for the width of the desks. - about the same length as your eraser
GUESS AND CHECK - as narrow as a straw
- as thin as a finger
Estimate which is the longer, a shoe or a pen. - as thick as a dictionary
Check by placing the pen alongside the shoe. - as wide as a newspaper.
SIDE BY SIDE Make a class/group book about these findings. A word processor
and drawing program can be used to publish a class book about
Compare directly the length or height of two objects by placing
students’ findings.
them side by side. State which object is longer or taller.
RIBBON LENGTH
BLINDFOLD
Give students different lengths of ribbon. They must find objects
Blindfold students, place two objects into their hands and ask
that are about the same length by placing the ribbon directly on the
questions such as “What is each object?” and “Which one is
object. Repeat for objects that are longer or shorter than the
longer or shorter, thicker or thinner?”
ribbon.

RESOURCES
Sticks, straws, wood off-cuts, ribbons, streamers, cardboard, string, dowel sticks, rods, Lego bricks, Duplo bricks, Unifix,
drawing/painting software, a word processor.

112
LENGTH 3
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Lengths and distances can be compared directly and The student is able to
indirectly. • compare indirectly the lengths of two objects which cannot be moved
• investigate the reciprocal relationships between lengths, eg long/short
CONTENT • describe relative distances using such terms as “nearer” and “further”.
Comparison of two lengths or two distances.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Involve the student in estimating and checking eg
“Which one do you think is longer, the string or the
strip of cardboard?”
The student estimates and then checks by putting
them side by side.
• Students may be using the general terms “big” or
“long” for attributes such as height, width, depth,
length and thickness. Model the language of length in
contexts. This will be of particular benefit to students
from non-English speaking backgrounds.
• Distance and length are two distant concepts.
Distance measures the interval between two objects or
points. Length is the measure of an object from one
end to the other. Activities should focus on both
length and distance.
• Encourage discussion between students and ask for
comparison statements about lengths and distances.
Measure, graph, distance, as Ask students to
long as, not as long as, longer
• cut a piece of string as long as the
than, taller than, wider than,
desk and then find items in the room
thinner than, narrower than,
that are longer than the string, shorter
width, height, nearer, further,
than the string or about as long as the
closer, nearer to, nearer than,
string
closer to, closer than, further
from. • to make reciprocal statements on
length and distance, eg “Which is
“I think the door is as wide as
longer, a paper clip or a pencil?
the teacher’s desk.”
Which is the shorter? Which is
“How can we check?”
further away, the fence or the tree?”
“The desk is wider because I
had to use more ribbon to match
its width.”
“The door’s taller than the
bookcase.”
“I’m shorter than John so John’s EVALUATION
taller than me.”
“This book is thicker than that • Did I encourage student language
one.” through careful questioning?
“The canteen is closer to our • Did students work cooperatively in
room than to the Principal’s groups?
Office.”

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES • Compare the heights of two students. Make a statement about
who is the taller. Make a statement about who is the shorter.
INDIRECT COMPARISONS Combine these to make a statement showing the reciprocal
• Ask the students to suggest ways of comparing the width of the relationship.
door to other objects. One possible method is to cut a length of “I am shorter than you so you are taller than me.”
string equal to the width of the door. Use this length of string Make up picture charts about these reciprocal relationships.
to find objects taller and longer than the width of the door.
• Estimate which of a pair of objects if the taller, wider, the
deeper or the thicker. Check by marking the length of one
object on a strip of cardboard and comparing it with the other
object.
• Use string, streamers or cardboard strips to compare the height
of the teacher’s table and the height, width and length of other
objects in the classroom.
• Estimate which of a pair of objects is the longer, wider, taller,
Have students read both ways, ie “This is longer than this so this is
etc, eg the desk and the cupboard. Check by direct or indirect
shorter than this,” pointing to the strips.
comparison.

RECIPROCAL RELATIONSHIPS
• Compare the length of a paper clip with the length of an eraser.
Make a statement about which is the longer. “The eraser is
longer than the paper clip.”
Longer Shorter
Make a statement about which is the shorter. “The paper clip is
shorter than the eraser.”
PLAYGROUND
• Repeat the above activity for other pairs of objects.
Find objects in the playground which are about the same height,
width or length. Find objects which are closer/further away.

RESOURCES
String, ribbon, streamers, fabric, blocks of wood, paper clips, pencils, rubbers, sharpeners, furniture, sticks, cardboard, clothing, Lego
bricks, Duplo bricks, Unifix.

113
LENGTH 4
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Two or more objects may have the same length. The student is able to
• select objects which are about the same length as a given object
• compare the lengths of objects by direct or indirect comparison
CONTENT • compare distances between objects.
Comparison of lengths.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• This unit focuses on the process of matching objects Sort, select, choose, mark out • Give students a collection of sticks
of similar length. This involves the matching of an lengths, widths, depth, height, and have them select sticks which
object of unknown size to an object or objects of longer than, taller than, wider they think are longer, shorter or as
known size. than, as wide as, the same long as the given stick.
length, as tall as, equal length,
• Take note of conservation of length, ie students are • Students check their estimates by
same distance.
asked to compare the lengths of objects of equal lining one stick up with the other.
length. When students can consistently say that the “I think my pencil is as long as
objects are equal in length though their relative yours.” The given stick
positions have been altered, they are conserving “The window is as wide as the
length. This develops over time and should not be door.”
forced. “The cupboard is as tall as the
desk.”
Longer
“The pencils are all the same
length.”
“It’s as tall as the door.” Same length
“Which is longer?”
“Are they the same length?”
“I think it’s about the same Shorter
distance to the canteen as it is to
the school gates.” EVALUATION
• Would more or less supervision aid
• Have students wrap string around objects to compare learning?
perimeters. The students need not use the word
• Did the activities challenge the
“perimeter”.
students?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
CONSERVATION
SORT STICKS • Make two equal, straight lines using eight sticks of the same
Sort a collection of sticks into those “shorter than”, “about the length in each.
same length as” and “longer than” a given stick. Show the number Ask students appropriate questions, eg
in each category in a table. Describe the “Are these two lines the same length?”
Shorter Longer
results orally or in a brief written statement.
than the than the
Students may wish to record the numbers in
stick. stick.
each category in a table.

“Are they still the same length?”

SAME LENGTH
Select from a group of objects those of the same length, height or
width as one of the objects.
Cut two pieces of string the same length. Hold one taut and let the “Tell me what you notice about these two lines.”
other curl on the table. Ask students whether the pieces are still the
same length.

SQUARE AND OBLONG

Mark out a large square on the playground. Place a student at each
corner. Ask students on the corners of the square if they think they Students should investigate ways of making the same length
would walk the same distance along either side to get to the next from sticks of varying lengths.
corner. Repeat activities on an oblong.
LOGO
SORT OBJECTS Students can use LOGO to investigate making lines of various
lengths and comparing these lines.
Sort collections of materials of varied lengths into groups of
approximately equal length.

RESOURCES
String, ribbon, streamers, fabric, blocks of wood, paper clips, pencils, rubbers, sharpeners, furniture, sticks, cardboard, clothing, Lego
bricks, Duplo bricks, Unifix, squares and rectangles, drawn on the playground (or netball court, etc.), LOGO.

114
LENGTH 5
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Objects can be ordered according to length. The student is able to
• order a group of three objects according to length using direct and
indirect comparison
• order the distances between three objects.
CONTENT
Ordering lengths and distances.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Students will be involved in ordering objects from
longest to shortest, as well as ordering the objects
from shortest to longest.
• Informal graphing can be included at this stage. For
example, cut streamers the length of three people in
the class. Put the streamers in order and stick onto the
wall or chart to form a simple column graph.
Height
Longest, shortest, tallest, Ask students to
widest, deepest, arrange, first,
• estimate, compare and order three or
second, third, last, the same.
more objects according to their
“This stick is longer than that lengths, eg a shoe, a book and a stick
stick.”
• make statements about the order, eg
“No, I think this stick’s the
“The clip is the shortest.”
longest.”
“The shoe is longer than the clip.”
“The paper clip is the shortest
“The book is longer than the shoe.”

so all the others are longer than

“The stick is the longest.”
it.”
“The book is shorter than the • discuss the order of four familiar
Gavin Anet Yasmin stick but it’s longer than the distances.
ribbon. It’s in between.”
• Provide opportunities for students to initiate ordering
activities.
• Conservation activities should be linked to language,
eg ask “Do you think these two pieces of string are
the same length?” EVALUATION
• Were students given opportunities to
report on findings?
“Now, if I move this one, do you think they are the
same length?” • Did I allow students to use a range of
strategies to solve problems?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES PROBLEMS

THREE PEOPLE • Does the tallest student jump the furthest?

Have three students arrange themselves in order from tallest to
shortest. Discuss whether the order of height would change if one
stood on a chair. Discuss whether or not people can be placed in
order of height if they are sitting down.
THREE OBJECTS
Arrange a pen, a pencil and a drinking straw in order by length.
Repeat the activity for other groups of three objects that can be
compared directly.
THREE RECTANGLES
Cut lengths of string to match the perimeters of three rectangular
objects in the classroom. Arrange the pieces of string in order,
making a graph.
• Who has the shortest feet? Is it the smallest person?
• Is the tallest door in the school the widest?
• How many students long is the playground?
• Who has the longest distance to go home?
DISTANCES
• Discuss the order of four familiar distances. These could
include the distance from the school to the nearest shops, the
bus stop, the post office, the railway station, etc.
• Order from longest to shortest the distances to particular
locations shown on maps or diagrams.
COMPUTER ORDER
Students can use compare software that can order three objects
and/or the distances between three objects.

THREE CYLINDERS FISHING

Cut lengths of string to match the circumferences of three Five fish of different lengths, five sticks of different lengths and
cylindrical objects. Arrange the pieces in order of length. five pieces of string of different lengths are connected as shown so
that the longest fish goes on the longest string connected to the
BODY PARTS longest stick.
Cut lengths of tape or string to match distances around the ankle,
head and wrist. Place the lengths of tape in order of length.
Discuss findings.

RESOURCES
Ribbon, string, streamers, sticks, pieces of wood, fabric, Lego bricks, Duplo bricks, Unifix, Multilink, pencils, rubbers, books, furniture,
cardboard, paper clips, pens, straws, cylinders, ordering software.

115
LENGTH 6
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Informal units can be used to measure length. The student is able to
• measure linear dimensions of objects, people and distances with informal
units
CONTENT • measure curves with informal units
• measure perimeters.
Informal units of length.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• The students should already be experienced in using
everyday play to compare and order according to
length.
• Consider theme work in which measurement of length
can be integrated with other subjects, eg Myself (How
do I grow and change?)
• As the students develop measuring skills, they will
want to express those measurements quantitatively.
• Ensure that students align the end of the object with
the end mark of the measuring instrument.
• Students will come to see that some informal units are
more suitable than others to measure a particular
object. Allow the students to investigate and discover
this for themselves. Recording can be done with
pictures, tables, simple column graphs. Students could
make a set of cards for matching.
My desk is as long as 5 pencils
• Some informal units are more suitable than others.
Ensure that the measuring units are placed end to end,
without overlaps or gaps.
• Informal units are used in our everyday lives.
• The smaller the unit, the more of them are needed to
measure a given length.
Units, as long as, as wide as, as
deep as, equal lengths, end to
end.
“How much taller than the
cupboard is the bookshelf?”
“What’s the difference between
the length of the book and the
pencil?”
“How much wider is the tree
than the flagpole?”
“The desk’s three shells longer
than the stick.”
“From my fingertip to my
elbow is as long as the pencil,
the stick and the eraser put in a
line.”
“My arm is nearly three dusters
long.”
Ask students to
• guess how many pencils fit along
their desk
• guess which balloon has the longest
string and check
• compare the perimeters of shapes by
placing wool around the boundary
• select from objects such as
toothpicks, broom handles and
drinking straws which is the most
suitable unit for measuring the length
of the room, the height of the door,
etc.
EVALUATION
• Were students from Aboriginal, non-
English speaking or low socio-
economic backgrounds given
opportunities to participate?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES USING OBJECTS AS INFORMAL UNITS

INFORMAL UNITS Measure lengths, heights and perimeters of various shapes using a
variety of objects as units. Record results in a table using tally
Students measure the length or width of a variety of items using marks.
any objects in the room as “units”. Students might choose to use a
number of different objects or only one type of unit. Chalk box |||||| 6 toothpicks

OBJECT UNIT USED Milk carton ||| 3 paper clips

Length of A ruler, a pencil,
desk a paintbrush and Canteen |||||| 6 paces
an orange rod
ORDERING LENGTHS
Width of An umbrella, a Guess which is the widest of three objects that cannot be easily
chalkboard pop stick and 2 moved and are of similar width, eg a refrigerator, a stove and a
pencils. freezer. Check by measuring with informal units. Record measures.

PERIMETERS AND CIRCUMFERENCES

Use informal units such as toothpicks, paper clips or Base 10
shorts to measure the base perimeter or circumference of objects
COMBINED LENGTH such as garbage bins, cupboards, buckets and potted plants. Record
measurements and compare. Students can use LOGO to informally
Finding three objects in the room with linear dimensions “about
measure the perimeter of a shape with one “turtle step” being the
the same as” a specified collection of units, eg name objects in the
unit. Students can then draw a shape and find its perimeter in turtle
room which are about as long as the combined length of a pencil, a
steps.
stick and an eraser. Record results using cards.
CURVES
a pencil,
Half my desk is as long as a stick and Draw a variety of curves in chalk on the playground. Measure their
an eraser. length using as many different types of informal units as students
can suggest. Record and compare results.

RESOURCES
Wool, string, streamers, pieces of wood, geometric shapes, boxes, paper clips, pencils, rubbers, headless matches, toothpicks, Lego bricks,
Duplo bricks, Unifix, Multilink, Base 10 materials, LOGO.

116
LENGTH 7
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
The need for a standard unit arises from comparing The student is able to
lengths. • measure the length of an object using informal units and discuss results
• make and use standard, informal measures
• recognise the need for a standard unit of length.
CONTENT
Awareness of the need for a standard unit.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Discussion on the need to have a standard measure Body lengths, room lengths, Ask students to
will take place at this stage. arm lengths, standard, formal,
• trace and cut out their foot shape.
informal units, stride, measure,
• Tallying may be used as a means of recording the Have them measure the length or
class standard, close by, a
measure, eg how many students’ lengths is the width of their desk or the room with
normal day’s walk, a tiresomely
length of the room? The students lie down as others the foot shape, comparing the results
long way.
tally. Discuss the across stroke. of their measurements. Ask them to
“It’s a body length and a bit give reasons for discrepancies.
• Students who have used metres and centimetres in
long.”
other situations may wish to use formal units in • give reasons for having a class
“We found four hands and a
preference to informal units. Discussion on the standard unit.
thumb would fit along the
advantages of a universal unit of measure will further
cupboard.”
the students’ understanding.
“The window is four of
• Discuss with students the use of informal units of Christopher’s hands long.”
time and their use in other cultures such as Aboriginal “It’s four hands tall.”
time units.
Below are examples of these units. EVALUATION

Name Translation Distance

• Were the students encouraged to
(Mandjildjara) in Km discuss their findings?

e:la close by 5 to 8 • Did the students have enough

experience with informal units before
tjindu kotjoba a normal day’s walk about 15
commencing these activities?
parari a long way about 30
parari pakoreno a tiresomely long way over 30

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
CLASS STANDARD
BODY PARTS
Discuss units which are more uniform than body measurements.
Measure linear dimensions using body parts as units. Record Select a uniform sized unit such as a chalkboard eraser. Divide the
results in a table. Compare different students’ measures of the class into groups of four or five, providing each group with an
same dimension. eraser and ribbon to make a tape calibrated with the selected unit.
Piero Jane Samir Decide on a name for this unit.

Width of table in USING A CLASS UNIT

body lengths
Measure a variety of lengths using the standard measuring tape
Height of door in made in the previous activity. Record the results in a table.
handspans Compare and discuss group measures, noting uniformity of results.
Ask students if this unit was useful for all the items they
measured. Is there a more useful unit?
STRIDES
Each student cuts a streamer to match their stride length. Each DISCUSSION
student then uses the streamer to measure the length of the room. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of informal units of
Record results. Compare results and discuss differences. linear measure.

FEET UNITS DISTANCE INVESTIGATION

Divide the class into groups of four. Make a set of standard Discuss with class how far they could walk in one day. Work out
informal units on a length of streamer based on the length of one all the different things that it would depend on. Discuss how the
student’s foot in each group. Measure a variety of lengths and availability of water and the terrain would influence the distance
distances using these standards. Record and compare results. for Aboriginal people.

RESOURCES
Base 10 material, orange rods, white rods, Lego bricks, Duplo bricks, Unifix, Multilink.

117
LENGTH 8
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
A formal unit for measuring length is the metre. The student is able to
• recognise a metre length
• estimate and measure to the nearest metre
CONTENT • estimate and measure to the nearest half metre.
The metre as a formal unit.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Continue to involve students in estimating lengths and Metre, half metre, less than a Ask students to
then checking their estimates. metre, more than a metre, step,
• estimate lengths in metres, eg
stride, edge, around, outside,
• The basic Systeme Internationale unit of length is the - a desk
perimeter.
metre. For younger students its size is more - the height of the seat of a chair
manageable than the centimetre. “It looks like half a metre.” - the distance to the gate
“The book’s less than half a - the distance to the library
• Effective estimation depends on
metre.”
- a clear idea of the unit to be used • estimate and then measure objects to
“The door is two and a half
- relating the size of that unit to a familiar object the nearest half metre and record
metres tall.”
- experience with other measurements using the unit. results, eg
“From the bottom to the top is
- a newspaper
• Each student should have a length of tape, ribbon, three and a half metres and a
- body dimensions
wool or string that measures one metre for comparing bit.”
- furniture
lengths of objects. “If the carpet were a bit wider,
it’d be two metres.” • compare estimates with
• If possible use a metre rule with no calibration marks.
measurements.
• Include measurement of perimeters using string, etc. The abbreviation for metre is m.
Use a variety of student groupings to provide Five metres is written 5 m.
opportunities for peer group discussion.
EVALUATION
• When students are recording “half a metre”, they can
use the word “half”, the decimal fraction form 0.5 m • Did the activities have relevance for
or the common fraction form 1/2 m. (See Fractions the student?
and Decimals sub-strand, Units 7 and 11). • Were there sufficient resources for all
students to participate?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
HOW MANY IN A METRE?
ONE METRE
Find the number of handspans in one metre.
Each student makes a strip of tape that is one metre long. Students Find the number of foot lengths in one metre.
use these to determine whether objects are more than one metre, Record in a table and discuss variations among students.
less than one metre or about one metre in height, length, width or Continue, using drinking straws, pens, toothpicks, dusters, orange
depth. rods, etc.
Record results in a table.
Repeat the activity for distances between objects. CONSERVATION
Take a string one metre long and curl it around.
Less than 1m About 1m More than 1m

Width of door One stride Height of door

Discuss whether or not it is still the same length.
Arm length Shoulder to toe Teacher’s height Pull it taut again and compare it against another metre tape.

MASS MEDIA
MEASURING
Collect samples of advertisements, magazines and newspaper
Ask students to suggest ways of using a ball of string for articles, etc that show the widespread application of formal units
measuring distances longer than a few metres. Have students of measurement.
measure distances using a calibrated string and record their results
in a table. Make posters showing the use of linear measure. Students list
linear measures referred to on the radio and television, particularly
in sports programs. Find linear measures used in stories, poems,
PERIMETER
newspapers, etc and in the general community.
Measure the perimeters of the teacher’s desk top, the soccer goal,
the door, etc.

RESOURCES
Metre lengths of tape/string/wool/ribbon, metre rules, paper, sticks, scissors, cardboard, paint, straws, pens, toothpicks, chalkboard
erasers, rods, base 10 material.

118
LENGTH 9
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
The need for a unit smaller than the metre arises from The student is able to
comparing lengths. • recognise the need for a unit smaller than the metre.

CONTENT
Investigating the need for the centimetre.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Having used the metre and half metre, students can
investigate the need for a smaller unit.
• Base 10 material or Cuisenaire rods can be used to
help develop the students’ awareness of the
centimetre. The white rod and the Base 10 “short” are
each cubes of side 1 cm.
• Students should investigate a variety of situations
using these smaller units to refine their measuring
skills.
• Include the perimeters of objects in the measurement
of length, eg the perimeter of a matchbox, a note pad,
etc.
Short, long, white rod, orange Ask students to use a metre stick and
rod, less than half a metre, a longs to compare the heights of three
little bit, centimetre. friends, recording results in metres and
longs. Students then order the results
“I’m a metre and a bit tall.”
from tallest to shortest. Discuss the
“My foot is three whites shorter
implications of this activity.
than Bruce’s.”
“The book is twenty-one shorts
wide.”
“The length of the room is one
long more than six metres.”

EVALUATION
• Were there sufficient quantities of
Base 10 material and Cuisenaire rods
for all students to participate in the
activities?
• Were girls as well as boys actively
involved?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
A BIT OF A METRE
Measure a desk length to the nearest metre and ask students for
their ideas on measuring the bit left over. Line up shorts or white
rods to fill in the “bit”. Encourage students to report their findings,
eg “My desk is one metre and twelve shorts in length.”
HEIGHTS
Compare the heights of students to the nearest half metre. Record
these measures and attempt to order them. Discuss whether or not
this is a true picture of the order of heights for these students.
Measure the heights again using longs or orange rods. Does this
make ordering possible?

LONGS AND RODS MORE THAN A METRE

• Students make a line of longs or orange rods against a metre Ask students to find objects that they estimate are more than a
stick to find out how many make a metre. metre long. Record these estimations. Measure the objects using
metre sticks, longs and shorts.
• Give students a length and ask each student to find an object of
this length. Compare the actual lengths of the objects with the
Object Estimate Measure
given length, eg
Door Height is 2 m, 2 longs and 3 shorts
Given Object Actual 2 m and a bit
length measured length

2 longs Book 2 longs Door Width is 1 m, 2 shorts

and and more than 1 m
5 shorts 8 shorts

RESOURCES
Metre sticks, Base 10 longs and shorts, Cuisenaire white rods and orange rods, Centicubes, books, sticks, leaves, stalks, furniture.

119
LENGTH 10
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
A formal unit for measuring is the centimetre. The student is able to
• estimate the length of objects in metres and/or centimetres
• measure the length of an object in metres and/or centimetres using a
CONTENT ruler
• relate 100 centimetres to one metre.
The centimetre as a formal unit.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• The centimetre is not a preferred SI unit; nevertheless Centimetre, metre, shorts, white Ask students to
it is widely used in the community. rods, less than a centimetre,
• estimate and then measure the length
more than a centimetre,
• There are 100 cm in one metre. of objects using a ruler marked in
perimeter, circumference.
centimetres, eg
• The written form at this stage may be
“My desk is twenty-one shorts - the width of a desk
621 centimetres
long so it’s twenty-one - the distance from the door to the
621 cm
centimetres long.” teacher’s desk
6 metres 21 centimetres
“It’s longer than a metre; it’s - arm length
6 m 21 cm.
one metre and two centimetres.” - a person’s height.
• So far the students have not needed to use the ruler as “My hand’s ten centimetres Require measurements in centimetres
a formal measuring device. The students can line up long. The green book is three and then metres and centimetres.
their shorts or white rods against the ruler to gain an centimetres longer.”
• estimate and measure the perimeter of
understanding of what the marks on the ruler mean, ie “Fifty centimetres is the same
the page of a book and record in
1 short is 1 cm long. as half a metre.”
centimetres
• There are some suitable ruler activities but the The prefix “centi” means one-
• draw a line of given length, using a
students will not be using a ruler exclusively at this hundredth.
ruler.
stage. Students need to understand how to use a ruler. The abbreviation for centimetre
Discuss the starting point, noting that zero is at is cm, eg thirty centimetres is
different places on different rulers and not necessarily written as 30 cm. EVALUATION
at the very edge. • Were the students estimating before
Investigate difficulties with measuring curved lines measuring?
with a ruler.
• Did the students work cooperatively
in small groups?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
SMALL OBJECTS
Measure a variety of objects using centimetre cubes placed end to
end. Record results in tables or graphs. Discuss results and
difficulties involved with measuring with centimetre cubes.
Measure the same group of objects using rulers graduated in
centimetres. Compare results. Discuss the advantages of using a
ruler to measure linear dimensions.
ONE CENTIMETRE
Students make a chart of things that have a dimension of one
centimetre, eg the width of a finger, the thickness of a particular
book, the length of a big blowfly.
BODY PARTS
Estimate and then measure the lengths of body parts to the nearest
centimetre, eg fingers, toes, collar size, waist, foot length, height.
Record estimates and actual measurement in a table. Create wall
chart graphs and tables.
PERIMETERS
Estimate and then measure the perimeters of book covers, art
paper, etc using longs and shorts. Repeat using a ruler. Record
results and discuss
LEAVES
Make a collection from nature, eg leaves, sticks, worms, insects.
Estimate their lengths. Measure to the nearest centimetre. Discuss
the suitability of the centimetre for ordering the lengths.
HOPPING
Measure the length of one hop for each five students. Record and
compare measures. Repeat for other types of jumps. Discuss
results. Is the longest hopper the longest jumper?
CONSERVATION
Cut a one metre paper streamer into five random lengths. Arrange
the piece of streamer in order. Measure the strips to the nearest
centimetre and add the lengths together. Discuss results.
GAMES
Play games involving measures which may be greater than a
metre, eg “How close can you throw, bowl or slide an object to a
target without hitting it?” Record the distance of the object from
the target for each player. Compare and discuss results.
PROBLEMS
• What is the circumference of a bicycle wheel?
• What length of wood do you need to make one Cuisenaire rod
of each colour?

RESOURCES
Base 10 shorts and longs, white and orange Cuisenaire rods, string, streamers, tape measures, sticks, leaves, a bicycle, metre rules, 30 cm
rules.

120
LENGTH 11
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Length can be recorded in decimal fractions. The student is able to
• measure objects in metres and centimetres
• record measurements in metres and centimetres using decimal notation
CONTENT • use other devices to measure objects.
Relating the metre and centimetre to decimal notation.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• The recording of measurements may be refined Metre, centimetre, decimal Ask students to
through the use of decimal notation. Until now the point.
• find objects of a given length,
students have been recording in centimetres, eg 261
“The cupboard is one hundred checking by measuring with a ruler
cm, and metres and centimetres, eg 2 m 61 cm, as
and twelve centimetres wide marked in centimetres
well as using the language “two hundred and sixty-
which is one point one two
one centimetres” and “two metres sixty-one • draw lines of a given length involving
metres.”
centimetres”. decimal notation
In recording, students may write
• This unit of work should be linked to decimal work in • use measuring tapes and trundle
1.12 metres or 1.12 m. This is
the Number strand, eg Fractions and Decimals sub- wheels to measure distances around
read as “one point one two”, not
strand, Unit 7. the school.
“one point twelve”.
• The students are aware that 100 cm make 1 m so that
0.7 is read as “nought point
10 cm is one-tenth of a metre or point one of a metre.
seven” or “zero point seven”.
Using longs to make up the metre is useful here.
Extend to show Do not write a decimal less than
20 cm = 0.2 m one without putting a zero in
30 cm = 0.3 m and so on. the units column, ie do not EVALUATION
write .8.
• Investigate the recording of lengths less than 10 cm • Are students expressing
using decimals, eg 0.06 m for 6 cm. measurements of length correctly,
both orally and in writing?
• To what extent has work in this unit
been linked to decimal work in the
Number Strand?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
PERIMETERS AND CIRCUMFERENCES
MEASURING
Using a geoboard make different shapes.
• Estimate then measure the linear dimensions of objects or parts
of the body to the nearest centimetre. Record estimates and • • • • •
measurements in a table. Comment on the closeness of
estimates.
• Measure the length of the room, the height of the door, the • • • • •
height of the ceiling, etc, to the nearest centimetre. Note the
problem solving aspect when the endpoints of the measurement
are not easily reached, eg when measuring from the top right • • • • •
hand corner to the top left hand corner of a room or the
diagonal of a room where desks are in the way.
• • • • •
• Give students some lengths and instruct them to find objects
which they estimate to be these lengths. Students then measure
Ask students to measure the perimeter to the nearest centimetre.
their objects and reflect on the accuracy of their estimates.
Ask students to measure circumferences of tins, bins, cylinders,
Given Object Actual
wheels, etc. Students can measure shapes made with LOGO on the
length length computer.

30 cm TAPES AND TRUNDLE WHEELS

0.6 cm • Measure distances around the perimeters of the playground,
buildings, the classroom, etc using a measuring tape and a
2.5 cm trundle wheel. Compare results.
• Measure lengths of corridors, lunch seats, fences, etc using a
• Use a computer simulation game which requires students to trundle wheel and tape. Compare results.
measure exact distances for them to travel in the game.

RESOURCES
Metre rule marked at 10 cm intervals, 20 cm rules marked at centimetre intervals, measuring tapes, trundle wheels, computer simulation
games, LOGO, Base 10 material, Centicubes, diameter gauge, inside and outside calipers, environmental materials.

121
LENGTH 12
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
A formal unit for measuring long distances is the The student is able to
kilometre. • recognise the need for a unit longer than the metre
• record measurements in kilometres.
CONTENT
Investigating the need for the kilometre.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• This unit could be integrated with other curriculum Scale of a map, kilometre. Name some well known local landmarks
areas about towns, cities or other countries. up to 2 km distant from the school. Ask
“I live more than two kilometres
students to estimate the distances and
• Discuss the need for a unit longer than the metre for from school.”
check estimates using a suitable device
measuring longer distances such as between towns. “The Post Office is less than
such as a trundle wheel.
one kilometre away.”
• The kilometre is a large unit of measurement and is
difficult to represent visually. While many students Discuss the prefix “kilo” and
use the term “kilometre” in their daily lives, eg as a recall “centi”.
passenger in a car, concepts of how long a kilometre
Stress the correct pronunciation
actually is are often vague. One suggestion is to drive
- “kill - oh - metre”, NOT “ki -
a car to a point 1 km from the school and have
lom - etre”.
students
a) estimate how far away it is The abbreviation for kilometre
b) walk to the car, counting steps along the way is km, eg 7 km.
c) check the distance using a trundle wheel
• Focus on mapping skills by using the scale shown on EVALUATION
road maps and atlases.
• Did the students investigate
• Relate the kilometre to a 1000 m race or other athletic measurements in the local area with
events. enthusiasm?
• Do students appreciate the need for
the kilometre as a unit of
measurement?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES • Estimate whether places known to students are less than, more
than or about a kilometre from the front gate of the school.
ONE KILOMETRE Check by measuring. Record results in a table.
Students name places which they estimate to be one kilometre Place Greater than About Less than
from school. They may say “the local shops”. Identify well-known 1 km 1 km 1 km
local landmarks that are 1 km from the school in various
directions. Library
• The teacher parks a car one kilometre from the school,
preferably on a direct route away from the school. Students Park
walk the distance, one group counting paces, another using a
trundle wheel to check the car’s odometer. Repeat for other P.O.
directions.
• Jog or run for 1 km on the day of the school’s athletic carnival
SCALE
and record the time. Compare with the world records (male and
female) for the 1000 m. Discuss the reasons for drawing to scale. Discuss the reading of a
map with a scale of 1 cm : 1 km. Extend to more difficult scales.
• Record on a map all points which are one kilometre from the
school front gate. Ask students to suggest ways of finding these
points. How many of them are there? (The result is a circle, LONGER DISTANCES
centred on the front gate with radius 1 km shown according to • Make charts showing distance to nearby towns. Draw a road
the scale of the map.) map to show these distances.
• Make charts giving distances between major cities
MORE THAN, LESS THAN a) of Australia b) of the world.
• Estimate and then measure the perimeter of the school to • Make charts giving astronomical distances. Passing reference
determine whether it is more or less than 1 km. could be made to the light year.

RESOURCES
Measuring tapes, trundle wheels, metre rules, photographs of road signs showing distances between towns, atlases, road maps, street
directories, council map of the shire or municipality, computer simulation games.

122
LENGTH 13
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
A formal unit for measuring length is the millimetre. The student is able to
• recognise the need for a unit smaller than the centimetre
• estimate and measure the lengths of objects in millimetres.
CONTENT
Investigating the need for the millimetre.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Because the millimetre is such a small unit of Millimetre, radius, • Students find objects which they
measurement, concrete examples will generally circumference, measure to the think are a given length in
involve thicknesses rather than lengths, eg the nearest millimetre. millimetres. They then measure the
thickness of ten sheets of paper, the width of the sharp object in millimetres and compare
“My finger is a little bit more
end of a toothpick, etc. results with their estimates. Students
than six centimetres long.”
make a table of results.
• While measuring in centimetres, the students will be “This book is seven millimetres
recording in terms of so many centimetres and a bit thick.” Given Object Actual
more. At this stage, the accuracy of measurement is length length
Discuss the prefix “milli” and
improved by recording the “bit more” in millimetres.
recall “centi” and “kilo”.
7 mm
• Students investigate the millimetre markings on a
The abbreviation for millimetre
ruler and discover how many millimetres there are in 29 mm
is mm.
one centimetre. Link with decimal work.
Recording steps are 300 mm
• Give students experience in using other devices such
(a) 6 centimetres and a bit
as calipers, diameter gauges, feeler gauges and depth
gauges. (b) 6 centimetres and 9
• Students estimate the perimeter of the
millimetres
• Millimetres feature very prominently in the real page of a book, a postage stamp, etc,
(c) 69 millimetres
world, being the preferred SI unit in most industries. then measure to compare with their
(d) 69 mm or 6.9 cm. estimates.
Rainfall, hardware and architectural dimensions are
stated in millimetres. Students should be encouraged
to make charts of things that are measured in EVALUATION
millimetres.
• Do students show confidence with
measurement activities?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES DISPLAYS

ONE MILLIMETRE Display house plans, engineering drawings, etc which show
dimensions in millimetres.
Students make a chart of things that have a dimension of 1 mm, eg
the width of a toothpick, the thickness of ten sheets of paper. DRAWING

MEASURING • Draw lines of a given length in millimetres.

• Measure given lines to the nearest millimetre.
Measure a selection of small objects to the nearest millimetre. • Draw circles of a given radius.
Record the results in a table. • Draw a shape using LOGO. Once this has been printed
students can use direct measurement to find the length of one
turtle step.
Object Measurement
DECIMALS
Width of a pencil
• Some students may be ready to extend place value to
thousandths.
Length of a pencil sharpener
Students record measurements of objects and distances in
metres to three decimal places, ie to the nearest millimetre.
Length of a ruler

Object Metres Tenths Hundredths Thousandths

Measure large objects which have to be a precise size, eg width, Width of

height and thickness of the door, the diameter of the piston of an corridor
engine, the diameter of a gramophone record. Make a table similar Length of
to the one above. seat

RESOURCES
Rulers marked in millimetres, Base 10 shorts, white Cuisenaire rods, LOGO, tooth picks, environmental materials, calipers, depth gauges,
feeler gauges, diameter gauges, micrometer.

123
 AREA
SUMMARY OF OBJECTIVES

AREA 1 AREA 6
• describe surfaces of familiar objects by looking and touching • differentiate between shapes that tessellate and those that do not
• cover surfaces using a variety of flat objects • compare areas by measuring with differently shaped tiles and
grids
• recognise and express the need for a standard unit
AREA 2
• recognise lines (open curves) and shapes (closed curves)
• make a shape by drawing a “closed curve” and cover it with AREA 7
various smaller shapes • construct a square metre and use it to measure various areas
• use and understand the term “area” when applied to parts of the
school or classroom
AREA 8
• measure surfaces using square centimetres
AREA 3 • compare areas by measuring with square centimetres
• compare two shapes by handling, superimposing, cutting and
pasting
AREA 9
• recognise the need for the square kilometre
AREA 4 • recognise the need for a convenient unit, the hectare, between
• cover the shape with informal area units and count the number the square metre and the square kilometre
used • estimate a hectare using a variety of strategies
• compare areas using informal units

AREA 10
AREA 5 • describe the relationship between length, breadth and area
• order the areas of three shapes by direct comparison • use this relationship to calculate areas of rectangles and say
• order the areas of three shapes using informal units why this is useful

124
AREA 1
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Area is the measure of the amount of surface. The student is able to
• describe surfaces of familiar objects by looking and touching
• cover surfaces using a variety of flat objects.
CONTENT
Awareness of surface.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Area is the measure of the amount of surface. Surface Gaps, gaps between, cover, fits, Ask students to
refers to the outer faces or outside of an object. A does not fit, on top, smooth,
• describe different types of surfaces,
surface may be flat or curved. rough, flat, curved, round,
eg “The window feels cold and
edges, points, side, surface, next
• In this unit students investigate the idea of surface of smooth and asphalt is rough.”
to each other, overlap.
objects. Surface can be covered using suitable flat
• cover the outside surfaces of a solid
objects such as thin books, pieces of paper or leaves. “This piece of paper goes over
object such as a box, cup or bottle.
that one.”
• Puzzle activities and creating patterns with blocks of Ask students to describe what they
“There are some gaps between
various colours and shapes allow students to have done.
these shapes.”
experiment and investigate area.
“I used lots of hand shapes to Observe students working and listen for
• Students need not at this stage know names for cover my body shape.” language such as, “I covered the top of
geometric shapes such as square, circle or cylinder. “If we overlap them we can fit the box with blue shapes and there aren’t
more on.” any gaps.”
“It’s smooth and roundish.”
“I can fit five ‘glonks’ on the
bottom of the bucket.”
“Is all of the surface covered?”
EVALUATION
• Did the students cover surfaces using
a variety of objects?
• Was the school environment used
during activities?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
TOUCH IT
Touch and describe various surfaces in the classroom or school
environment, eg tree trunks, skin, bricks, grass, fences, carpet,
glass, etc.
When students have had practice expressing themselves using
appropriate descriptive language they can be shown new materials,
eg sandpaper or corrugated cardboard and asked to guess how the
surfaces will feel.
SURFACES
Discuss floor coverings in different parts of the school and at
home. Discuss wall coverings and roof coverings.
PATTERNS
Students create patterns using flat blocks or cardboard shapes of
various colours. If possible show students examples of patchwork.
Have them create their own patterns using material scraps or
pieces of wallpaper.
JUST ONE SHAPE
Cover surfaces using a particular type of shape, eg sheets of paper
or margarine lids. Can the surface be covered up without overlap,
gaps or paper hanging over the edge? Repeat with a variety of
shapes.
BODY SHAPES
Students make shapes by tracing their hands, feet or whole body.
Cover these with various types of flat objects or one type only. Use
regular and irregular shapes, eg flat blocks or torn pieces of paper.
BROGS AND GLONKS
Students make up shapes and give them a name.
Trace the original cardboard shape so that there are enough to
cover surfaces.
Parents and older children may help with tracing and cutting.
Students cover various surfaces with their own shapes. Are there
gaps or overlaps?
COLLAGES
Cover flat and curved surfaces such as a book, a can or a ball with
various paper shapes and environmental materials to create a
collage effect.
Students can use different covering shapes, eg squares, hexagons
and irregular shapes, at the same time or one shape at a time.
Use a wide variety of materials, eg leaves, twigs, bark, ready cut
paper shapes, etc.
Encourage students to describe and comment on what they have
done.
COVER UP
Cover a desk with various flat objects; thin books, pieces of paper,
sheets of newspaper, leaves or chip packets. Is all of the desk
covered?

RESOURCES
Leaves, twigs, coloured paper, books, envelopes, cups, blocks, toys, cans, popsticks, newspaper, cardboard, sandpaper, material scraps,
wallpaper, aluminium foil, butcher’s paper.

125
AREA 2
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Area is a measure of the amount of surface. The student is able to
• recognise lines (open curves) and shapes (closed curves)
• make a shape by drawing a “closed curve” and cover it with various
CONTENT smaller shapes
• use and understand the term “area” when applied to parts of the school
Awareness of the attribute of area.
or classroom.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Investigations of lines and shapes should be linked
closely with the students’ work in Space 2D, Units 1-
9. Students need to discover that when lines meet they
can enclose a space and form a two-dimensional
shape. Discuss shapes made up of straight lines or
curved lines with the students. Develop ideas of open
and closed space, boundaries and inside and outside.
• It is not necessary for students to use the terms
“open” and “closed” curves.
Edge, zig zag, like a cloud, like Ask students to
a star, a bit like a triangle,
• draw a line that does not join up or
pointed, area, shape, inside,
cross over itself and a line that does.
outside, open, closed, gaps, no
Point to the shape(s) made by this
gaps, straight, curved, lunch
second line. Have students colour the
area, reading area, play area,
shapes or cover them with coloured
wet area.
paper.
“This line joins up at the ends.”
• describe an area of the school and
“The ends of this line don’t join
have other students guess the area
up.”
being described.
“This line crosses over that line
and makes a shape I can colour
in.”
“I’m going to paint in the wet
area.”
“We do exercises in the area
where we line up in the EVALUATION
mornings.”
• Did I help students become familiar
“I think triangles would be best with the language involved in the
to cover this area because they activities?
can fit in the corners.”
• Was I able to cater for individual
“That shape has pointy bits.”
differences in the activities?
“I covered all of my shape
without leaving any gaps.”

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES AREA

Ensure that students become familiar with “area” terms relevant to
SQUIGGLES AND TURNS the school, eg “wet area”, “reading area”, “assembly area”, “play
Students draw various lines and shapes. areas”.
Computer generated signs could be made for these areas using a
sign making piece of software.
Do different activities in these areas and have students say where
they are and what they are doing.

COVER AND SHAPE

Point to each figure and ask students if the line has “joined up” to
make a shape that they can colour in. Ask them to draw some
different lines that do not join up and some that do.
Draw chalklines on the playground. Ask the students to walk on
the lines. Talk about “inside” and “outside”. Students can
investigate making lines that join up using drawing and painting
software.
ALPHABET SHAPES
The teacher or parents prepare a series of alphabet cards, using
letters from various alphabets. It is not necessary for students to
name the characters. Sort cards according to those letters which
are open or closed. Which ones have lines that join up?
PATTERNS
Students make scribble patterns with wool and glue.
“Closed” areas can be coloured or covered
with things that can be pasted on, such as
pieces of tissue paper, small seeds or rice.
Students draw large shapes and cover them by pasting on various
coloured paper shapes. The activity is then repeated using a
particular type of shape of the student’s choice, eg “Eleni used
triangles to cover her shape but Minh used squares.”
BOUNDARIES
Have students cut shapes from paper without drawing first. The
edge of the paper could form part of the boundary of the shape.
Students should talk about their shapes. Show the edge of the
shape. What could be used to cover this area?
GAMES
Students play games which emphasise the ideas of “inside” and
“outside” and “open” and “closed”.
BISCUITS
Make biscuits. The biscuit cutter creates a boundary around the
shapes.
If different students use different cutters they can tell the other
students whether they had gaps between the biscuits or if their
shapes fitted together with few or no gaps.

RESOURCES
Coloured paper shapes, wool, string, glue, brushes, art paper, tissue paper, rice, split peas, scissors, biscuit recipes, flour, sugar, margarine,
utensils, biscuit trays, spoons, stove, pot holders, sign making software, painting/drawing software.

126
AREA 3
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Area can be compared. The student is able to
• compare two shapes by handling, superimposing, cutting and pasting.

CONTENT
Comparison of two areas.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• At first students should be given two objects that are The same as, nearly the same Ask students to compare the areas of
easily compared. as, the front of, the back of,
• two shapes with obviously different
almost, about the same as,
areas and ask them to state which is
bigger, much bigger than,
smaller, which is larger and how they
smaller, much smaller than,
can tell
space, area, overlap, side by
• two shapes of the same area and ask
side, on top of, edge to edge,
them how they can tell
square, circle, triangle,
• shapes of similar areas, if appropriate,
rectangle, oblong.
by first estimating, then
“The tea towel fits on the beach superimposing or cutting and
towel and doesn’t hang over.” covering.
• When students have had plenty of experience with “It’s a lot smaller.”
these comparisons they could be given shapes that are “The book cover was bigger.”
more difficult to compare. “I cut up the paper plate and
stuck the pieces on the front of
the packet. There weren’t many
gaps so they were almost the
same area. The front of the EVALUATION
packet was only a bit bigger.”
“I think the rectangle was • Did I give the students opportunities
bigger than the circle.” to use both regular and irregular
Students could cut one shape and paste it onto “When I cut up the square it shapes?
another, drawing conclusions from what they see. wouldn’t fit on top of the • Did I allow students to pursue their
triangle.” own lines of investigation?
• Environmental materials such as leaves and bark can “The pieces went over the
also be used in comparison activities. edge.”

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
CONSERVATION
LARGER OR SMALLER
Students are provided with two identical shapes.
Students observe flat objects and say whether they are about the
One shape could be mounted on cardboard and covered in plastic.
same size or whether one is larger or smaller than the other.
Examples should include objects that are slightly larger, much The students are asked to cut the other shape into two, three or
smaller, much larger, etc to extend language use. four pieces.
Have the students place the pieces on the desk and say whether
FEEL THE AREA they would fit on top of the first shape. Why do they think so? (Do
Repeat the previous activity but have students close their eyes or not correct the students but rather encourage plenty of experience
blindfold them while they handle two flat objects. and investigation.)
Students may put the objects together and feel for the edges or Have them try it by covering.
handle the objects separately. Students could put their puzzle pieces in envelopes and allow other
Identification of the objects is not absolutely necessary. students to try them.
Students describe the similarities and differences between the two
objects in terms of area. FOLDING AND TEARING
Examples should be obviously bigger, smaller or the same.
Fold a sheet of paper in half.
COMPARISONS Tear out a shape in the fold.
Open up the pieces.
When students are ready they can go on to make more difficult
Compare the piece torn out to the hole.
comparisons like the front of the packet and the paper plate. (See
Teacher Notes).
Repeat the activity with two identical pieces of paper.
Other examples might include a card and a small paper plate, a
Tear a shape out of one sheet as above. Flatten the pieces and
hand tracing and a drink coaster or various teacher-made pairs of
place on the table separately.
shapes.

Curved shapes Irregular shapes Regular shapes

RESOURCES
Towels, tea towels, coloured paper, cut out shapes, paper plates, small empty packets, leaves, bark.

127
AREA 4
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Informal units can be used to measure area. The student is able to
• cover the shape with informal area units and count the number used
• compare areas using informal units.
CONTENT
Measurement with informal area units.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• An important concept in this unit is the suitability of
some measuring units compared with others. Shapes
that leave gaps on the surface being measured, overlap
or overhang are less accurate.
• Given plenty of experiences with different units and
surfaces, students will come to realise that some units
are more useful than others for measuring.
• Some students may still use more than one type of
unit, eg buttons and washers. Allow this and
encourage discussion of what they have done.
• Both regular and irregular shapes can be covered or
used for covering. Encourage the students to estimate
before measuring.
The same as, nearly the same • Give students workcards, each with a
as, about the same as, almost, regular or irregular shape.
the front of, the back of, bigger,
much bigger than, smaller,
much smaller than, space, area,
gaps, overhang, overlap, side by
side, on top of, edge to edge,
square, circle, triangle, oblong.
They choose the shape which they
“These plates are too big to
consider to be most suitable for
cover a piece of art paper. I
covering an area and discuss why it is
think coasters would be better
better than other units.
because they’re smaller and
they fit better. They don’t leave • Students compare covers of a library
gaps.” book and an exercise book, using
“I used twenty-six buttons to tickets as units. They determine the
cover the plate and Angelo used difference between the two areas by
twenty-eight. That’s not much counting the number of tickets. Ask
different.” students whether tickets are better
“My hand’s twelve coins than buttons as units.
smaller than my foot. Is yours?”
“I can fit six small triangles into
this shape. I can make another
EVALUATION
shape that is as big as six small • Were individual students able to
triangles by tracing.” overcome difficulties?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
ESTIMATION
COVER AND COUNT For each shape in the table below
Students select one type of object to cover a given shape or area, • estimate the number of units needed to completely cover the
eg envelopes, lids, leaves, sheets of newspaper. They estimate then region
count the number of objects used. Ask students why some objects • record the estimate
are more useful than others for covering. • check by covering the shape with the units provided and
Repeat using areas of various sizes, eg drink coasters, pin boards, counting
desk tops, classroom floor. Select a type of covering object and • record the measure.
count the number used. Students discuss why some coverings were SHAPE UNIT Number of Units
suitable or not suitable. Observe gaps, overlap and overhang. ESTIMATE MEASURE

GUESS AND CHECK

Draw a shape. Colour it. Estimate and measure the area. State
number of units used. Would another unit be more suitable?
Students can investigate and record findings using other units.

COVER AND COUNT

Make a figure with five popsticks. Estimate the number of buttons
needed to cover the area inside. Check by covering and counting.
Make a new shape with the five popsticks and repeat the activity.
Discuss the results.
FIVE SQUARES
Cover the shape with five squares, eg Base 10 “flats”.
Do the squares cover the shape exactly?
Make another shape with five squares.
Trace around it. Is the new shape the same size as the shape
above? How do you know?
Use a variety of unit measures.
LARGE AREAS
Working in small groups students determine which is the larger of
two areas, eg classroom floor or corridor. Find the number of
sheets of newspaper needed to cover the two floors. Record and
compare group results.
What could be used to measure a basketball court or other
playground area? Students use newspaper or hoops or other units
they suggest. Ensure that there are as few gaps or overlaps as
possible and that units are placed on the edge of the area to be
measured.

RESOURCES
Buttons, bottle tops, cardboard and paper shapes, bus or train tickets, Base 10 materials, chalk, ice-cream and margarine lids, paper plates,
tissues, paper towels, envelopes, sheets of newspaper, leaves, hoops, drink, coasters, popsticks, sheets of cardboard with regular and
irregular shapes drawn on them, playing cards.

128
AREA 5
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Three or more areas can be ordered. The student is able to
• order the areas of three shapes by direct comparison
• order the areas of three shapes using informal units.
CONTENT
Comparison and ordering of areas.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• To order the areas of three objects directly, students
should be encouraged to handle them, superimpose
one on another, describe what they see and make
inferences.
• Students who have grasped the concept of comparison
by measuring with informal units may develop short
cut methods such as not completely covering one
shape.
Large, larger, largest, small,
smaller, smallest, a lot bigger,
not much smaller, quite a bit
bigger, square, rectangle, circle,
triangle, hexagon.
“The brown envelope is smaller
than the blue one because I can
see blue around the edge of it.
The brown envelope is larger
than the white one because it
covers it and some brown hangs
over the white. So the white one
is the smallest, the brown
envelope is in the middle and
the blue one is the largest.”
“I used twenty-five coins on this
shape. They wouldn’t all fit on
the second shape, so it must be
smaller. They all fitted on the
third shape and there was extra
space so it’s the biggest.”
• Give students drawings of three
different-sized hexagons and ask
them to discuss and order their areas.
• Students order the area of the top of
the teacher’s desk, a student’s desk, a
bookcase and a small cupboard. They
choose an appropriate unit of
measurement and give reasons for
their actions.
EVALUATION
• Were all students given equal
opportunities to take an active part in
group work?
• Did I encourage student language
through careful questioning?
• Were there sufficient materials and
equipment for each student?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES TRIANGLES

ORDERING Cut triangles out from sheets of differently coloured paper.

Arrange them from smallest to largest.
Students arrange three envelopes of distinctly different size in Repeat the activity using rectangles, hexagons, circles, etc.
order and say how they can tell.
Repeat this activity using other flat items that are distinctly
different in area.

SAME OR DIFFERENT?
Use objects of similar sizes where it is difficult to tell which is
larger or smaller. UNLIKE SHAPES
What if the shapes are quite different?

Arrange three sheets of paper of different area in order. Estimate

their area choosing a suitable informal measuring unit. Record
estimates then measure and record results. Encourage students to
verbalise findings, eg “I need twenty coins to cover this paper.”
Discuss results.
Estimate the order of three surfaces, eg desk top, top of cupboard,
chalkboard. Check by measuring with informal units. Record
measures in a table and discuss results.
Repeat for other suitable surfaces that students suggest.
Ask students to suggest other ways of ordering shapes from largest
to smallest according to area.
Discuss gaps and other inaccuracies which arise when using
informal units.
Discuss the “cutting up” method of comparison. (Extra copies of
each shape may be necessary for this method.)
Students design three other areas to order in size and to check by
measuring.
Repeat some of the previous activities asking the students to
estimate how much bigger one shape is than others and then
measure the areas of shapes.

RESOURCES
Envelopes, paper and cardboard shapes, furniture, buttons, bottle tops, tickets, coins, worksheets with irregular or regular shapes on them,
pattern blocks.

129
AREA 6
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
The need for a standard unit arises from comparing areas. The student is able to
• differentiate between shapes that tessellate and those that do not
• compare areas by measuring with differently shaped tiles and grids
CONTENT • recognise and express the need for a standard unit.
Awareness of the need for a standard unit.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Students will need many concrete experiences in Tessellate, tessellation, gaps, Ask students to
which they can practise new language structures and square, circle, triangle,
• select objects that tessellate and do
vocabulary, eg “a triangular grid”. rectangle, oval, hexagon,
not tessellate
pentagon, overlay, measuring
• A shape tessellates if it can cover a surface leaving no
units. • select a grid which is most suitable
gaps and without overlapping (see Space 2D Units 8
for measuring the area of a hand
and 15). “The shapes don’t leave any
print, giving reasons for the selection
gaps.”
• Encourage students to develop procedures for
“On the hexagonal grid, all the • measure the same area with different
counting the tile or grid units so that no units are
hexagons tessellate.” units and compare results, giving
missed or counted twice. Encourage students to devise
“The square grid is more useful reasons for discrepancies.
short-cuts in counting, eg counting by twos, fives, etc.
than the circular one because
• Students should use a variety of methods for squares tessellate and circles
recording their findings, eg charts, tables or stories. don’t.”
• Transparent grid overlays can be made by the teacher “Bricks in a wall are a
using overhead projector film. The grids can be tessellation.”
square, circular, rectangular, triangular, hexagonal, “We both measured my
EVALUATION
etc. handprint. Juan got six triangles
and Gavin got four squares.” • Did students have enough
“I used twelve rectangles to opportunities to examine tessellations
measure this book.” in their environment?
“How many rectangular units • Did both girls and boys have
did your friend use?” opportunities to be group leaders?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
GRID OVERLAYS
MEASURE FOR MEASURE Students measure the area of a handprint using a grid overlay, ie
Students find shapes that fit with and without gaps by measuring a grid on an overhead transparency.
desk top with various tiles, lids, coasters, (including shapes that do Record the type of grid and the measure in a table.
leave gaps). Repeat using different grids.
Students record results in a table.
Grid Unit Estimate Area of Handprint
Unit Shape Area Measure Any Gaps? triangle
circle hexagon
rectangle small square
hexagon large square
triangle
rhombus
oval
handprint

Use a similar table to record measurements of other areas, eg an

List the shapes that left no gaps and explain that these shapes envelope, a coaster and various straight and curved shapes.
tessellate. Ask students what they think this means. Students infer
the meaning from their experiences. Students can use
painting/drawing software to make shapes and repeat them.
Students can investigate how many of these shapes cover a bigger
shape.

MEASURE YOUR HANDPRINT

Students measure the area of their handprint using a unit “tile” that
tessellates, eg hexagon, triangle, square, rectangle. Repeat the unit Students write about what they found and comment on the
used and the measure. Repeat using different units. suitability of each grid.
Discuss the differences that arose and how these could be
overcome.

RESOURCES
Paper clips, transparent grid overlays, cardboard shapes, tiles, grid paper, overhead projector, pattern blocks, wallpaper with a tessellating
pattern, painting/drawing software.

130
AREA 7
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
A formal unit for measuring is the square metre. The student is able to
• construct a square metre and use it to measure various areas.

CONTENT
The square metre.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• In the Length sub-strand of the syllabus the standard Larger than, smaller than, the Ask students to
SI unit, the metre, is investigated before the same as, square metres,
• show an area that is
centimetre. (Length Units 8 – 10). A similar approach estimate, surface, area, surface
- smaller than a square metre
is adopted in this sub-strand. The square metre is used area.
- larger than a square metre
to investigate large areas before the square centimetre
“I think that the back of my - about equal to a square metre
is introduced.
chair is smaller than a square
• estimate a floor area and then
• The abbreviation form of writing square metres (m2) metre.”
measure it in square metres.
can be introduced to the students in this unit. This is “The roller door is larger than
read as “square metres” and not “metres squared”, ie one square metre.”
3 m2 is read is read as “three square metres”, not “The area at the back of the
“three metres squared”, because of the confusion bookcase is about the same as a
between three square metres and a square of side 3 m. square metre.”
“I think this floor is about ten EVALUATION
square metres.”
• Did the students participate
“It’s a bit less than twelve
enthusiastically in activities which
square metres. I was close!”
required them to work in pairs?
“I changed the shape of my
square metre, but it still takes • Should group structures be re-
up one square metre.” assessed at this stage?
“If we stood very close, all my • Did I present the activities as
family could fit in a square problems for the students to
metre.” investigate?
The abbreviation for square
metre is m2.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
INTRODUCING THE NEED FOR A LARGE
STANDARD UNIT
Discuss with the students units which would be suitable for
measuring large areas.
What shape would they be? What size would they be? Why are
square units best for measuring area?
Link this activity with the next activity in which a square metre is
constructed.
THE SQUARE METRE
In pairs, students use newspaper and glue or tape to construct a
square metre.
Why do we call it a square metre?
(It would be useful for each student to have a representation of a
square metre, especially when a group needs to measure a large
floor area).
COVERING A SQUARE METRE
How many students fit onto a square metre? Try it with the
students sitting down, standing, lying down, etc.
Why might there be a variety of results?
Repeat the investigations with Year 6 students, adults, kindergarten
students, etc.
ESTIMATION
Estimate first and then use the square metre(s) to measure a variety
of floor areas.
Allow students to consider the problem of covering the whole area
where an uncovered portion is less than a square metre. Discuss
the problems of overlapping and gaps.
CONSERVATION
Make some extra square metres that can be cut up and made into
different shapes such as rectangles.
Is this still a square metre? Does it cover the same amount of
space? How do we know?
In pairs students change a square metre into another shape.
Decorate it and clearly label it “one square metre”. Display these
in the classroom, hallway or library.
DIRECT COMPARISON
Find things that are
- smaller than a square metre
- larger than a square metre
- equal to (or almost equal to) a square metre.
Students record findings by drawing or listing areas measured on a
chart.
LARGE BOXES
About how many square metres of cardboard would it take to
make a box for a refrigerator, deep freeze, washing machine,
television set, etc?
Open out a large cardboard box to determine its surface area.
Students and their parents could investigate the surface area of
large cartons that would be needed to package some of their
household appliances.

RESOURCES
Newspaper, tape, glue, paint and other materials for decoration, large textas, drawing pins, cardboard boxes, play areas.

131
AREA 8
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
A formal unit for measuring area is the square centimetre. The student is able to
• measure surfaces using square centimetres
• compare areas by measuring with square centimetres.
CONTENT
The square centimetre.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Once students have experienced measuring large areas Larger than, smaller than, the Ask students to
in square metres, smaller areas can be investigated. same as, square centimetres,
• measure the area of the surfaces of a
The appropriate unit for measuring small areas is the square metres, estimate, surface,
small can and observe their strategies
square centimetre (cm2). surface area, area.
• explain and demonstrate ways of
• Students will need to develop strategies for counting “A square metre is too big to
measuring a larger area so that the
large numbers of square centimetres, eg measure things like paper or
result is reasonably accurate, eg the
- marking off groups of ten and having a partner tally match boxes. We need
area inside a hoop
the tens something smaller.”
- covering a box or stone in grid paper and marking “I can fit almost four square • measure the difference in the surface
only the squares that can be seen centimetres on top of this areas of two plates.
- any square with more than half showing is counted rubber.”
as one “I’m going to measure the
- any square with less than half showing is not surface of this stone by
counted or, alternatively, mark whole squares as 1 wrapping it in grid paper.”
and half squares as 1/2 or 0.5... “Measuring my desk in square
centimetres was hard. I lost
• When measuring, grids should be aligned with the EVALUATION
count.”
edge of a flat surface where possible.
“My foot is probably about ten • Did I encourage students to use a
• Teachers should model the language of “square square centimetres larger than range of strategies to solve problems?
centimetres” and not “centimetres squared”. my hand.” • Did I encourage student language
• Students can use LOGO to draw regular and irregular The abbreviation for square through careful questioning?
shapes. Once printed students can find the area of centimetre is cm2, ie seven
each shape by using a transparent overlay to show a square centimetres is written 7
square centimetre grid. cm2.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES TRIANGLES

SURFACE AREAS
Show students a collection of objects, eg a card, a small book, a
matchbox, a ticket, a stone and ask
- “How can we measure the total surface area of these
objects?”
- “Can square metres be used?”
- “What sort of unit would be best?”
- “Which object will have the most surface area?”
Have the group agree on a unit and use it to measure the surface
area of each of the objects.
If the students do not agree to use the square centimetre it may be
necessary to repeat activities from Area 7.
List some objects in the classroom or the school that could be
measured in square centimetres. Estimate, then measure them
using square centimetres. Use various counting strategies where
larger items are measured, eg sheets of paper, book covers.
Order the objects in terms of their areas.
Object Estimate Area
ticket
rubber
library book
BLOBS
Make hand or foot prints using pencils or paints on art paper and
measure using 1 cm grid transparency overlays. Students have to
practise strategies for dealing with parts of a square centimetre.
Label “blobs” with their area measurements.
Cut a square with 4 cm sides from centimetre grid paper. Find and
record the area of this square. Draw in the diagonals and cut along
them to form four triangles. Re-arrange the four triangles to make
a rectangle. Find and record the area of the rectangle. Comment on
the results.
WRAPPING AND MEASURING
Students find surface areas of solids, eg tennis balls, stone,
matchbox. Possible strategies include the following.
- Wrap the object in one centimetre grid paper and mark
visible squares X and colour in pieces of squares .
Then flatten grid paper and think of a way to count crosses
and group pieces.
- Flatten a box and measure it with a
transparent grid.
- Peel an apple or an orange, finding the area
of the skin.
CIRCLES
Approximate the area of a circle to the
nearest centimetre. Cover it with one
centimetre squares. Cover the edges of
the circle by cutting a minimum
number of squares into triangles or
other shapes. Record the number of
squares used and then record the
approximate area of the circle.

RESOURCES
Grid paper, transparent grid overlays, newspaper, tape, scissors, art paper, stones, matchboxes, balls, LOGO, envelopes for storage of
centimetre squares, calculators, tennis balls.

132
AREA 9
MAIN IDEA
Formal units for measuring land area are the square
kilometre and the hectare.
CONTENT
Measuring land area.
TEACHER NOTES
• In developing understandings of a hectare as a large
unit of measurement, students should be encouraged
to form a mental picture of two football fields or
several building blocks in a town or suburb. Such
understandings will be more useful than the
application of an abstract formula.
• Use opportunities arising from school outings to
farms, botanical gardens, national parks, large
recreation areas, etc, to discuss with students the
measurement of large areas of land. Students will
need to see such areas for these discussions to be
meaningful.
• Students will need to develop understandings of scale
and why it is used in designing and reading maps.
• Students need to have plenty of experience in using a
trundle wheel for measuring lengths and perimeters
and in describing how it works.
• Strategies should be developed for effectively
counting large numbers of metres when working out
perimeters.
SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
MEASURING LARGE AREAS
How is it possible to measure very large areas such as a large park,
botanical gardens, farms, suburbs, a city block, a beach or the
whole of NSW?
How could such measurements be expressed?
Students may suggest square kilometres or hectares or explain how
large the area of their farm is. Read out advertisements for homes,
land or farms that are expressed in hectares. Find information
about Australian states and territories which is expressed in square
kilometres.
HOW BIG IS ONE HECTARE?
Make a pictorial representation of one
hectare and ask:
1 ha 100m
“How many square metres is that?”
“Could we make one hectare with
newspaper metre squares?”
“What other shaped rectangles have an 100m
area of 1 ha?”
Ask students to name local places of “about one hectare”, eg car
park, football field, playground, paddock. Take students to a large
flat area, eg paddock, oval. Using cricket stumps or witch’s hats
and trundle wheels, mark out 100 m x 100 m, if possible,
otherwise try an area of half a hectare, eg 50 m x 100 m.
How many paces does it take to walk one side of the hectare or
half hectare? Use a tallying strategy to assist in counting.
RESOURCES
One centimetre grid paper, rulers, pens, newspaper, trundle wheels, football field, cricket stumps or witches’ hats for markers,
calculators.
OBJECTIVES
The student is able to
• recognise the need for the square kilometre
• recognise the need for a convenient unit, the hectare, between the square
metre and the square kilometre
• estimate a hectare using a variety of strategies.
LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT
Larger than, smaller than, area, Ask students to
hectare, perimeter, boundary,
• state what can be measured in
square metres.
hectares and why these areas would
“The sports oval is about one not be measured in square metres.
hectare but the playground is
• draw or find pictures of things whose
smaller.”
area is measured in square metres,
“The size of our property is
hectares or square kilometres, eg
measured in hectares.”
building sites, national parks, states.
“This atlas lists the areas of the
Students collect eight such pictures
world’s deserts in square
and order them in terms of area.
kilometres.”
Students give reasons for ordering the
The abbreviation for square pictures in a specific way. This may
kilometre is km2, ie seven require them to use an encyclopedia,
square kilometres is written as 7 geographical records or local
km2. The abbreviation for government data.
hectare is ha, ie, seven hectares
is written as 7 ha.
EVALUATION
• Were school and local libraries used?
• Which audiovisual and print materials
were used?
REAL LIFE APPLICATIONS
Students contact the local council, inviting a representative to
address them on issues which relate directly to the local land area
and the regulations for its use. Large local area maps may be
studied in conjunction with such talks in order for students to
identify specific areas which may be referred to. The following
topics may be discussed in relation to hectares, square kilometres
and area in general:
- population density
- land usage (industrial, commercial, residential)
- planning regulations (open space, recreational areas).
SCHOOL PLANS
A copy of the plans of the school may provide information about
the area of the school site. This work could be integrated with
Social Studies activities and may provide interesting historical data
where measurements are in Imperial Units.
133
AREA 10
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
The area of a rectangle may be calculated by multiplying The student is able to
the length by the breadth. • describe the relationship between length, breadth and area
• use this relationship to calculate areas of rectangles and say why this is
CONTENT useful.
Calculating the area of a rectangle.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• From 2D Space activities students have developed Predicted area, area, measure, • Show students a rectangle marked on
understandings about the properties of a rectangle (see breadth, width, length, deep, grid paper which is labelled with
Space 2D Units 18 and 25). depth. length and breadth. Ask students to
suggest a quick way to calculate the
• If students do not discover a pattern for calculating “If the length of a rectangle is
area in square centimetres.
the area of rectangles, do not “teach” a formula, but five metres and the breadth is
provide additional activities and experiences in three metres, it is fifteen square • Show the students an unmarked
working with unit squares until understandings are metres in area.” rectangle. Ask them to measure the
developed. “My desk is one hundred and length and breadth in centimetres and
seven centimetres by forty-six to find the area in square centimetres.
• Students’ explanations of patterns found when
centimetres. I’ll use a calculator
calculating the area of rectangles will enable teachers
to work out the area.”
to assess whether or not they have developed an
“We marked out this area of the EVALUATION
understanding of the relationship between area, length
playground and we used the
and breadth. • Have students been solving real life
trundle wheel to measure it.”
• Until now, “width” has been used in preference to “I started with a click in the problems?
“breadth”. The term “width” is used in the Length corner of the area and counted
sub-strand. “Breadth” is also commonly used when every time it clicked after that.”
referring to area.
• Link to arrays in the Multiplication sub-strand (see
Multiplication Units 2–7)

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
RECTANGLES
CALCULATING AREAS Use tiles that are 1 cm2 in area to make three different rectangles
Find the areas of a variety of shapes drawn on grid paper. that have areas of 24 cm2.
Draw them on grid paper and label both lengths and breadths.
3 cm
Students tabulate results, including areas and describe the number
Breadth

2 cm
1 cm patterns which appear. Repeat the activity with other areas and
Breadth

2 cm
record findings.
Length

4 cm BASE 10 AND CALCULATORS

Length Ask students to find the length and breadth of a desk top, table top,
floor space, etc, using Base 10 “flats” and “shorts”. Use
Breadth

calculators to check findings about each area.

3 cm
DRAW AND CALCULATE
Students are asked to draw a number of rectangles on cm grid
paper. They are asked to provide specific details about each
Length rectangle, eg length, breadth, area.
Give about five or six examples. Record findings in a table. MAKING PLANS OF AREAS
Length in cm Breadth in cm Area in cm2 Calculate the areas of floors, play areas, basketball courts, etc. If
necessary, break areas into rectangular or square parts, to enable
4 2 8 easy measurement using trundle wheels, metre squares, metre rules
or tape measures.
4
5 2 10
1 cm

What patterns can students see in the findings? Ask students to Calculate the area of a region by forming
6 cm
explain how they arrived at their result. They should verify their rectangles. Write a number sentence to
result with further examples. illustrate the method of calculation.
Area = (6x3) + (4x1) cm2
3 cm

RESOURCES
1 cm grid paper, trundle wheels, calculators, tape measures, metre squares, metre rulers, notepaper, worksheet activities.

134
 VOLUME
SUMMARY OF OBJECTIVES

VOLUME 1 VOLUME 10
• pack and pour materials • measure capacity using different informal units
• fill containers • recognise and discuss the need for a standard unit
• discuss the way in which substances behave

VOLUME 2
• observe and discuss the amount of space occupied by objects
• compare the volume of two objects by observation
• order three objects according to volume
VOLUME 11
• relate the litre to familiar everyday containers and familiar
informal units
• estimate and measure to the nearest litre
• discuss the need for units smaller than one litre
• recognise the symbol for the litre (L)

VOLUME 3
• fill and empty containers using a variety of materials VOLUME 12
• fit objects into defined spaces • recognise and discuss the need for a unit smaller than a litre
• investigate the properties of filling materials • use a one litre container calibrated in multiples of 100 mL,
10mL, 1 mL
• estimate and measure the capacity of containers to the nearest
VOLUME 4 100 mL, 10mL, 1 mL
• compare capacities by pouring or packing materials from one • make and use calibrated 100 mL measures
container to another

VOLUME 13
VOLUME 5 • recognise the relationship between one millilitre and one cubic
• fill a container with objects and count the number of units used centimetre
• fill a container using a smaller container and count the number • construct three-dimensional objects using cubic centimetres and
of units used use estimation and counting to determine volume
• select appropriate informal units • fill rectangular containers with cubic centimetres to measure
capacity
• express ideas of conservation of volume
VOLUME 6
• order three containers of distinctly different capacity by
packing, filling or pouring VOLUME 14
• recognise and discuss the need for using units larger than the
cubic centimetre
VOLUME 7 • construct a model of one cubic metre
• estimate the capacity of containers using informal units and • use the model to estimate in cubic metres
check by measuring • recognise instances where it is appropriate to measure in cubic
• order containers according to capacity using informal units metres

VOLUME 8 VOLUME 15
• build models using a variety of materials • investigate the relationships between cubic centimetres,
• build models with boxes or blocks and count the number of millilitres, litres, grams and kilograms
units used
• construct and compare a variety of models using the same
number of unit blocks

VOLUME 9
• compare and order the volume of regular and irregular solids
by displacement
• compare the water displaced by an object before and after
changes in the shape of the object

135
VOLUME 1
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Containers can be filled by packing them with objects or The student is able to
pouring substances into them. • pack and pour materials
• fill containers
CONTENT • discuss the way in which substances behave.
Play with containers and filling materials.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• In everyday life, the terms “volume” and “capacity”
are often used interchangeably. The units in this sub-
strand encompass activities in both volume and
capacity.
Capacity is the amount a container can hold.
Volume is the amount of space occupied by an object.
It will not be necessary to deal with these definitions
formally with students.
The sequence emphasises filling and packing
activities, as capacity ideas are more readily
appreciated by students.
• The teacher’s role in this unit is to encourage
discovery and discussion as the students are involved
in free play. This will encourage the students’
language development.
• By the end of this unit, students will have discovered
that various containers can hold certain substances, eg
a sieve will hold marbles but not water. Students
should be given the opportunity to discuss why this is
so.
• Students will need many opportunities for playing
with materials and containers. This will enable them
to develop the manipulative skills necessary for the
activities suggested.
Full, half full, nearly full, full to
the brim, full to the top,
overflow, empty, nearly empty,
spill, more, less, pack, pour, fill,
hold more, hold less, funnel,
sieve, wet, damp, dry, container.
“This container is half full.”
“This one has nothing in it.”
“If it’s full to the brim, it spills
easily.”
Ask students to
• fill an ice cream container with sand,
rice or water
• identify those substances which are
easily poured or packed
• select an appropriate container to
hold a particular substance, eg a sieve
will hold marbles but not dry sand
• describe actions and results, eg “The
dry sand is runny but the damp sand
stays in shape.” or “The water runs
our of the sieve but the stones stay in
it.”
EVALUATION
• Were there enough resources and
space for the activities?
• Did I allow enough time for students
to investigate each type of material?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
FREE PLAY
Allow free play time for students, providing them with Lego,
Centicubes, straws, dice, plasticine, playdough, beads, beans,
stones, nuts, shells, cartons and boxes. Giving students the
responsibility of packing away the materials after the activities
also develops their understanding of volume.
FILL
Students fill containers with sand, water, gravel, pasta, etc using
hands, cups, spoons or scoops. Suggest that one cup of water be
poured into another. Suggest filling cups to the brim. Provide
funnels so that students can fill narrow necked bottles.
WHICH CONTAINER?
Students discover and discuss containers that can and cannot hold
certain substances, eg a sieve will hold marbles but not water, a
funnel will hold stones but not sand, a colander will hold peas but
not sago.
MODELLING
Students make sand models using suitable containers as moulds,
eg buckets, yoghurt cups. Encourage them to try damp sand, wet
sand and dry sand.
Repeat the activity for free modelling. Link with craft in making
plaster casts.

PACK EVERYDAY APPLICATIONS

Pack and unpack toys, games, etc to give ideas about what will and
will not fit. Suggest that students fill boxes with smaller objects,
eg fill a shoe box with matchboxes. Suggest packing activities
associated with a class shop, eg packing shelves, packing shopping
bags.
POUR
Students pour water, sand, grain, beads, marbles, etc from one
utensil to another. Provide detergent bottles, plastic piping, cups,
plastic boxes, small buckets, teapots, funnels, tubes and sieves.
During class discussions encourage students to relate volume with
filling and packing activities with which they are familiar, eg
• filling the bath or sink
• filling a glass or cup with drink
• packing groceries at the supermarket
• packing furniture prior to moving house
• packing clothes for a holiday
• using a tea strainer
• sieving flour for cooking or sand for concreting
• using a funnel in the kitchen or garage.

RESOURCES
Buckets, tins, plastic cups, mugs, beakers, detergent containers, ice-cream containers, ladles, spoons, sieves, funnels, jugs, teapots,
garbage tins, cartons, baskets, boxes, packets, eye droppers, dried peas, grains, corks, gumnuts, stones, shells, bottle tops, blocks, beads,
sand, sawdust, foam rubber, styrene, cotton reels, marbles.

136
VOLUME 2
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
The volume of a substance is the amount of space it The student is able to
occupies. • observe and discuss the amount of space occupied by objects
• compare the volume of two objects by observation
CONTENT • order three objects according to volume.
Awareness of the attribute of volume.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• The term “big” is often used by students to describe a
variety of attributes. Depending on the context, it
could mean long, tall, heavy, etc. An important part of
this sub-strand is the modelling of more precise
language to describe volume. Students show an
important step in understanding when they attempt to
describe size in their own language.
• Students should be provided with as large a variety of
building materials as possible. These can include
wooden blocks, large timber offcuts, tins, stones, etc.
Dolls’ houses, transport and animal sets can be used
to develop ideas of closed or confined spaces.
• When different substances are involved, volume and
mass can be confused. If the same substance is
involved, however, as the volume increases so will the
mass. This understanding will develop over time as
students have opportunities to explore different
materials and discuss their discoveries.
Use of large, light objects and small, heavy objects
will aid the development of understanding.
• Initially students should be asked to compare objects
of obviously different volume, eg a TV set and a ball.
If objects of similar volume are to be compared they
should be of similar shape, eg both rectangular
prisms. Extend to three objects.
Build, pile, stack, contain, hold,
takes up about the same amount
of room, takes up more room,
space, takes up the same space,
takes up the least space, takes
up the most space, remove, size,
big, bigger, biggest, small,
smaller, smallest, fit, order, sort,
collection, same, the same as,
different, difference.
“This is a big cubby. It takes up
lots of space.”
“A grain of rice is so small it
hardly takes up any room.”
“The tennis ball is bigger than
the billiard ball but it’s not as
heavy.”
“Balloons are light but take up a
lot of space.”
Ask students to
• build various structures and discuss
them
• discuss the size of an object or
structure in terms of the amount of
space it occupies
• compare and comment upon the
volume of a pair of objects, eg a
marble and a block
• arrange three objects of similar shape
in order of volume, eg three balls of
different sizes, three slices of bread of
different thickness.
EVALUATION
• Did I encourage all students to
discuss and explain their decisions?
• Did I encourage all students to be
actively involved in constructing
models?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES CONSERVATION

BUILDING
Students build various structures using blocks, cardboard cartons
and boxes, eg a town, a bridge, a garage. Encourage students to
discuss their structures and the materials they used. Encourage
students to compare structures and count the number of boxes used
in each.
SORTING
Students sort a collection of similar objects of different sizes into
two groups: a “large” group and a “small” group. Use objects such
as marbles, balls, boxes, dolls, pots and dice.
BUILDING BLOCKS
Students make a variety of models using the same number of
identical blocks. Students compare their models, discussing
volume. Can they tell just by looking? How can they check?
(These are early conservation activities. Students are not expected
to conserve at this stage.)
Use playdough or plasticine to make various shapes.
• Ask students to make different shapes from a given amount of
playdough or plasticine.
• Ask students to break up a large piece of playdough to make
several shapes.
COMPARISON
• Select a pair of objects of the same shape but different sizes
and ask students to judge which takes up more space.
• Students find three objects in the classroom that take up more
space than the chalkboard duster and three that take up less
space. Make labels or wall charts of such findings.
Takes up more room than
ORDERING SHAPES
• Students arrange three prisms with the same base and different
heights in order, eg different lengths cut from the same piece of
timber or dowel rod, cans of the same diameter but different
heights.
• Students order a variety of balls of different sizes.
• Students order three objects of different shapes and obviously
different sizes.

NESTING
Make a collection of boxes that fit one inside the other. Other sets
of nesting items are available, eg the Russian dolls, measuring
cups.

RESOURCES
Blocks, Lego bricks, Centicubes, cartons, chalk boxes, dice, matchboxes, bricks, timber offcuts. Base 10 materials, Cuisenaire rods,
marbles, ball bearings, balls of different sizes and masses, dolls’ house, farm sets, zoo set, fruit, straws, plasticine, playdough, beads,
beans, stones, nuts, shells, nesting toys, measuring spoons, beakers.

137
VOLUME 3
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
The capacity of a container is the amount it can hold. The student is able to
• fill and empty containers using a variety of materials
• fit objects into defined spaces
CONTENT • investigate the properties of filling materials.
Awareness of the attribute of capacity.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• The ideas involved in this unit are concerned with the
shape and size of containers and the substances and
objects used to fill them.
• Models made of damp sand serve to develop the idea
of a relationship between the shape of a container and
the space inside it.
• The idea that objects take up space and may fit into a
specified space needs to be carefully developed. After
students have handled the objects in free play they can
then estimate and check whether or not these objects
will fit into a specified space.
• It is also important to develop the ideas that
– a large object cannot usually be squeezed into a
small space
– two objects cannot occupy exactly the same space
at the same time
– nothing more can be placed in a completely
occupied space.
• Activities involving the mixing of two substances, eg
water and sand, allow students to discover and
consolidate the ideas that spaces between objects can
be filled by other, smaller objects, and that fluid
materials can fill spaces that cannot be filled easily by
solid objects.
Wide, narrow, thin, thick, tall, Ask students to
short, deep, shallow, round,
• fill and empty a variety of containers
curved, flat, straight, fill, full,
using different materials, and discuss
empty, heavy, light, large, small,
their actions
wet, dry, damp, loose, flowing,
over, under, below, above, even • describe objects the will or will not fit
level, level with, enough, not a defined space, eg “The telephone
enough, too much. book will not fit in the drawer
because it is too big.”
“The sawdust is level with the
• explain why an occupied space is full,
brim of the container.”
eg “There is no more room to put any
“This container holds the most
more things under the desk.”
marbles.”
“If I add more water, this glass
will overflow.”
“I can’t put any more marbles
in this glass but I can pour in
EVALUATION
water.”
• Did I use predominantly everyday
materials and objects with which the
students were familiar?
• Were girls as well as boys involved in
handling materials?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
FILL
FULL OR NOT FULL
Students fill containers with objects of various shapes and sizes.
• Students pour water into clear plastic containers up to “level Make a table.
with” a line marked with a felt pen. Repeat using a different
OBJECT No. MARBLES No. BEADS No. BUTTONS
filling material, eg sawdust. Students discuss actions and
results, describing how they ensured that the material was level
Egg cup
with the mark.
• Students fill a container with marbles, peas or beads and Matchbox
discuss whether or not it is full. Is any space left?

CONSERVATION
Ask students to pour liquids from one container to another in order
to compare capacities. Provide vessels which have the same
capacities but have different shapes, eg 750 mL wine bottles.
Repeat the activity using other substances instead of liquids, eg
sand.
MOULDING
Students make models using sand, jelly or plaster of Paris. Discuss
actions and products.
PACKING
Students pack boxes with wooden cubes, Cuisenaire rods,
Centicubes, etc. Encourage students to predict whether or not the
objects will fill the container. Repeat the activity with other
uniform objects such as popsticks, matchboxes and Base 10 flats.
FILL THE SPACES
Allow students to investigate what happens when
• half a glass of sand is added to another half glass of sand
• half a glass of sand is added to half a glass of marbles
• half a glass of marbles is added to half a glass of sand
• half a glass of water is added to half a glass of sand
• half a glass of sand is added to half a glass of water
• half a glass of sugar is added to half a glass of water.
Encourage students to predict what will happen. Then discuss
actual results and the predictions.
WILL THEY FIT?
Students discuss ideas of “fit” in familiar situations, eg
• parking a car or truck in a garage
• the number of students who can fit at once in a cubby
• the number of people who can fit in a car, bus, train or plane.

RESOURCES
Sand, jelly moulds, rubber bands, plastic containers, sawdust, cartons, boxes, construction cubes, sugar cubes, Base 10 material,
Cuisenaire rods, matchboxes, popsticks, beads, buttons, stones, marbles, drinking glasses, wine bottles.

138
VOLUME 4
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Capacities can be compared directly. The student is able to
• compare capacities by pouring or packing materials from one container
to another.
CONTENT
Comparison of the capacities of two containers.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• In this unit comparisons are made directly by pouring
or packing the contents of one container into another.
Later, students will be comparing indirectly using
informal units of measurement.
• When comparing capacities, containers need to be
filled to the top.
• Relationship cards can be made to aid recording.
holds less holds about holds more
than the same as than
• When students have had many experiences comparing
two containers they can progress to ordering the
capacities of three containers by pouring from one
into the other two.
Full, empty, brim, level, holds Ask students to demonstrate and explain
more than, holds less then,
• that a milk carton holds more water
holds about the same as, holds a
than a cup and a cup holds less than
lot more than, holds just a little
the carton
more than, not quite as much as.
• that a jug may hold the same amount
“This one holds less than this
of water as a milk carton
one.”
“Two of these jugs fill the • that if one cup holds more sand than
bucket.” another then it also can hold more
“This one holds the most.” water.
“All of these hold less than the
garbage tin.”
Plan and pair group activities to
provide language models and
EVALUATION
peer group support and
interaction. Mixed grouping is • Did I provide a large enough variety
especially useful for students of of containers and filling materials?
non-English speaking • Did I allow enough time for the
backgrounds. development of language and
Ensure that there is sharing time concepts?
during which each group can
report to the rest of the class.
Encourage questioning and
discussion of group reports.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
EXPLORING
Ask students to find a way to see if one container holds more than
another. Encourage students to test their suggestions and discuss
them with their group or class, eg “Would filling with water and
then pouring into another container be a suitable method for a
cardboard box?” Displaying a range of containers may help to
stimulate a variety of ideas.
POURING AND PACKING
• Students fill a container with sand, sawdust or water. They then
pour the material into a second container to see which
container holds more.
• A student fills a plastic bucket with sand. Other students in the
group are asked to choose another container that they think will
hold more than the bucket. They can check by pouring the sand
from the bucket into their selected containers.
• Students have to choose which of two containers they think
will hold more rice. They can check their estimate by filling
one with rice and then pouring the rice into the second
container.
Empty out the rice. Now ask students which of the two
containers can hold more water. Will it be the same one that
held more rice? Why or why not” Allow students to check their
reasoning.
• Ask students to estimate which of two boxes will hold more
blocks or cubes. (When using big boxes or cartons, bricks may
be more practical for packing.” Students check their estimates
by packing both boxes with the same material or by packing
one box and transferring the packing material to the other.
• Repeat the above activity, asking students to find which
container holds less.
FIND A PAIR
• From a large range of containers, students select pairs which
they think have the same capacity. Different brands of the same
product, eg detergent, may be useful. Students may extend the
search to containers at home. Students can test their pair by
filling or packing one and transferring the contents to the other.
Encourage students to use filling material suitable for the
container being tested.
• Students make two sand castles using wet sand and the same
mould. Ask, “Are the two sand castles the same?” and “Do they
contain the same amount of sand?”
Students find another container which they think holds the
same amount of sand and check by filling it with the sand from
one of the sand castles.

RESOURCES
Buckets, tins, mugs, cups, beakers, ice cream containers, detergent bottles, milk cartons, juice containers, shampoo bottles, relationship
cards (teacher made).

139
VOLUME 5
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Informal units can be used for measuring capacity. The student is able to
• fill a container with objects and count the number of units used
• fill a container using a smaller container and count the number of units
CONTENT used
• select appropriate informal units.
Measurement of capacity with informal units.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Encourage students to use a unit suitable for the
capacity being measured, eg a bucket is more suitable
for filling a garbage tin than a thimble.
• Students should recognise the need for keeping count
when measuring. A discussion of possible methods
may be useful. Counters, blocks, fingers or tally
marks could be suggested.
• Selection of an appropriate informal unit is an
important idea to be developed. The students’ ability
to do this indicates their ideas of measurement at this
stage.
• A large, plastic container may hold more than one
beach bucket of water but less than two. Six fills of a
tumbler may fill the bucket exactly. The tumbler is
therefore a “better” unit for this procedure.
Hold, fill, full, fit, space, pack,
stack, pour, count, inside,
amount, measure.
“This matchbox holds four
marbles.”
“Twenty packets of sultanas fit
into this carton.”
“Blocks fit better than marbles;
marbles leave spaces.”
“To measure the amount of
water the garbage tin will hold,
it is better to use the jug than
the cup.”
Ask students to
• fill an ice cream container with
cupfuls of water and count the
number used
• fill a box with chalk and count the
number of sticks used
• select the most appropriate measure
to determine the amount of rice held
by a saucepan
• record findings by writing sentences
and stories or drawing pictures.
EVALUATION
• Did I encourage students to estimate
the capacity of a container before
they measured it?
• Were all students familiar with the
names of the containers and the
filling materials?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES RECORDING

PACKING The results of stacking, filling and pouring can be recorded.

Students can write statements such as
Students investigate the capacity of various containers by packing “It took seven cups to fill the ice cream container.”
with informal units and counting the number of units used. “Twelve flats will fit inside my lunch box.”
Encourage students to estimate capacity first. Suitable activities
include filling They may record results in a table.
• a box with chalk
• a carton with packets Container Estimate Actual Comment
• a packet with blocks
• a cup with marbles Bucket 43 cups 32 cups of Too much
of water water
• a school bag with lunch boxes.
Shoe Box 28 egg cups 45 egg cups Not enough
POURING of sand of sand
Students measure the capacity of various containers by filling with
materials poured from smaller containers, eg
• a garbage tin using a bucket
• a bucket using a cup
• a mug using a thimble DISCUSSION
• an egg cup using a thimble Have a class discussion to select an appropriate informal unit for
• a cup using a teaspoon. measuring the capacity of a given container, eg “Which of these
Materials such as sand, sawdust and rice could also be used. would be best for finding the capacity of a garbage tin using water:
bucket, carton, thimble, spoon, colander, jug? Why?”
AT HOME
Discuss with students the informal measures used around the
home, eg barrow loads of soil, baskets of washing, jugs of milk,
bags of shopping. Students could collect pictures to illustrate
informal units.

RESOURCES
Boxes, cartons, grocery packets, margarine tubs, lunch boxes, school bags, bucket, jug, teaspoons, dessertspoons, tablespoons, ladles,
saucepans, ice cream containers, drink bottles, thimbles, cups, mugs, egg cups, blocks, gumnuts, sand, rice, macaroni, peanuts, sawdust,
Base 10 materials.

140
VOLUME 6
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
The need for a unit arises from ordering of capacity. The student is able to
• order three containers of distinctly different capacity by packing, filling
or pouring.
CONTENT
Ordering containers according to capacity.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Ordering containers according to their capacities can
be done by direct or indirect methods of comparison.
Direct comparison involves transferring the contents
of one container into the other. There are two methods
of indirect comparison. The first involves pouring the
contents of one container into a third container and
marking the level. This process is then repeated for
the other container and the levels compared. The
second method involves units of measurement. For
example, each container could be filled with the same
units such as blocks, spoonfuls or cupfuls. A
comparison is made between the number of units
needed to fill each container.
• Students will see the advantages of actually
measuring quantities if they focus on how much more
a particular container holds.
• After students have had much practice and are
successful with ordering three containers, extend the
activity to involve ordering four or more.
Container, holds, compare, Ask students to
order, more, same, less, least,
• arrange three containers in order
most, pour, pack, fill, full,
according to the amount of material
difference, material, arrange,
each holds
level, check, contents, capacity.
• record their findings by writing
“This container holds more
sentences and stories or drawing
water than this tin.”
pictures. Note the method used by the
“The ice cream container holds
students in investigating this problem.
two cups of sand more than the
drink bottle.”
Continue to use questioning to
encourage students to refine
their language.
Ensure that students have had EVALUATION
meaningful practice in using the
collective word “container” to • Have I encouraged students to discuss
the relevance of classroom activities
include bottles, jars, tubs, etc.
to real life experiences or problems?
• Did the activities cater for individual
differences?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
HOW MUCH MORE?
POUR AND ORDER
Students investigate the capacities of an ice cream container,
Students estimate the order of three containers according to plastic drink bottle and soap powder box by pouring sand from one
capacity, eg a cup, a saucepan and a bucket. They check by container to another. Check results by filling the containers with
pouring material from one container into another. Repeat this water using a cup or mug. Count and record the number of cups
activity using containers with smaller differences in capacity. used to fill each container.
Container Number Comments
TWO INTO ONE
Students pour the contents of a bowl into a large transparent jar Ice cream
with an adhesive label or measuring tape on its side. The level of container 15 cups
the contents is marked. The process is repeated for a jug and a
mug. The intervals between the marks on the large jar are then Drink Bottle Holds the least
compared to order the containers. Students can check the results 11 cups
directly by pouring material from one container to another.
Soap powder Holds the most
PACK AND ORDER box
26 cups
Students pack blocks into a carton, a packet and a lunch box. The
number of blocks required to fill each container is counted and
recorded. The containers may then be placed in order and labelled. WHICH METHOD?
The differences in the capacities of the containers can be Discuss with students methods for working out the difference
calculated. between capacities of containers. Encourage them to explore each
Repeat the activity using other filling materials. Ask students suggestion and discuss their results. Students should look at the
whether they think the order will be different. practicality and suitability of the various methods suggested. Their
suggestions might include
holds more holds more • pouring the contents of the containers into a collection of paper
than than cups and counting the number of cups filled
30 blocks 20 blocks 12 blocks • packing the containers with blocks and counting the number
used.

RESOURCES
Boxes, cartons, grocery packets, tubs, lunch boxes, school bags, chalk, blocks, marbles, Base 10 materials, drink bottles.

141
VOLUME 7
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Capacities can be compared and ordered indirectly. The student is able to
• estimate the capacity of containers using informal units and check by
measuring
CONTENT • order containers according to capacity using informal units.
Measurement of capacity with informal units.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Initially students’ estimates of the capacity of a
container using informal units may be very
inaccurate. These estimates will improve as students
gain experience using a variety of containers and
filling materials.
• The development of conservation of capacity will
require many opportunities to explore filling the same
container with different materials. When asked to
estimate the number of units, eg cups, needed to fill a
container, many students will not realise that the
number will be the same regardless of the material
being used. For example, a jug will hold four cups of
water, four cups of rice, four cups of sand and so on.
• Paper cut-outs of the measuring unit to be used can be
glued to a sheet of cardboard to form a wall chart.
Students can be asked to interpret such graphs.
• Empty supermarket cartons that held a number of
smaller packets or tins may be useful. They can be
repacked by students using a variety of empty
containers.
Hold, fill, full, container, fit, Ask students to
most, more, least, less, exactly,
• estimate and measure the capacity of
the same, different, difference,
three containers using cupfuls of
amount, quantity, estimate,
water and then arrange the containers
actual, unit, measure.
in order
“These three containers each
• describe the activity and record
hold more than this cup.”
results pictorially, graphically and in
“These blocks don’t fit exactly
writing.
into this box.”
“These containers hold the same
number of marbles. Will they
hold the same amount of sand?”
EVALUATION
• Did I allow girls as well as boys
sufficient time to explore the
materials?
• Did I ask parents to help with group
work?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES GUESS AND CHECK

HOW MANY CUPS? Students select any container. They then find a container they
estimate will hold more, one that will hold less and one that will
• Students choose three containers larger than a cup, eg an ice hold about the same as the first container. An informal unit should
cream container, an orange juice bottle and a milk carton. be used to measure how much each container holds. Discuss the
Students estimate the number of cups of water each container accuracy of the estimates. Repeat using a different unit.
will hold and then check by measuring with a cup. The
students record results and arrange the containers in order. HOW MANY DO THEY HOLD?
Repeat using a different unit and decide if the order changes. CONTAINER ESTIMATE MEASURE
• Students estimate the number of cupfuls contained in a plastic
First container ----------- 15
drink bottle. They check their estimates by
- repeatedly filling a cup from the bottle and counting the Bucket 15 17
number of cups
Box 6 8
- filling the bottle using the cup and counting the number of
cupfuls taken. Bottle 24 21
• Students estimate how many cupfuls each of several containers
holds and check using one of the methods mentioned above.
ORDERING BOXES
Record results in a table.
Students choose three different boxes and place them in order
according to how much material they will hold. Check by packing
Container Estimate Tally Actual Difference with matchboxes, construction cubes or Base 10 blocks.

CONSERVATION
Saucepan 11 cups 10 cups 1 more
Students investigate three containers of different shape but the
Jugs 6 cups 8 cups 2 less same capacity. Ask students to see if all hold the same amounts of
different materials such as water, sand or marbles. Discuss what
Bottle 6 cups 6 cups None the students discover.

RESOURCES
Ice-cream containers, orange juice bottles, milk cartons, buckets, Base 10 materials, matchboxes, saucepans, cartons.

142
VOLUME 8
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Informal units can be used for measuring volume. The student is able to
• build models using a variety of materials
• build models with boxes or blocks and count the number of units used
CONTENT • construct and compare a variety of models using the same number of unit
blocks.
Measurement of volume with informal units.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• In this unit the term “size” generally refers to the total Bigger, biggest, blocks, build,
amount of space occupied. Some students may be check, compare, construct,
focusing on length, height or area in their edge, estimate, face, fit, gaps,
comparisons. material, model, same, shapes,
smaller, smallest, stack, takes
• Free form models should be built first, using a variety
up more space, takes up most
of materials.
space, takes up less space, takes
• Ensure that students have experience with a variety of up least space, record, volume.
blocks including those that are not cubes, eg
“Blocks are easy to stack
Cuisenaire rods, timber off-cuts, building blocks,
because they sit easily on top of
cartons, cardboard cylinders, tins.
each other.”
• By counting the number of identical units (blocks) we “Ali’s building looks the
can measure how much space a model occupies, ie its biggest!”
volume. Building models with blocks also leads to an “The house is bigger than the
awareness of the size of each face, the surface area shop because it’s got more
and the number of layers. blocks in it.”
“Sonia’s tower is really tall but
Tim’s garage takes up more
space.”
Students should be encouraged
to describe their constructions
as well as the materials and
procedures they used in
building activities.
Ask students to
• build a variety of constructions and
describe them, the materials used and
how they went about it.
• find two models with the same
volume from a collection of models.
They should discuss the reasons for
their choice(s) and how to check for
accuracy.
• make as many different models as
possible, using only five cubes for
each. Ensure that students are aware
that the same arrangement in a
different position cannot be counted
as a new arrangement.
EVALUATION
• Have students had sufficient
background experiences and
discussion to be able to carry out the
planned activities successfully?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES ARE THEY THE SAME?

COUNT THEM Students investigate the number of different models that can be
Students build models using unit blocks, eg boxes, blocks, made using one, two three or four cubes. Results can be recorded
Cuisenaire rods. Ask students to count how many of the units were in tabular form. Some students may like to try to draw their
needed to build their individual or group model. models on grid paper or isometric dot paper. Models may also be
COPY THIS represented on pegboards.
One student makes a model using one type of unit block, eg a
garage using Multilink. A partner or others in a group copy the Number of Number of
model using a different building block, eg Centicubes. Discuss cubes different models
difficulties and discoveries. 1 1
2
TOWERS
3
Make a collection of ten rectangular prisms, ten cubes and ten
4
triangular prisms. Ask students to build three towers, using a
5
different unit for each. Compare the towers. Discuss with students
the ability of each type of block to stack.
Discussion may also focus on sides and edges of the blocks.
PENTACUBE PROBLEM
WHICH TAKES UP MORE SPACE?
Students work in groups using the same kind of unit blocks to Pentacubes are formed from five cubes. There are many possible
build their own models. They then choose two or three partners model variations.
from the group and compare constructions. Students estimate Students experiment to find how many pentacube models they can
which construction has the larger volume and then check by make.
counting the unit blocks in each model. The group can report their
findings back to the class or make pictorial records.
GUESS AND CHECK
One student makes a model from unit blocks, eg Lego bricks,
Duplo bricks, Multilink or Centicubes. Their partner estimates the
number of blocks used in the model. Check by dismantling the
model and counting the blocks. Students should be encouraged to
draw their models before taking them apart.

RESOURCES
Blocks, Lego bricks, Duplo bricks, Multilink, Centicubes, cartons, chalk boxes, dice, match boxes, timber off-cuts, Base 10 materials,
Cuisenaire rods, triangular prisms, grid paper, isometric dot paper.

143
VOLUME 9
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
An object displaces its own volume when submerged in a The student is able to
liquid. • compare and order the volume of regular and irregular solids by
displacement
CONTENT • compare the water displaced by an object before and after changes in the
shape of the object.
Displacement as a means of ordering volume.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Displacement is a measure of volume only if the Displace, displacement, immerse, Ask students to
object is totally submerged. If an object floats, the compare, full, brim, overflow,
• order three objects by the
water volume it displaces is related to the density of sink, float, level, container, order,
displacement method
the object, not the volume. Students should not be raise, lower, takes up space, takes
asked to state this distinction. up the same space, takes up less • demonstrate understanding of the idea
space, volume. that changing the shape of a
• The volume of an object that floats can be measured
particular object makes no difference
only if the object can be totally submerged in some “I had to be careful to fill the
to the volume of water it displaces.
way. container right to the brim.”
“When Danny put the stone in
• Students will need to understand the concept of
the bucket, the water
displacement as a measure of volume before they are
overflowed. When he took it
ready to order a set of objects by volume using this
out, the water level went down
method.
because …”
• Relate displacement activities to students’ own real “Sarah put the ping-pong ball in
life experiences, eg bath time, putting ice cubes into a the bucket but it floated. Then EVALUATION
full glass of drink, adding vegetables or eggs to a pot she pushed it under and the • Did I organise sufficient equipment
full of water. water spilt.” for all students to be actively involved
• Children’s story books about Archimedes’ principle “We found that the water level in group work?
would support the understandings in this unit. changed more for the cricket ball
than for the stone; the cricket • Did I encourage students to make use
• Initially the objects chosen for comparison should be ball must take up more space.” of the playground for these water
seen to be obviously different in volume, eg those of “Michael’s plasticine spilt the activities?
the same shape and different size. same amount of water when it
was in a ball as it did when it
was like a sausage.”

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES FLOATER

Repeat the “Overflow” and “Water Level” activities with a variety
DISPLACEMENT
of objects including some large objects that float, eg beach ball,
Students can make two types of displacement containers for
lunch box. Investigate ways of holding floating objects just below
classroom use. One is the “overflow” type: it requires a container,
the surface without immersing fingers or hands, eg pushing the
eg ice cream container, to be placed inside a large tray. Fill the
object underwater until the fingertips are just wet, filling the object
container to the brim with water. Place the object to be measured
with water or some other heavy material.
into the container and collect the overflow in the tray. Measure or
compare the amount of overflow. COMPARING STONES
Another displacement container is a “rising level” type: it requires Use an overflow displacement container, two identical clear jars
a clear container, large enough to allow objects to be fully and two stones of distinctly different size. Immerse one stone and
submerged without the water overflowing. Students should make collect the overflow. Pour this into one of the jars. Refill the
and investigate both types of displacement containers. displacement container and immerse the second stone. Pour the
Commercially-produced “overflow” type displacement containers overflow into the second jar. Compare the amount of water in the
are also available. jars and discuss. Use a partially filled “rising level” container and
the two stones. Mark the water level. Immerse one stone. Mark the
OVERFLOW
new water level. Remove the stone. Refill to the original water
Students have an overflow displacement container filled to the
level. Immerse the other stone. Mark the new water level. Compare
brim with water. Ask them to predict what will happen if an object
the marked water levels to determine which stone occupied the
is placed in the container. Experiment to find out. Discuss the
most space. Repeat using other objects. Discuss which method is
results. Consider important factors such as splashes, arms and
more suitable/accurate in finding the difference in volume of two
fingers taking up space, measuring the overflow accurately, etc.
objects? Practise ordering a variety of objects by volume.
WATER LEVEL
CONSERVATION
Students partly fill a clear, plastic container with water and mark
Students investigate conservation concepts using either type of
the level with a rubber band or a felt pen. Tie a stone to the end of
displacement container by immersing and measuring
a piece of thread or fishing line. Suspend the stone in the water.
- a long, thin plasticine shape/a remoulded shape
Mark the new level with another rubber band or felt pen. Discuss
- a ball of plasticine/the ball cut into pieces
what happened. Remove the stone and observe the water level.
- ten loose Centicubes/the Centicubes formed into a model.
Discuss what happened and why.

RESOURCES
Stones, thread, fishing line, balls, blocks, plasticine, buckets, ice cream containers, clear plastic containers, trays, jars, rubber bands, felt
pens, Centicubes.

144
VOLUME 10
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
A standard unit is needed for a uniform measure of The student is able to
capacity and volume. • measure capacity using different informal units
• recognise and discuss the need for a standard unit.
CONTENT
Awareness of the need for standard units for capacity and
volume.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Through these activities and previous experiences
students should realise that the selection of an
appropriate unit to measure capacity is important. For
example, an ice cream container is more suitable than
a spoon for measuring the contents of a bucket.
• Students should discuss advantages and disadvantages
of various informal units and realise the need to agree
on certain standard units. A class standard unit for
measuring capacity should be selected.
• Give students experience in marking their own
graduated containers to develop the idea of
graduation.
Shape, size, capacity, the same Ask students to
as, more than, less than, larger
• discuss the choice of informal units
than, smaller than, fill, pack,
for use as a class “standard”
totally packed, full.
• use class standard units for measuring
“The blue cup is the best
capacity, eg using a matchbox to find
measure for this but not the
the capacity of a juice carton, a chalk
other cups as they’re different
box or a party cup.
sizes.”
“It’s not really fair because
Tony’s cup is bigger than mine.”
“If Tony and I use the same cup
we’ll get the same amount.”
“From now on, the blue cup is
going to be our standard unit.”

EVALUATION
• Did all students participate
enthusiastically in the investigations?
• Were the selected activities
appropriate to achieving the unit
objectives?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES STANDARD CUPS

DIFFERENT CUPS
Collect sufficient cups of different shape, size and capacity for
each student to have one.
Ask students to fill a bucket, large ice cream container or bowl,
using their cup.
Count the number of cups used to fill the container.
Students work in groups to construct graphs showing results for
each person.
Discuss results with the group and the whole class.
Repeat the activity using other informal units. For example, use
teaspoons to fill cups.
Collect sufficient cups of the same shape, size and capacity for
each pupil in a group to have one.
Repeat the “Different Cups” activity.
Discuss the results obtained in the two activities. Graduate a larger
container using the cups collected. Use this container to find the
capacity of other containers.
FILLING WITH RECTANGULAR PRISMS
Find the number of blocks required to fill a suitable box.
Record the result.
Repeat the activity using different sized, uniform blocks.
Record the result.
Compare the number used in each investigation and discuss
outcomes.

FILLING WITH SPHERES

Find the number of tennis balls required to fill a container. Repeat
the activity using golf balls, marbles, cricket balls, etc. Record the
NUMBER OF results each time, then compare numbers used and discuss reasons
FULL CUPS TO for the differences in the answers.
FILL BOWL
IDENTICAL SETS
Collect sets of identical items to use as standard units for
measuring the capacity of rectangular containers. Suitable units are:
matchboxes, chalk boxes, small sultana packets, chocolate packets,
juice cartons. Fill rectangular containers with the selected units.
Compare the capacity of two containers using the same units.
MISHA IRENE VLADO
Display results in a table or graph.

RESOURCES
Various cups, buckets, ice cream containers, clear plastic containers, blocks, tennis balls, marbles, golf balls, cricket balls, matchboxes,
chalk boxes, small sultana packets, chocolate packets, juice cartons.

145
VOLUME 11
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
A formal unit for measuring capacity is the litre. The student is able to
• relate the litre to familiar everyday containers and familiar informal units
• estimate and measure to the nearest litre
CONTENT • discuss the need for units smaller than one litre
• recognise the symbol for the litre (L).
The litre as a formal unit.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• The litre is introduced as the first formal unit for Litre, half a litre, quarter of a Ask students to
measuring the capacity of a container. litre, capacity, estimate.
• find and record the number of
If a container has a capacity of five litres it will hold
“Kirsty’s lunch box holds a bit informal units approximating one
that volume of liquid when it is filled.
over a litre.” litre, eg number of egg cups,
• Visits to supermarkets and role play of shopping “The carton holds a quarter of a matchboxes
activities provide opportunities for students to litre of juice.”
• identify a variety of one litre
understand the relevance of the litre as an everyday “I thought the vase would hold
containers
measure of capacity. two litres but it held nearly
three litres.” • sort containers as less than, more than
• Initial introduction to the litre should be with litre
“These small containers need to or about the same as one litre
measures of regular shape, preferably those
be measured in parts of litres.” • estimate and measure to the nearest
approximating 10 cm x 10 cm x 10 cm, ie the
dimensions of a Base 10 block. Students should be litre and record results
given plenty of experiences using this measure with a • recognise the symbol for the litre (L).
variety of filling materials.
• Recording of fractions of the litre as 0.5 L and 0.25 L
should only occur once the student has an EVALUATION
understanding of decimal notation.
• Did I relate the activities in this unit
• Activities with 1/2 litre and 1/4 litre provide the to students’ everyday experiences?
foundation for introducing a standard unit smaller
than the litre. • Was there a variety of containers of
various shapes and sizes?
• Students could use a spreadsheet/database computer
program to tabulate estimations.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
ESTIMATE AND CHECK
MAKING AND FINDING ONE LITRE CONTAINERS Collect a variety of containers, eg a plastic jar, jug, teapot, beach
Have students pour materials from a 10 cm x 10 cm x 10 cm bucket, juice bottle, saucepan, lunch box, ice cream container.
container into an empty 2 L juice carton. Mark the level. Cut the Have students estimate the capacity of each container to the
carton to make a “standard” 1 L container. nearest litre, then use a one litre measure to check. Record the
measure. Calculate the difference between the estimate and the
∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ measure.
∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴
∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴
∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ Estimated Actual
∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴
∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ Container Capacity Capacity Comments
∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴
JUICE
FRUIT
∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ in Litres in Litres
∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴
∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴
JUICE
∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴
Bucket 5L 6L Too small
∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴
∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴
∴ ∴ ∴ ∴ ∴
Large Vase
Teapot
Pour materials from the “standard” 1 L container into familiar litre Small jug
containers of various shapes, eg cordial bottles, milk cartons, ice
cream containers. Label the containers “Holds 1 Litre” (l L). FINDING CONTAINER CAPACITIES
Discuss variations in the general shape of the containers in relation Have students find the capacities of containers frequently used in
to the different uses for which they are intended. Discuss why the daily life, eg kitchen sink, hand basin, laundry tub, baby bath, fish
containers are not filled to the top when holding 1 Litre. tank, rubbish bin, wheelbarrow, bath. Have students record their
findings in a table, graph or diagram.
Examine and use standard measuring jugs, beakers and cylinders
calibrated only in litres. Find the number of cups required to fill a HALF LITRES
one litre container. Repeat using familiar informal units, eg egg
Discuss the need for a measuring unit smaller than one litre. Have
cups, spoons, yoghurt tubs, mugs. Record results in a table or students pour a litre of water into a pair of identical clear
graph. containers to the same level. Mark the levels and label as “half
litre” or “1/2 L”. Check that one of these containers, filled to the
LARGER CONTAINERS marked level twice, will fill the litre measure or other one litre
Have students calibrate large clear containers in graduations of one containers. Using the 1/2 L measure, sort and classify a variety of
litre by repeatedly pouring water from a one litre measure and containers under the headings: less than 1/2 L, about 1/2 L,
marking the new water level each time. between 1/2 L and 1 L.

RESOURCES
Juice cartons, milk cartons, standard measuring jugs, beakers, cylinders, eggcups, bowls, plastic bottles, spoons, spreadsheet/database
software, ice-cream containers, party cups, jars, teapots, saucepans, buckets, lunch boxes, rubbish bins, fish tanks.

146
VOLUME 12
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
A formal unit for measuring capacity is the millilitre. The student is able to
• recognise and discuss the need for a unit smaller than a litre
• use a one litre container calibrated in multiples of 100 mL, 10mL, 1 mL
CONTENT • estimate and measure the capacity of containers to the nearest 100 mL,
10mL, 1 mL
The millilitre as a formal unit.
• make and use calibrated 100 mL measures.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• The idea that we need to measure to the nearest 1 mL, Millilitre, litre, container, too big, Ask students to
10 mL, 100 mL or 1 L, depending on the size of the too small, capacity, intervals,
• measure a given quantity to the
container, needs to be developed with the students. spaces.
nearest ten millilitres, then to the
• When reading water levels the eye should be adjacent “This chocolate milk carton nearest millilitre
holds less than one litre.”
to the level of water in the container so that parallax
“There are ten lots of one • discuss why some items are sold in
errors are avoided. hundred millilitres in one litre.” mL
• A medicine glass is useful for measuring small “One hundred millilitres is one
tenth of a litre.” • estimate the quantity of material in
quantities of liquid. “The marks on Dominic’s containers of different shape and
• Students should realise the importance of accuracy in container are a long way apart capacity
certain situations such as cooking or taking medicine. because it’s narrow.”
“Voula has about one hundred • select the appropriate standard
• Games involving estimation of the capacity of various millilitres there.” measures to find the capacity of a
containers are a worthwhile means of skill “This container holds between bucket, an egg cup and a lunch box.
development. Students can also devise their own two hundred and three hundred
millilitres.”
estimation games. “Sven guessed that the thimble
• One litre is one thousand millilitres. would hold about five millilitres.”
“When Dad measures my cough
mixture he gives me five EVALUATION
millilitres. That’s about one
teaspoonful.” • Did I provide opportunities for all
The abbreviation for the millilitre students to measure liquids to the
is mL (not ml). “Mills” is nearest millilitre?
acceptable as spoken language
when measuring capacity.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES CONTAINERS

INTRODUCING MILLILITRES Find containers with estimated capacities of

Collect various containers and arrange them in order by pouring
water from one container to another. Discuss the effectiveness of
this process.
List the types of products sold in containers whose capacity is less
than a quarter of a litre. Introduce the term “millilitre” and the
abbreviation mL. Find examples of containers and labels marked
in millilitres.
Make a litre measure calibrated in hundreds of millilitres by
pouring 100 mL of water from a standard measure into a clear
container. Stick masking tape to the container and mark the water
level as 100 mL. Repeat this procedure until 1000 mL or 1 L is
reached. Use this measure to find and record the capacity of a
variety of containers to the nearest 100 mL. Make a measure
calibrated in 100 mL intervals by pouring one litre of water from a
standard measure into a clear, narrow container. Mark and label
the one litre level, then measure the interval from the base of the
container to the one litre level. Divide this into ten equal intervals
and label 100 mL, 200 mL, etc.
CALIBRATED DRINKING STRAW
Ask students to suggest how they might mark a drinking straw so
that it can be used as a measuring instrument. One way is to fill
the measuring cylinder to a suitable level, eg 20 mL and insert a
drinking straw. Place one finger over the top end of the straw and
lift it above the water level. Allow the water to return to the
container until it reaches the 19 mL level. Mark and label the
amount remaining in the straw as “1 mL”.
Use this interval to make other calibrations on the straw.
- less than 100 mL
- about 100 mL
- between 100 mL and 200 mL
- between 200 mL and 300 mL
- between __ mL and __ mL.
Measure and check estimates.
Collect containers whose capacity is less than 100 mL, eg
thimbles, bottle tops, perfume phials. Using a medicine glass or
calibrated drinking straw, measure and record capacities to the
nearest 10 mL.
MEASURING CYLINDERS AND FLASKS
Have students pour a quantity of water estimated to be 10 mL into
an eggcup and measure the amount of water to check the accuracy
of the estimate. Repeat using various large and small containers.
Carry out similar activities for 20 mL, 30 mL, etc. Does the size of
the container affect estimation ability?
Examine cylinders, beakers, small jugs, droppers, etc, which are
calibrated in millilitres. Fill each to the 10 mL level. Compare the
heights of liquid and explain any variations.
Examine sets of standard measuring cylinders, beakers, jugs
calibrated in millilitres and litres. Relate differences in calibrations
and range of possible measures to the overall appearance of the
containers.

RESOURCES
Plastic bottles, milk containers, juice cartons, ice-cream containers, measuring cylinders, jugs, beakers, unmarked glass cylinders,
drinking straws, droppers, medicine glasses, buckets, spoons, eggcups, vases, lunch boxes, thimbles, bottle tops, perfume phials.

147
VOLUME 13
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
The student is able to
A standard unit, the cubic centimetre, is used as a
• recognise the relationship between one millilitre and one cubic
uniform measure of volume.
centimetre
• construct three-dimensional objects using cubic centimetres and use
CONTENT estimation and counting to determine volume
The cubic centimetre as a formal unit. • fill rectangular containers with cubic centimetres to measure capacity
• express ideas of conservation of volume.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• The concept of the cubic centimetre can be introduced
and related to the centimetre as a unit of length (cm)
and the square centimetre (cm2) as a unit of area.
• One millilitre is equivalent to one cubic centimetre.
• The cubic centimetre (cm3) is treated before the cubic
metre as it is more easily manipulated by students.
• At this stage there is no need to develop the formula
for calculating the volume of rectangular prisms. It is
more important to develop ideas of volume and
capacity fully, rather than risk confusion by moving
too quickly into formulas and calculations.
• Students need much practice in order to develop their
ability to estimate solid and liquid volumes using the
cubic centimetre.
• Students should be led to an awareness of the need for
units based on objects of the same shape and size for
efficient comparison and measurement of volume.
• The cube is the most suitable shape for volume
measure because
- cubes stack and pack without leaving gaps
- cubes have flat surfaces
- all faces and edges of a cube are equal
- adjacent surfaces are perpendicular.
Faces, edges, surfaces, units,
cubic units, cubic centimetre,
stack, identical, equal, adjacent,
perpendicular, comparison,
volume, standard unit, uniform,
rectangular prism, triangular
prism.
“They both have six cubes but
this one looks bigger because
the cubes are bigger.”
“Cubes stack really well.”
“We can check the volume of
our tower by pulling it apart and
counting the cubes.”
“This Centicube has a volume
of exactly one cubic
centimetre.”
The abbreviation for cubic
centimetre is cm3.
Ask the students to
• select a one centimetre cube from a
collection of other cubes
• demonstrate that the sides of the
centimetre cube are all 1 cm and that
each face has an area of 1 cm2
• build models, estimate the number of
cubes in them and check estimates by
counting
• generalise that many different models
can be made from 10 one centimetre
cubes and all will have the same
volume.
EVALUATION
• Were groups formed according to
student interests and abilities or for
social purposes?
• Is membership of groups flexible?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES CONSERVATION

UNITS THAT PACK
Students use cardboard and masking tape to construct a 10 cm x
10 cm x 10 cm open-topped cube. Students fill the cube with
marbles (or similar shaped objects) and discuss how well the
marbles fill it. Check the amount of unfilled space by pouring in
dry sand or water. Remove marbles and measure the amount of
sand or water used.
Repeat the investigation using open-topped rectangular prisms.
Discuss the suitability of marbles for packing and stacking
activities.
Repeat activities using cubic units to find the capacity of the
containers. (Base 10 longs and Cuisenaire rods can be used as
multiple cubic units.) Compare results and discuss the advantages
of using cubic units.
CONSTRUCTING RECTANGULAR CONTAINERS
Students construct open-topped prisms of the following
dimensions:
6 cm x 6 cm x 6 cm
3 cm x 12 cm x 6 cm
3 cm x 9 cm x 8 cm
by pasting 1 cm grid paper onto sheets of cardboard and cutting
out the sides and base of each accordingly. They assemble prisms
using masking tape, fill each container with cubic centimetres,
count the units used for each and comment on the results.
Have students investigate the construction of prisms of different
dimensions but equal volume.
Use suitable one centimetre cubes to construct models. Determine
the volume of each model by displacement of water. Dismantle
models and count the number of cubes used to determine the
volume of each model. Record results using sketches, tables or
graphs. Construct other models using exactly the same cubes.
Repeat measuring activities and record results. Discuss findings.
CUBIC CENTIMETRES AND MILLILITRES
Ask students to investigate the relationship between the cubic
centimetre and the millilitre by partly filling a measuring cylinder
calibrated in millilitres (mL) and recording what happens when
one Centicube is added. Repeat by adding more Centicubes and
reading the volume each time. Record results in a table or graph
and comment on findings.
Students fill a one litre measure calibrated in ten millilitre intervals
to the ten millilitre level. They add groups of ten Centicubes and
record the change in water level after each group is added. Ask
students to show results in a table or graph and comment on their
findings.
BASE 10 BLOCK
Find the volume of a Base 10 block by one of the displacement
method.

RESOURCES
Containers calibrated in 1 mL and 10 mL intervals, water, Base 10 materials, Cuisenaire rods, Centicubes, cardboard, 1 cm grid paper,
paste, masking tape, graph paper, sand, marbles, pebbles.

148
VOLUME 14
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
The student is able to
A formal unit for measuring volume is the cubic metre.
• recognise and discuss the need for using units larger than the cubic
centimetre
• construct a model of one cubic metre
CONTENT
• use the model to estimate in cubic metres
The cubic metre as a formal unit. • recognise instances where it is appropriate to measure in cubic metres.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Students should become aware that it is more Cubic metre, rectangular prism, Ask students to
appropriate to measure the volume of large objects volume, dimensions,
• make a model of one cubic metre
(and containers) in cubic metres and that in real life similarities, differences.
these capacities are determined by calculation. • use the model to estimate the volume
The abbreviation for cubic
(or capacity) of other objects (or
• Use of formulas for the calculation of volume of metre is m3.
containers)
regular solids (or the capacity of containers) is not
“This big box is more than one
part of the K–6 syllabus. • explain why it is appropriate to
cubic metre.”
measure large volumes (or capacities)
“The blue cupboard is about the
in cubic metres.
same as one cubic metre.”
“The big rectangular prism
looks larger than a cube but it’s
the same.”
“I think that four children will
EVALUATION
fit into the metre frame.”
• Were girls as well as boys given
opportunities to be fully involved in
model making activities?
• Were students encouraged to discuss
fully the investigations being
undertaken in small groups?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES ESTIMATING

DISCUSSING LARGE VOLUMES
In groups students talk about the need for a formal unit larger than
the cubic centimetre. List situations which require a larger unit, eg
volume of a swimming pool.
MODEL MAKING
Make a model of a one cubic metre from metre sticks or one metre
lengths of dowel or plastic pipe joined with trade fittings,
plasticine or wire.
1 metre
1 metre
1 metre
COMPARING
Using heavy cardboard, draw and cut out six one metre squares.
Join all six pieces with masking tape to make a cubic metre. Paint
or decorate the structure and label it “one cubic metre” (1m3).
Make a model of one cubic metre from lengths of dowel or plastic
pipe joined with trade fittings, plasticine or wire using dimensions
of 2 m x 1 m x 0.5 m.
Compare the two models of a cubic metre. Comment on and list
the similarities and differences between the two. Ask students to
suggest other possible shapes.
Use the appropriate model of one cubic metre (1 m3) to estimate
whether the volume (or capacity) of specified objects and
containers is less than, more than or about the same as one cubic
metre.
Record estimates.
EVERYDAY EXAMPLES
Observe, discuss and list large containers in the school and the
outside environment whose capacity could be measured in cubic
metres, eg pottery kiln, cubby house, garbage bins, removalist
vans, export cargo containers, cement trucks, telephone booths.
Relate the cubic metre to household appliances such as
refrigerators, washing machines, stoves and freezers.
INVESTIGATING
Investigate how many students could fit into a cubic metre.
Estimate first, then try it out. Explain why results may vary.
VOLUME OF A ROOM
Using a model of a cubic metre, estimate how many times it would
fit into a room. Which is the smallest room in the house/school?
Which is the largest? What is the difference in cubic metres?

RESOURCES
Metre sticks, one metre lengths of dowel, plastic pipe, trade fittings, plasticine, wire, heavy cardboard, masking tape.

149
VOLUME 15
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
The metric measures of volume, capacity and mass are The student is able to
related. • investigate the relationships between cubic centimetres, millilitres, litres,
grams and kilograms.
CONTENT
Investigating relationships in volume, capacity and mass.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Students should be aware that 1 L of water has a mass Submerged, floating, displaces, Ask students to
of 1 kg and that 1 mL of water has a mass of 1 g. mass by displacement.
• determine the volume of an amount
• It is important for students to realise that the amount “The plastic container weighs of water by measuring its mass
of water displaced by a floating object is related to its thirty grams. When Amy filled
• measure quantities of displaced water
mass. it with one litre of water it
to determine the masses of different
weighed one thousand and
• If objects are ordered by volume first and then mass, floating objects.
thirty grams.”
the order may be different.
“This litre of water weighs one
• Blocks of the same dimensions but different mass can
thousand grams. That’s one
be submerged to show that they displace the same
kilogram.”
volume of liquid. This demonstrates that mass and
volume are independent. “The heaviest object doesn’t
always take up the most space.”
“Luis ordered the objects by
volume and Fergus ordered
them by mass; the order was
different.”
EVALUATION
“The order is not the same for • Did I encourage all students to
mass as it is for volume.” express their findings clearly and in a
variety of ways, eg spoken and
written accounts, tables, graphs?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
MASS OF WATER
Measure the mass of an empty container. Fill it with one litre of
water. Measure the mass of the container and water. Calculate the
mass of the water. Repeat the activity using different quantities of
water, eg 50 mL, 250 mL, 100 mL. Record and discuss results.
MEASURING AND RECORDING
Measure and record the mass of five irregularly shaped objects, eg
stones, plasticine. Arrange and record the mass measures in order.
Measure the volume of the same objects by displacement. Arrange
and record the volume measures in order.
• Students investigate the different units used to measure the
capacities of large containers used in the environment. For
example, swimming pools, underground petrol tanks at service
stations, petrol tanks in motor vehicles, water tanks, dams or
wells on farms, milk tankers, cargo containers, large dams for
domestic water supplies.
ESTIMATING
Students work with a variety of empty containers. Estimate the
volume and mass of water that each container would hold. Order
them according to the estimates then check by filling with water
and measuring. Compare the estimated order with the measured
order.

Does the heaviest object take up the most space? Is the order from Estimated Measured
Container volume/mass volume/mass Difference
heaviest to lightest (mass) the same as the order from largest to (mL/g) (mL/g) (mL/g)
smallest (volume)? Discuss results and investigate further using
Small vase 200 mL/200g 265 mL/265g 65mL/65g
different objects.
Egg cup 55 mL/55g 80 mL/80g 25 mL/25g
Lunch box
INVESTIGATIONS
Jug
• Place a variety of objects that have a one kilogram mass
(including some that float) into a displacement container.
Measure the amount of water displaced. Write a statement DISPLACED MASS OF LARGE VESSELS
describing the results. Students investigate how a dry dock is used to find the displaced
• Find the mass of one litre of oil. Predict if oil will float on mass of ships. Discuss why such a method is used with very large
water. Discuss results and suggest other liquids that may or objects. Collect specific information on displaced mass of ships
may not float on water. from books and magazines. Compare the mass of a number of
different ships.

RESOURCES
Graduated containers, clear plastic containers, water, masses, balance scale, measuring cylinders, various objects of 1 kg mass, 1 L of oil,
reference materials.

150
 MASS
SUMMARY OF OBJECTIVES

MASS 1 MASS 9
• push, pull and handle objects in order to become aware of mass • demonstrate an awareness of the need for a standard unit

MASS 2 MASS 10
• compare two masses by pushing, pulling or “hefting” • compare the mass of an object with a one kilogram mass
• state the mass of an object in kilograms and half kilograms

MASS 3
• use a balance to compare masses MASS 11
• recognise and discuss the need for a unit smaller than the
kilogram
MASS 4 • locate the mass of an object between 100 g divisions
• predict and interpret the action of the equal arm balance when a
heavy object is placed in one pan and a lighter object in the
other MASS 12
• compare masses using an equal arm balance • measure the mass of an object under 4 kg to the nearest gram

MASS 5 MASS 13
• use an equal arm balance to obtain a level balance • examine and use compression scales and balances
• measure net and gross mass

MASS 6
• measure the mass of an object using informal units MASS 14
• select an appropriate informal unit for a measuring task • recognise and discuss the need for the tonne
• find examples of masses measured in tonnes

MASS 7
• compare and measure differences in mass

MASS 8
• order by hefting three masses and check using an equal arm
balance
• order by measuring with informal units

151
MASS 1
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Mass is the amount of matter in an object. The student is able to
• push, pull and handle objects in order to become aware of mass.

CONTENT
Awareness of the attribute of mass.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Mass is an intrinsic property of an object, but its most Light, heavy, small, large, hard • Listen for phrases such as
common measure is in terms of weight. to lift, hard to push, easy to lift, - hard to lift
easy to push, not heavy, not - hard to push
• Students should begin to develop an awareness of
light. - too heavy
mass through day-to-day activities, both free play and
- easy to lift
directed. These activities will need to be repeated on “The block is heavy.”
- light.
many occasions for young students. “The straws are light.”
“The box is too heavy for me to • Have two hoops labelled “light
• Early experiences often lead students to the
lift.” objects” and “heavy objects”. Ask
conclusion that large things are heavier than small
“The ball is small but it is students to find three objects for each
things and if two things are the same size and shape
heavy.” hoop.
then they will have the same mass. To develop beyond
“The bean bag chair is big but I
this stage, students need to have experiences that
can move it.”
challenge their belief that size and mass are always
“Get the toys from the heavy
related. For example, they need to play with large
storage box.”
polystyrene blocks and small, heavy, metal blocks.
Ensure that non-English
• Compare only two objects at a time.
speaking background students EVALUATION
• Students should be shown correct methods of lifting are familiar with the names of
heavy objects, such as starting with a straight back the objects being used. • Did the students work cooperatively
and bent knees. Discuss these safety precautions with in groups?
the students. • Did I provide enough opportunities
• A class book about students’ findings could be made for students to talk to each other
using a word processor. about their activities?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
PUSHING, PULLING, LIFTING AND HANDLING
Involve students in structured play with a variety of materials
(including large, light objects and small, heavy objects) such as
rocks, stones, pebbles, bricks, blocks made from wood, metal,
polystyrene foam, ice cream containers filled with different
materials, cotton wool, crumbed foam, dried peas, corks, bolts,
torch batteries, washers, rice, sand, cotton reels.
DAY-TO-DAY EXPERIENCES
• Hold, push, pull and lift articles, especially those with
considerable differences in mass, eg a brick and a piece of
chalk.
• Carry and move equipment and furniture.
• Use a trolley or wheel barrow to move objects to heavy to
carry.
• Move rubbish bins to the collection site.
• Throw balls of different masses and compare how far the
students are able to throw them.
• Discuss the idea of splitting a heavy load into several small
loads.
• Piggy-back rides.
GUESSING GAME
Materials: 1 ice cream container with a lid
1 ping-pong ball
1 large piece of clay or plasticine
1 chalkboard duster
or any other four objects with obviously different masses.
Students handle the objects prior to the game.
One student places an object in the ice cream container
and puts the lid on without the other students seeing
which object has been chosen. By handling the container
another student must guess which object is in the
container without referring to the original group of
objects to see which one is missing. Encourage students
to ask each other why they think a particular object is in
the container.
SORTING OBJECTS
Sort a selection of obviously light and obviously heavy
objects into two groups. A variety of objects, eg a paper
clip, a nail, a tile, a rock, a pumpkin, a bottle of detergent,
etc can be used. Discuss with students the reasons for
putting objects into different groups.

RESOURCES
Bricks, rocks, stones, foam, ping-pong balls, washers, macaroni, corks, sand, large cereal boxes, match boxes, bean bags, small balls, big
balls, shots (as in shot put), toys, hoops, polystyrene, a word processor, buckets.

152
MASS 2
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Two objects may be placed in order according to mass. The student is able to
• compare two masses by pushing, pulling or “hefting”.

CONTENT
Comparison of two masses.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• “Hefting” is the balancing of objects one in each hand Light, heavy, small, large, • In the context of activities, note when
and deciding which is the heavier or lighter. lighter than, heavier than, students use such phrases as
weight, smaller than, larger - harder to push
• The objects initially should differ markedly to allow
than, mass, less mass, more - harder to lift
for easier comparison.
mass, greater mass, not as - heavier than
• As students gain more experience in hefting, the heavy, not as light, harder to - lighter than
difference between the masses can be less. push, harder to lift, as heavy as. - as heavy as.
• When students make comparisons their judgements “The rock feels heavier than the • By means of hefting, have students
may be influenced by the appearance of the object cup. The cup feels lighter than
find three things which are lighter
the rock.”
and its size. Students may believe that a large object than a rock. Students record their
“It was hard to pull the bag
is always heavier than a small object. Their because it was heavy. It was results by drawing, or writing a story.
judgements may also be influenced by one arm being easy to pull the empty bottle
stronger than the other. because it was light.”
“The books have about the
• Students should be given experience where objects are same mass.”
- light and large : heavy and large “The chair has a greater mass
- light and small : heavy and small than the ball.”
- large but lighter than a smaller object. “Which do you think has more
mass, the orange or the bean?” EVALUATION
• Students may be focusing on quantity rather than
mass. Even after handling, students may still As the terms “weigh” and • Were the activities motivating
comment that five ping-pong balls are heavier than “weight” are common in enough?
one small metal ball. everyday usage, they can be
• Was there enough space, time and
accepted in student language.
Weight is a force which changes resources?
with gravity, while mass
remains constant.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
BOXES
HEFTING, PUSHING, PULLING
Find two margarine tubs of the same size. Fill one with rice and
(using objects of obviously different mass) the other with corks. Students guess which one has the least mass.
• Each student finds two books and lifts one in each hand. The Students discuss their guess with a friend and check by hefting.
student decides which is heavier/lighter. Repeat with a Tissue boxes, plastic bottles or ice cream containers are equally
pumpkin and an apple. suitable for this activity.
Repeat with a cricket ball and a tennis ball.
Which is heavier – 5 pencils or 1 book?
Which is lighter – 20 beans or 1 carrot? MASS SIGNS
• Have two boxes that differ markedly in mass. Each student Put up signs around the classroom about the students’ discoveries.
pushes the boxes in turn across the floor and decides which
was easier to push/harder to push. Record by drawing or This desk is heavy.
writing.
• Tie a loop of string around a heavy object, eg a phone book.
Tie a loop of string around a light object. Each student pulls
the objects in turn across the floor and decides which is harder
The
to pull/easier to pull and why.
Four marbles feel as book and
Repeat with other objects. the box feel as
heavy as one ball.
Record by drawing or writing. heavy as the Lego.

MATCH FOR MASS

From a variety of objects provided by the teacher, students try to
find objects of similar mass, eg an orange and a potato.

RESOURCES
Sand, stones, pencils, boxes of similar and different sizes, balls of similar and different sizes, jars or bottles filled with beans, rice, etc.

153
MASS 3
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
The concept of balance is important when comparing The student is able to
mass. • use a balance to compare masses.

CONTENT
Understanding balance.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Students will gain the idea of balance through Balance, balanced, in balance, • Two students sit on the see-saw. Ask
activities such as walking on planks and see-saws. unbalanced, lopsided, level, students to predict what would
even, heavier than, not as heavy, happen if one student got off or was
• Teachers should be sensitive to students’ feelings lighter, no light, same as, given a bucket of sand to hold.
regarding their weight during the activities in this steady.
unit. “When Freddie and Mia were
• Parents or other interested people could be asked to on the see-saw, it was
make a see-saw if one is not accessible. balanced.”
“When Peter got off, it went up
• When students are constructing balances, ensure that at one end.”
girls as well as boys take part. “If we take the bucket of sand
off that end, it will ….”
“The see-saw was wobbly, then
level. It’s even now because
Micky and Jeane are the same
weight.” EVALUATION
Teachers should encourage the • Did the students enjoy the activities?
use of language through such • Did all students have an opportunity
questions as
to participate on the see-saw?
“How did you feel when you
walked on the balance beam?” • Was there student-to-student
“What will happen to the see- discussion during and after the
saw if we take the bucket of activities?
sand off?”
“Why is one end of the see-saw
up in the air and the other end
on the ground?”

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
KEEP YOUR BALANCE
• Have students walk along the lines of a netball court, a rope on
the ground or a balance beam. Ask students how they kept their
balance. Ask students to describe what they saw other students
doing to keep balanced, eg putting arms out.
• Have students carry a ball, bucket or heavy book in one hand
and walk along a balance beam. Describe how it felt, eg “I felt
lopsided.”
“What did you need to do to keep balanced?”
SEE-SAW
• Allow students to play on a see-saw. Have them describe what
happens when people of different mass or the same mass get
on. What happens when the teacher gets on one end?
• Have students place buckets of sand on each end. Have them
describe the situation and predict what will happen if two equal
buckets are placed on one end and three on the other, and so
on.
MAKE A MODEL SEE-SAW
Using available materials such as a wooden triangular prism and a
metre stick, students make a model see-saw.
Students make the metre stick or ruler balance on the block. They
put small objects on each end and describe what happens. Ask
them if they can make a light object balance a heavy object. How?
CONSERVATION
Provide students with lumps of plasticine. Have students divide
each lump so that the two pieces are the same mass. Students
check by using a balance or model see-saw.
Each student then rolls the two pieces together in the form of a
sausage. Ask the student if the sausage has the same mass as the
original lump. Does it have the same mass as when it was in two
pieces?

RESOURCES
See-saw, containers filled with different materials, wooden planks, timber pieces suitable for use as beams, large blocks.

154
MASS 4
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Instruments to compare masses have been devised. The student is able to
• predict and interpret the action of the equal arm balance when a heavy
object is placed in one pan and a lighter object in the other
CONTENT • compare masses using an equal arm balance.
The equal arm balance.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Through experiences with hefting and using a balance Went up, went down, rose, sank, Ask students to
students will come to understand that the pan heavier than, not heavier than,
• hold a paint brush in one hand and a
containing the heavier objects moves down. As this lighter, not as light, mass,
cup in the other and say which feels
knowledge is realised, students will begin to predict weight, equal arm balance,
heavier
the movement of the equal arm balance when objects lopsided, has more mass, has
• say what would happen if the cup and
that feel different in mass are placed in the pans. Use less mass.
brush were placed in different pans of
objects that are obviously different in mass.
“That one is heavier because it a balance
• The students use their knowledge of the behaviour of went down.” • say what would happen if the cup and
the equal arm balance to interpret which is the heavier “That one is lighter because it brush changed positions
of two objects. went up.” • predict and describe the movements
“It went down because it is of equal arm balances for different
• It is important that the teacher does not tell the
heavier.” pairs of objects
students what will happen when objects are placed in
“It went up because it is • put different objects in the pans of a
each balance pan but allows students to reach their
lighter.” balance and state which object is
own conclusions.
“The chalk’s lighter than the heavier.
• As well as comparing one object with another object, bolt because the pan with the
students should compare one object with many bolt went down.”
objects and many objects with many objects.
As the terms “weigh” and EVALUATION
• Some computer games simulate the use of an equal “weight” are common in • Was sufficient time given to the
arm balance and can be used in conjunction with the everyday usage, they can be activities?
activities in this unit. accepted during discussion
should they arise. • Did students have the prerequisite
knowledge, skills and vocabulary?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
FREE PLAY
Opportunities to play with the equal arm balance in a number of
settings and with a variety of materials will enhance the students’
understandings of both mass and the device. The equal arm
balance could be part of the classroom shop.
OBSERVE, PREDICT, INTERPRET
Students heft to decide which is the heavier of two objects. They
then predict which pan will drop (and which will rise) when the
objects are placed in the balance pans. The objects are then placed
in the pans and the students decide which is the heavier.

CONSTRUCTING EQUAL ARM BALANCES ONE – MANY COMPARISONS

A variety of these could be produced by students or teachers with
a minimum outlay. To make accurate comparisons, the pans must
be hung at equal distances from the pivot point and the pans and
attached string must be identical.
An equal arm balance can be constructed using a metre stick with
buckets or paper cups as pans.
Experiences should be provided where comparison of mass is
made between
– one object and another object (1 apple, 1 cherry)
– one object and many objects (1 block, 5 shells)
– many objects and many objects (5 marbles, 3 blocks).
A variety of examples should be given so that quantity does not
become linked with mass.
When comparing one object with many objects, select examples so
that in some cases the one object is lighter than many objects and
in other cases the one object is heavier, eg 1 chalkboard eraser and
2 sticks of chalk, 1 empty match box and 3 large bolts.

A balance can be made from a coat hanger.

RESOURCES
Equal arm balance, metre rule, coat hangers, string, ice cream containers, tissue boxes, match boxes, shells, rocks, sticks, pebbles, cotton
reels, bolts, washers, rice, paper clips, metal spoon, metal mug, plastic cup, scissors, blocks, marbles, pencils, erasers, rulers, crayons,
metal ball, tennis ball, an apple, a cherry, coloured wrapping paper, computer games.

155
MASS 5
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Obtaining balance is important in measuring mass. The student is able to
• use an equal arm balance to obtain a level balance.

CONTENT
The equal arm balance.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• An equal arm balance is only balanced when the pans Is balanced by, the same mass • Ask students to balance various
are exactly level. Some equal arm balances can be as, heavier than, lighter than, materials. Listen for statements such
adjusted to ensure a level balance. not as heavy, level, even, as
uneven. “This rock is balanced by six
• Teachers will need to prepare many of the items
pebbles.”
mentioned in the resources in advance. Equipment “This rock is balanced by five
“This rock has the same mass as six
made for Mass 4 can be used for this unit and for pebbles.”
pebbles.”
Mass 6. “This rock has the same mass as
“Three pebbles balance twenty
five pebbles.”
• Equipment can be stored in sealed containers and shells.”
“You need more sand. That’s
carefully labelled so it can be shared easily among “Three pebbles have the same mass
too much rice. Take some out.
teachers and classes. as twenty shells.”
Now it’s balance.”
• Ensure all students are familiar with the resources “One and a half cups of sand
being used in the activities. Students should have had balanced eight cups of bottle
experiences with the equal arm balances in free play tops.”
and directed activities before attempting this unit (see EVALUATION
Mass 4).
• Were the equal arm balances
• After students have used the equal arm balance in appropriate for the students’
groups or in pairs, allow opportunities for them to manipulative skills?
report findings to the class.
• Were all students actively involved in
the activities?
• Was student-to-student discussion
encouraged through open-ended
questions?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES • The teacher prepares several mystery boxes. The students find
out how many marbles balance
FREE PLAY - the green box
Each day have a small group of students (5-6) experiment with the - the red box.
equal arm balance and a variety of materials. Students work with a Students show which box balances
minimum of direction and record their findings. Continue until all - five marbles
students have had a turn. Have a sharing time to discuss the results - twenty marbles.
and note any findings about balance. • Provide opportunities for students to obtain a level balance
using different types of materials, eg
BALANCE INVESTIGATION - continuous material (sand, rice, plasticine, water)
- large objects (boxes, books, rocks)
• Students find how many corks are needed to balance - small objects (pebbles, marbles).
- two marbles
- ten bottle tops The nature of the material may determine that it can be taken
- three shells. from only one side of the balance. It is not always possible to
obtain a balance with an exact number of small objects, eg 5
• Students balance three marbles with marbles may weigh less than a box but 6 marbles may be more.
- plastic counters
- paper clips.
Do the counters balance the paper clips?
• Students show how many sticks of chalk are needed to balance
five pencils.
• From many objects provided, students find two that balance.

RESOURCES
An equal arm balance, bolts, pebbles, nails, sticks, paper clips, marbles, bottle tops, pencils, chalk, pegs, shells, corks, buttons, teacher
made parcels, boxes.

156
MASS 6
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Units for measuring mass can be informal. The student is able to
• measure the mass of an object using informal units
• select an appropriate informal unit for a measuring task.
CONTENT
Measurement with informal mass units.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• In these activities, the teacher will have to prepare Mass, different mass, same Ask students to
articles that can be balanced by an exact number of mass, equal mass, more mass,
• choose an appropriate unit to measure
informal units (see Units 4 and 5). less mass, nearly the same.
a given object, eg light units to
• Students should have many opportunities to find the
“My pen has the same mass as measure light objects and heavier
mass of objects. When using informal units have
two washers. A potato has the units to measure heavy objects
students estimate and then check by measuring.
same mass as ten marbles.”
• When students are selecting the most appropriate unit • guess how many pebbles they would
“The cube weighed a lot more
to use they should be encouraged to discuss why they need to balance a small toy car and
than the pencil case.”
have made their selection. check using an equal arm balance
“The macaroni is heavier than
• At first, students may measure the mass of an object • state what things they would choose
the pencil case.”
using a mixture of informal units, eg “This stone to measure the mass of a shell and
“Twenty washers balance my
balances five bolts and three cotton reels”. Then the why.
ruler and so do three bolts.”
student may want to use only one type of informal
unit, eg “The red box is balanced by fifteen shells”.
The student may come to prefer one particular unit,
eg “The red box balances four bolts and the green box
balances six bolts”.
• As a result of these activities the student should
develop the understanding that, for a specific task, EVALUATION
– some informal units are better than others
– to measure something heavy, it is better to use • Were the activities well organised in
heavy, informal units terms of space, time and resources?
– some units are unsatisfactory because they are not • How could the activities be
uniform, eg pebbles. improved?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES CONSERVATION

EQUAL MASSES • Teacher: “How many shells balance your pencil case?”
Student: “Thirty shells.”
Choose an object. Ask students to collect things from around the
Teacher: “How many bolts balance your pencil case?”
room that might combine to have the same mass as the object, eg
“The duster has the same mass as five pieces of chalk and three Student: “Three bolts.”
pop sticks”. Repeat this activity many times, measuring the mass Teacher: “What will happen if you put thirty shells in one
of different objects in the room and from the playground. Discuss pan and three bolts in the other?”
with students why they selected particular informal units. • Instruct students to place 15 white cubes in one pan and 15 red
After students have had many opportunities to investigate mass cubes in the other. Do they balance? What can be said about
using a variety of informal units, encourage them to use one type the mass of the cubes?
of informal unit.
Build the red cubes into a long, thin shape and the white cubes
into a short, fat shape. Will they balance? Do they have the
MYSTERY BOX same mass? Check and discuss.
Give the student a box and ask him/her to find its mass. Now break the red shape into 15 individual cubes. Will these
Student: “The box has a mass of six bolts”. have the same mass as the short, fat, white shape? Check and
Teacher: “Measure and record the mass of the box using comment.
screws”.
Student: “The box has a mass of thirteen screws”.
GUESS AND CHECK RECORD
Discuss and compare results.
Students guess how many stones, buttons or bolts would be needed
to balance something brought by a student for “Show and Tell”
CHOOSE THE UNIT
(class news). Record.
Provide a selection of materials suitable as informal units. Ask
students to select the most appropriate unit to measure items such
as a pen, a box of chalk, a pencil case, a brick, a box of matches Object Estimate Actual
and a feather.
Model car stones stones
buttons buttons

RESOURCES
Bolts, screws, wooden blocks, pebbles, washers, spark plugs, nails, sticks of chalk, bottle tops, shells, pop sticks, ping-pong balls,
marbles, keys, cotton reels, match boxes, buttons, construction cubes, counters, leaves, corks, beads, headless matches, gumnuts,
toothpaste caps, calculators.

157
MASS 7
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Differences in mass can be measured. The student is able to
• compare and measure differences in mass.

CONTENT
Measurement with informal mass units.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• At this stage, the student should appreciate that the Heavier, lighter than, the Ask students to
equal arm balance has two functions: difference is, balance, mass,
• measure the difference in mass of two
- comparing the mass of two objects estimate, guess, balanced, not as
objects, using informal units
- measuring the mass of an object using a set of heavy.
informal masses. • describe relationships, eg “Two paint
“The torch and the scissors
brushes and twenty counters balance
• If the appearance of an object is altered in some way, don’t balance. We made them
a can.”
then some students may assume the mass has balance by adding counters to
“A cup has the same mass as a pair of
changed. For instance, if a lump of plasticine is rolled the pan with the scissors. The
scissors and a rubber.”
into a flat disc students may think that the mass of the scissors and ten counters
flat disc is less than the original lump. balanced the torch.”
• If a lump of plasticine is divided into several smaller
pieces students may not perceive that the total mass of
the pieces is equal to the original lump. The ability to
conserve develops over time and should not be forced.
The students should also realise that the same volume
of different materials may have different masses. EVALUATION
• Conservation of mass is first applied by students in • Did girls as well as boys participate
specific situations. Students who can conserve in one actively?
circumstance do not necessarily conserve in another.
Students need to discover from direct experience that • What were the positive aspects of
cooling, squeezing, lengthening or rolling does not student interaction?
change the mass of an object.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
DIFFERENCES IN MASS
• The teacher provides two mystery boxes, one red and one
green. Ask students to estimate which is the heavier by
handling.
• Students then measure and record the mass of each box using
bolts on the balance. Ask students to find the difference
between the masses of the objects in terms of bolts.
• Students place a box in each balance pan. Ask how many bolts
will have to be added and to which side in order to make the
pans balance. Check by using the balance.
ADDING ON
Students are set the task of finding the difference in mass of two
objects without finding the mass of either object. Students place
one of the two objects in each pan of a balance and add bolts to
the higher pan until the pans are level.
GUESS, CHECK AND RECORD
Students take two identical containers, one filled with sand and the
other with cotton wool. Holding one container in each hand,
students decide which is heavier and by how much. Suggest to
students that they change hands and estimate again, then check
their estimates using a balance. Write a report of the results.
WAYS OF MEASURING
Students try different methods of finding the difference in mass of
two containers full of sand and report their results.
METHOD 1. Each full container is weighed separately using
informal units and the results are used to calculate the difference in
mass.
METHOD 2. Each container is placed in a balance pan. Informal
units are added to the higher side until the pans are level. The
difference in mass is the number of informal units that had to be
added.
METHOD 3. Each container is placed in a balance pan. Sand is
removed from the heavier container until the pans are level. The
amount of sand removed is a measure of the difference in mass.
EVERYDAY OBJECTS
Students choose everyday objects such as cups, lunches and pencil
cases. They choose two objects and judge which is the heavier by
handling them. Using a balance and informal units, they determine
how much heavier one object is than the other and record, eg “My
lunch is twelve counters heavier than my pencil case.”

RESOURCES
Equal arm balances, scissors, nails, pins, rice, sand, plastic bags, flour, rulers, Lego bricks, counters, boxes, parcels, bolts, lunch bags,
pencil cases, pencils, plasticine, Centicubes, paint bottles, sticks, gumnuts, plank, bricks.

158
MASS 8
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Three or more objects may be ordered by mass. The student is able to
• order by hefting three masses and check using an equal arm balance
• order by measuring with informal units.
CONTENT
Ordering three masses.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Once students can compare two masses they should Light, lighter, lightest, heavy, • Students handle objects and arrange
be given activities that involve more than two masses. heavier, heaviest, less mass, in order according to mass, eg block,
more mass, first, second, third, scissors and paint brush.
• As visual appearance can be misleading, students
last, least mass, smaller than,
need to hold objects. • Listen for statements such as these in
larger than.
the context of the activities.
• Initially large differences between the masses will
“The pin is the lightest.” “This is the heaviest.”
allow students to discriminate easily. As the
“This bottle is the heaviest.” “This has the greatest mass.”
differences between the masses become smaller
“This object has the smallest “This is the lightest.”
students will need to use the equal arm balance to
mass.” “This has the least mass.”
check their estimates.
“This object has the least mass.”
• Using a balance, students put objects
• Direct comparison between the objects to be ordered “Lego bricks are lighter than
in order from heaviest to lightest, eg
is used at first. Later, informal units can be used to both rice and pencils.”
an apple, a pear, a banana.
compare and order objects. “This one is heavier so I’ll put
• Ordering may involve more than three objects. If it next.”
students are investigating food they may be interested
in ordering five foods by mass and comparing this
with some other method of ordering the food. EVALUATION
• Use objects that students suggest or bring to school as • Did I provide enough opportunities
part of the activities. for all students to talk about what
they were doing?
• Were both boys and girls actively
involved?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES INFORMAL UNITS

GUESS AND CHECK Students use informal units to order three objects.
Each object in turn is placed on one end of the equal arm balance.
Students are given three objects and have to find which is the An informal unit is chosen and the three masses are determined.
heaviest. Allow students to estimate by hefting two at a time, then Record in a table.
check estimates by means of an equal arm balance.
With practice, the number of items can be increased. Object Mass
The activity should then be extended to involve the ordering from
Pencil 5 bottle tops
heaviest to lightest of three objects. Initially, objects could be
everyday objects of different appearance. Later, three containers of
Eraser 11 bottle tops
identical appearance could be filled with three different
substances, eg sand, corks and flour. Ruler 9 bottle tops
EVERYDAY OBJECTS
Relate the ordering of mass to everyday situations such as “The eraser is the heaviest, followed by the ruler and the pencil is
shopping. Consider items sold in various sizes, eg hammers. lightest.”
Consider materials sold in packages of different sizes, eg washing
powder. This work could be linked with money problems involving DIFFERENT INFORMAL UNITS
best buys. Discuss goods sold in packets labelled “economy size”,
“family size”, etc. Students use an equal arm balance to measure the mass of an
Discuss the dimensions of packets which make them appear larger. object in various informal units, eg “The box is balanced by three
Why is the most efficient shape, the cube, not the most popular bolts, twenty-five cotton reels or eight marbles.”
shape with manufacturers?

RESOURCES
Equal arm balance, coat hangers, packets, bags, pencils, eraser, rule, bolts, cotton reels, marbles, nails, stones, Lego bricks, blocks, cubes,
sand, rice, beans, flour, bottle tops, shells, gumnuts, leaves.

159
MASS 9
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
A standard unit is needed for communicating a uniform The student is able to
measure of mass. • demonstrate an awareness of the need for a standard unit.

CONTENT
Awareness of the need for a standard unit.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• During the work with informal units students should More than, the difference Ask students to
come to appreciate the need for a uniform mass unit. between, few, is balanced by,
• measure the mass of an object using
They will find that some of the informal units used standard unit, same as,
any informal unit and to compare
are not uniform and that different measurers result compare, heavier than, lighter
their results with those of other
from the use of different units. than.
groups
• The need for and the use of a standard mass measure
“I needed more bottle tops than
can be compared with the development of formal • explain the need for a standard unit.
bolts to make them balance.”
units of measure in other measurement sub-strands, ie
Length 7, Area 6, Temperature 6, Volume 10. “When I use big pebbles, I only
• Use incidental opportunities that arise during the day need a few. When I use little
to focus on the need for a standard unit, eg students ones, I need a lot.”
could discuss the relationship between different sized “I used my blocks to measure
packets of the same goods at the class shop. my pencil case. Emma used
• The use of a standard unit of measure allows students shells to measure hers.”
to compare accurately their own measurement results EVALUATION
with those of other students. It also has the advantage “This one is heavier because it
of allowing students to judge the amount of difference takes more shells to balance it.” • Were the activities practical enough?
in mass between objects. • Did the activities stimulate student
• By using a standard unit students can communicate interest?
meaningfully to others the mass of an object.
• Did student-to-student discussion take
• Teachers need to engage the students in discussion
place?
and debate to decide on a class standard unit. As
students generate a number of alternatives they need
to consider the advantages of using the kilogram as a
standard unit.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES CLASS STANDARD UNIT

BOTTLE TOPS AND BOLTS
Students measure the mass of an object using bottle tops and
record the result. They then measure the same mass in bolts, corks
and other informal units, recording results in a graph or table and
discussing the differences in the results.
During discussions, students might suggest that the class agree on
one unit for its mass measuring activities. Students may agree with
this suggestion and explore the idea of a class standard unit by
measuring many common items. This information can be recorded
on a chart and displayed. Students could write conclusions they
make using this information.

BIG AND LITTLE STONES

Measure the mass of an object using a mixed collection of pebbles.
Record the result. Repeat using different pebbles. Discuss any
difference. Repeat using large pebbles. Repeat using small
pebbles. Discuss the disadvantages of having the pebble as the
standard unit of mass.

RESOURCES
An equal arm balance, pebbles, bottle tops, bolts, shells, sticks, pine cones.

160
MASS 10
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
A formal unit for measuring mass is the kilogram. The student is able to
• compare the mass of an object with a one kilogram mass
• state the mass of an object in kilograms and half kilograms.
CONTENT
The kilogram as a formal unit.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• In the Systeme Internationale (SI), the base unit for Kilogram, less than one Ask students to
mass is the kilogram. kilogram, about one kilogram, • list items which have a stated mass of
more than one kilogram, half a one kilogram
• Students will probably have met the term “kilogram”
kilogram, record, check,
at home or while shopping. For example, they may • obtain a balance using an equal arm
estimate, actual mass.
have used the bathroom scales or observed the balance with materials such as rice,
purchase of items sold in kilograms or half kilograms. “I weighed my shoes and found nails, sinkers and corks
they have a mass of one
• To develop estimation skills the students need to be • determine how many objects such as
kilogram.”
familiar with both the kilogram mass and the material bolts are required to balance 1 kg
“The mass of this book is more
being measured. Therefore experiences will be needed
than one kilogram.” • group objects into various categories,
in handling a one kilogram mass, comparing the mass
“The mass of the dictionary is eg “About 1 kg”, “More than 1 kg”,
of objects with 1 kg by hand, checking with a balance
about one kilogram.” “Less than 1 kg”
and balancing a variety of materials with a 1 kg mass.
“Sausages are cheaper per
• With practice, the activities can be extended to • divide 1 kg of sand into two half
kilogram than steak.”
comparing the mass of an object with half kilogram, 2 kilogram lots.
When recording half a
kg and 3 kg masses.
kilogram, write in words at first,
eg “The mass of the stones is
half a kilogram.” EVALUATION
The abbreviation for kilogram is • Were parents informed about and
kg, ie 7 kg. involved with the work?
• Was there enough equipment?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
PACKAGES
BOLTS AS STANDARDS
• Make a list of items found at home that are packaged in
Provide student groups with numbers of bolts of various sizes with amounts of 1 kg.
which to measure the mass of any common object such as a
chalkboard duster, a vase or a book. Having obtained different • Visit a supermarket and list items sold in 1 kg amounts.
answers, students discuss the problems associated with the bolt as • Make a collection of packages and/or labels showing 1 kg
a standard unit. amounts.
MAKING MASS UNITS • Find out approximately how many pieces of various fruits
make a kilogram, eg “There were five apples in a kilogram of
Students prepare standard sized mass units by filling containers
apples.” Make a display of results.
with sand, sawdust, metal, foam, etc. Suitable containers include
plastic bags, small plastic containers, tissue boxes, match boxes
and margarine tubs. These containers, once filled, should be 1 KG, 2 KG, 3 KG MASSES
carefully sealed and labelled, eg “1 kg”, “half kilogram”. Sets of • Find objects that have a mass of between one and four
standard masses made from brass, cast iron or plastic are available kilograms such as a telephone book, a pot plant, half a brick, a
for purchase. sticky tape dispenser. Students estimate the mass of each object
and check estimates using a balance. Record results in a table.
MORE OR LESS THAN 1 KG
• Label items around the room as 2 kg, 3 kg, etc.
Given a wide variety of objects, sort these into three groups, “Less
than 1 kg”, “More than 1 kg” and “About 1 kg”, by comparing
each object with a standard one kg mass by hefting. Check using a INVESTIGATIONS
balance. Repeat for half a kilogram. Ask students to estimate and then check using library resources the
mass of a new-born child, the average ten-year-old child, a sheep,
CONSERVATION
an elephant, litre of water, etc.
Divide one kilogram of plasticine or clay into several pieces. Is the
total mass of the pieces less than, more than or about 1 kg? Check
with a balance.
Mould 1 kg of plasticine into a new shape. Has its mass changed?

RESOURCES
An equal arm balance, sand, polystyrene, plastic bags, containers, plasticine, Centicubes, Lego bricks, Duplo bricks, marbles, fruit,
vegetables, box of chalk, tape dispenser, pot plant, half a brick, telephone books, foam rubber, sawdust, tissue boxes, standard 1 kg mass,
clay, corks, rice.

161
MASS 11
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
A formal unit for measuring mass is the gram. The student is able to
• recognise and discuss the need for a unit smaller than the kilogram
• locate the mass of an object between 100 g divisions.
CONTENT
The gram as a formal unit.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Allow students to discover that often they cannot Less than one hundred grams, Ask students to
measure the mass of an object using only 1 kg and more than five hundred grams,
• demonstrate and state the need for a
half kilogram masses. They will then perceive the about three hundred grams.
unit smaller than the half kilogram
need for a smaller unit of measure.
“It’s less than half a kilogram.”
• demonstrate the relationship between
• The shape or size of an object may influence the “It is about as heavy as the
masses in a set of standard masses, eg
student’s judgement of its mass. hundred gram mass.”
100 g is lighter than 500 g
“The mass of the book is more
• The kilogram is the basic SI unit of mass and is equal 500 g is lighter than 1 kg
than one kilogram and one
to 1000 grams. The gram is the mass of water 1000 g is heavier than 1/2 kg
hundred grams but less than one
occupying 1 cm3 under standard conditions. Hence 1
kilogram and two hundred • measure out 100 g, 500 g and 1 kg
L of water weighs 1 kg. Let the students discover this;
grams.” amounts of fluid and solid materials.
the practical ways of doing this offer a challenge.
Students should first record
mass measurements in
kilograms and grams, eg 1 kg
400 g.
Later they should write 1 400 g
or 1.4 kg. EVALUATION
The abbreviation for gram is g, Did I encourage students to discuss,
eg 7 g. question, describe, hypothesise and make
observations during and after the
activities?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
STANDARD MASSES
Give students the opportunity to investigate a set of standard 1 kg,
500 g and 100 g masses using a balance. Students need time to
discover that the two 500 g masses are equal and together balance
the 1 kg mass. Similarly, they should discover that five 100 g
masses balance one 500 g mass and so on.
Ask students which standard mass balances the half kilogram bag
of sand. Students check using a balance. Ask students how many
100 g masses balance the half kilogram bag of sand.
MEASURING
• Balance one 100 g mass with sand, rice or other continuous
material.
• Using the balance and one 100 g mass, prepare several bags or
containers of material that have a mass of 100 g. How many of
these 100 g bags are needed to balance the 1 kg mass? Check
using a balance. Label these bags and store with the sand bags.
• Find single objects that will balance 100 g, 200 g, 300 g and so
on up to 1 000 g. Record these on a chart.

THREE MASSES Mass Object

• Handle the 1 kg mass. Find objects that feel lighter. Check
using a balance. Repeat for different objects. 100 g Note book

• Handle the 500 g mass and the 1 kg mass separately. Find 200 g Drinking glass
objects which feel heavier than 500 g but lighter than 1 kg.
Check using a balance.
• Handle the 100 g mass. Find objects that feel lighter than 500 g
but heavier than 100 g.
PACKAGED GOODS
MAKE YOUR OWN STANDARD MASS SET • Discuss why sugar is sold in kilograms yet jam is sold in
Students make their own standard 100 g, 200 g and 500 g masses grams.
using matchboxes, metal tins or small bottles filled with tacks or • Investigate the relative cost of packets of various sizes.
nails. These should then be sealed and labelled. Students should use a calculator to work out the cost per 100 g
of a product sold in several different packet sizes.

RESOURCES
An equal arm balance, 100 g, 400 g and 1 kg standard masses, plastic bags, sand, pebbles, rice, sugar, salt, jars.

162
MASS 12
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
A formal unit for measuring mass is the gram. The student is able to
• measure the mass of an object under 4 kg to the nearest gram.

CONTENT
The gram as a formal unit.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• During previous activities, students will have met Measure the mass, calculate the Ask students to
situations which measurement to the nearest gram is mass, estimated mass, measured
• measure out small amounts of
required. Not all balances are sufficiently sensitive to mass, gram, grams, more than
materials
measure to the nearest gram. ten grams, less than one
hundred grams, decimal, to the • find the actual mass of an object
• Check the equal arm balance for accuracy and adjust
nearest, approximately. using a combination of standard
as necessary.
masses
“The mass of the ball is more
• In any class, students will display a wide range of
than one hundred grams but less • estimate, measure and record the
manipulative skills. Provide adequate experiences to
than two hundred grams. It’s mass of objects in kilograms and
improve individuals students’ skills in measuring and
close to one hundred and fifty grams, eg 1 kg 100 g, then 1.1 kg or
estimating. The purpose of this unit is to give students
grams.” 1 100 g.
practice in measuring and recording the mass of
“”It weighed one kilogram and
objects up to 4 kg using a set of standard masses.
forty-five grams.”
These include 1 kg, 400 g, 100 g, 20 g, 10 g, 5 g and
1 g pieces. Students should eventually
record measurements in
• Teachers should be aware that many incidental
measuring activities can be completed outside of the – kilograms and grams EVALUATION
traditional Mathematics lesson. For instance, at news (1 kg 400 g)
• Were resources (time, space,
time, the masses of items brought to school by – grams (1400 g) materials, people) used effectively?
students could be investigated. – kilograms (1.4 kg).
• Were incidental opportunities used to
• The mass of one Centicube is close enough to one Link with work on decimals. interest students in the mass of small
gram to give adequate accuracy. objects?
• Did I facilitate student-to-student
discussion?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
MEASURING AND CALCULATING
• Students measure the mass of four marbles and hence calculate
the mass of a) two marbles, b) one marble, c) six marbles.
GUESS AND CHECK
Students estimate in grams the mass of a cup of flour, rice, sand,
macaroni, marbles, polystyrene beads, etc, then check their
estimates using an equal arm balance.

PROBLEM SOLVING TEN GRAMS

• Students measure the mass of each of three parcels and
calculate the difference in the masses of the parcels.
• Given only 100 g and 10 g masses, students determine how to
balance 320 g of a cooking ingredient. As an extension the
same problem could be set with 100 g and 30 g masses.
Students find the number of the following items needed to balance
10 g: paper clips, drinking straws, corks, interlocking cubes, 1c
coins, thumbtacks, matches, toothpicks, etc.
Students estimate and then measure to answer questions such as
“Do thirteen beans have a mass greater than 10 g?”

MASS HUNT
INTERLOCKING CUBES
Students find and record items that have a mass of 1 g, 5 g, 10 g,
Students build a shape from 50 interlocking cubes and estimate its 50 g, 100 g, 500 g and 1 kg.
mass. Check using a balance. Estimates of the mass of shapes
made from different numbers of cubes should now be more RECIPES
accurate. Record results in a table.
Students collect and display recipes with quantities shown in
No. Cubes Estimated Cost Actual Mass grams.
50
EGGS
20 Students compare the masses of a dozen large, medium and small
36 eggs. Discuss value for money.

MASS OF WATER
Students measure the mass of 250 mL, 100 mL, 50 mL, etc of
water and hence predict the mass of 1 mL.

RESOURCES
Equal arm balance, paper clips, drinking straws, corks, Centicubes, coins, thumbtacks, headless matches, toothpicks, cotton reels,
marbles, polystyrene beads, flour, sand, rice, Lego bricks, calculators, set of standard masses.

163
MASS 13
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Instruments have been devised to measure mass. The student is able to
• examine and use compression scales and balances
• measure net and gross mass
CONTENT
Measuring devices.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Net mass is the measure of contents only. Gross mass
is the mass of contents and container.
• When purchasing spring balances and compression
scales, check the range of possible readings and that
only SI units appear on the scale.
• Students should have experience with a variety of
devices such as kitchen scales, bathroom scales, shop
scales, electronic scales. Scales are weighing devices
since they depend on gravity. A balance should give
the same results independent of gravity, eg on the
moon. The unit of weight is the same as for force, the
newton. Mass and weight have become
interchangeable in everyday usage.
• Spring balances are easily damaged if overloaded.
Students should estimate before measuring to ensure
that the correct strength balance has been chosen.
• Scales are not recommended for students in the early
years of schooling. The readings from a dial are often
meaningless numbers for young children and are not
associated with the masses.
Net mass, gross mass, spring
balance, scales, calibration,
division, kilograms, grams, dial.
“I can weigh myself on the
bathroom scales.”
“The net mass of the breakfast
cereal is written on the packet.”
Ask students to
• find the mass of a container and the
mass of its content
• use various devices to measure mass
• select and use an appropriate device
having considered its working range,
the shape of the object, the mass of
the object and the mass of the
material.
EVALUATION
• Did all the students participate in the
activities?
• Did all students have opportunities to
discuss their findings?
• Were there sufficient resources to
complete activities?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
TINS AND PACKETS
Students collect tins and packets which show net or gross mass. If
a full packet is available, have students measure the mass of the
contents and compare the result with the mass on the packet.
Discuss the advertising of net versus gross mass from the
consumer’s point of view.
CONSTRUCTING A SPRING BALANCE
Hang a light bucket from the end of a spring. Mark a zero point on
a piece of paper next to the bottom of the spring. Place a 1 kg
mass (or whatever suits the strength of the spring) in the bucket
and mark this mass on the paper. Divide the interval between the
zero and the 1 kg marks equally and mark in 100 g multiples.
Check the accuracy of the scales using standard masses. Use the
scales to find the mass of various objects.
INVESTIGATION
Ask students to suggest a way of measuring the mass of a pet, eg
the student holds the pet and stands on the scales. Then the student
is weighted separately. Subtraction gives the mass of the pet.
MASS IN SPORT
Students collect information about sports in which weight
divisions exist, eg boxing, junior Rugby.
CHOOSING THE INSTRUMENT
Students suggest suitable devices for measuring the mass of a
variety of things, eg people, an envelope, medicine.
CHOOSING THE UNIT
Students suggest suitable mass units for recording the mass of the
things in the previous activity.

MASS AND HEALTH

Students discuss health charts which link recommended weight
with a given height. Mention should be made that a range of
weights is given rather than just one weight for a given height.
Discuss the problems of being overweight or underweight, being
sensitive to the feelings of the students.

MASS IN THE COMMUNITY

List mass measuring devices used in the local area, eg at the post
office, shops, a weighbridge.

RESOURCES
Equal arm balance, spring balance, bathroom scales, kitchen scales, standard masses, packets from food stuffs, containers, rice, flour,
feathers, paper clips, polystyrene beads.

164
MASS 14
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
A formal unit for measuring mass is the tonne. The student is able to
• recognise and discuss the need for the tonne
• find examples of masses measured in tonnes.
CONTENT
The tonne as a formal unit.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• The purpose of this unit is to develop awareness of Tonne, tonnes, displaced Ask students to
the tonne. The tonne is mentioned in everyday usage tonnage.
• convert masses expressed in
and will be familiar to most students, even if they do
“Our family car has a mass of a kilograms to masses expressed in
not know its relationship to the kilogram.
bit more than one tonne.” tonnes
• 1 tonne equals 1 000 kg. “The school bus has a mass of
• convert masses expressed in tonnes to
three point eight tonnes, about
• The tonne should be introduced to students as a masses expressed in kilograms
the same as an elephant.”
convenient name for 1 000 kg which avoids large
“The largest ocean liners • give reasonable estimates of the
numbers.
displace a mass of about masses of trucks, cars and ships.
• Students should develop estimating skills so that they seventy thousand tonnes of
can give masses of the right order of magnitude when water.”
asked the mass of trucks, railway carriages or cars.
The abbreviation for tonne is t,
• Local industry could provide a source for the study of eg 75 t.
measurement in tonnes, eg on weighbridges, cranes
and hoists.

EVALUATION
• Have students’ understandings of
mass been applied in other
curriculum areas such as Social
Studies?
• Did I ask open-ended questions to
encourage problem solving?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
ESTIMATION
FINDING EXAMPLES OF MASSES MEASURED IN • Students estimate the mass of a load of sand in a small truck,
TONNES etc, before it is driven onto a weighbridge.

• Visit a weighbridge, a railway goods office, produce market or
a factory. Note the working of scales. Note load limits written
in tonnes.
• Find examples of road signs which mention tonnes, eg “LOAD
LIMIT ON BRIDGE 3 t”.
• Students collect information on the production of such
commodities as wheat and coal. Record on a wall chart.
• Students collect brochures on cars and trucks which mention
the mass in tonnes.
ANIMALS
• Students estimate the mass of a full load of ready-mixed
concrete. Check by asking a driver or ringing the company.
INVESTIGATIONS
• Have students investigate the number of students required to
balance a one-tonne truck, an elephant, etc.
• Find the total mass of the students in the class in tonnes by
weighing each student in kilograms and converting to tonnes.
Ask students to make up sentences relating their total mass to
everyday things, eg “The mass of 6B students would balance a
small car on a see-saw.”

As part of a visit to the zoo or museum find the masses of very
large animals, eg elephants, blue whales, dinosaurs. Have students
make a wall chart showing a picture of the animal accompanied by
a tag giving its mass. This activity could be linked with studies of
speed, length and volume.
• Students consider load restrictions on aircraft. For example, if a
jumbo jet can lift 24 t of luggage, how much luggage could
each of 300 passengers be allowed, on average?

MASS BY DIFFERENCE
Visit the local tip or trucking firm and observe this method of
finding the load carried by a truck.

RESOURCES
Reference books, education officers (at the zoo, etc), local industries and businesses, car handbooks and sales brochures.

165
 TEMPERATURE
SUMMARY OF OBJECTIVES
TEMPERATURE 1
• describe objects as “hot” or “cold”
• describe the day as hot or cold
• sort collected pictures into “hot” and “cold” categories
TEMPERATURE 2
• compare the temperatures of two objects
• identify cooler and warmer objects and places
TEMPERATURE 3
• recognise the limitations of using the senses to measure
temperature
• discuss and order the temperature of three objects
• recognise the need for a device to measure temperature
TEMPERATURE 4
• observe, describe and record what happens to the liquid in a
thermometer
• compare and order the temperature of liquids and objects using
an unscaled thermometer
166
TEMPERATURE 5
• make a scale for a thermometer
• measure and record temperatures using an informal scale
TEMPERATURE 6
• recognise and discuss the disadvantages of using differently
scaled thermometers
• recognise and discuss the need for a standard unit
TEMPERATURE 7
• estimate, measure and record temperatures in degrees Celsius
• measure and graph changes in temperatures
• calculate differences in temperature using degrees Celsius
TEMPERATURE 8
• use various thermometers
• describe the differences in design between various thermometers
• describe the use of various thermometers
TEMPERATURE 1
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Temperature is a measure of the hotness or coldness of an The student is able to
object. • describe objects as “hot” or “cold”
• describe the day as hot or cold
CONTENT • sort collected pictures into “hot” and “cold” categories.
Awareness of the attribute of temperature.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Before coming to school students will have had a Hot, cold, warm, cool, very hot, Ask students to
variety of informal learning experiences about really cold, steaming, bubbles,
• draw things in the classroom, school
temperature. During the day students will have many icy, freezing, shivering, burning,
or home that are hot or cold
opportunities for feeling differences in temperature. sticky, sweating, boiling, frosty,
Teachers need to use these incidental activities, eg snowy, chilly, humid, wet, dry, • choose clothes for a hot day or a cold
standing near the heater, putting on jumpers, washing rainy, cloudy. day
hands, etc, to discuss the effects of hotness or “The ice block was really cold.” • name things that can be either hot or
coldness. “My hands are cold.” cold at different times, eg shower,
• Incidental experiences need to be supplemented with “I feel cold.” milk.
planned activities to refine and develop “This cup is hot.”
“It’s hot today.”
understandings, knowledge and skills.
“This water must be very hot
• This unit could be integrated with Science to develop because it’s giving off steam.”
the skills of classifying, hypothesising, discussing and
Students should be encouraged
labelling.
to talk about what they are
• Teachers need to ensure that when introducing doing when working
extremes of temperature, eg hot water, safety individually, in pairs, in small
EVALUATION
precautions are observed. groups and in whole class
situations. • Did all the students in the group have
• The development of language is a major emphasis an opportunity to discuss their
throughout the work on temperature. Teachers may find that students
investigations?
from non-English backgrounds
have difficulty in describing • Did students enjoy the activities?
objects in words other than
“hot” or “cold”, eg warm, cool
or icy.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES CLASSIFICATION

AT HOME, AT SCHOOL Students cut out pictures and classify them according to whether
they depict situations that are cold or situations that are hot.
Situations occur at home and at school where parents and teachers
use language related to temperature. MIME
Students may be Students act out how they would behave if they were
- warned not to touch a hot object - having a hot/cold drink
- asked to put on a jumper
- observing steam rising from a kettle, a bath or an iron - getting out of a warm bed on a cold day
- running about, skipping - walking barefoot on hot ground.
- touching hot, cold, warm objects
- getting out of a warm bed on cold days THE WEATHER
- having a warm bath Discuss each day in terms of its temperature. Ask students how the
- standing near a fire or heater weather makes them feel. Keep a pictorial record of the
- opening the refrigerator or freezer temperature each day.
- eating ice-cream, bread, hot potatoes
- walking on frosty ground
- cooking scones, chocolate crackles.
All of the activities above can assist in the development of a
student’s understanding of temperature.

SENSORY EXPERIENCES
Have students stand near the heater in the classroom, then move
slowly backwards. Tell them to stop and mark the spot where they
no longer feel the heat.
Students investigate places about the school that seem hot and
those that seem cold. Make a class list and discuss some possible
reasons, eg oven in the canteen.
Repeat the similar investigations at home and report findings.
Students can handle an ice cube, feel hot air from a hair dryer, etc.
Discuss their reactions to heat and cold.
HANDS ON FACE
Have students put their hands on their faces to feel their
temperature. Tell them to rub their hands together as fast as they
can, then put their hands on their faces again and describe what
has happened.
HANDS IN WATER
Have the students put their hands in containers of warm and cold
water. Ask them to describe what they feel. The student or teacher
records feelings in writing to make a class book.

RESOURCES
Dressing up clothes, containers of liquid, magazines, newspapers, heater, ice cubes, kettle, iron, hair dryer.

167
TEMPERATURE 2
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Temperature of objects can be compared. The student is able to
• compare the temperatures of two objects
• identify cooler and warmer objects and places.
CONTENT
Comparison of two temperatures.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Up until now students have been focusing on the use Compare, shade, shaded, shady, Ask students to
of the words “hot” or “cold”. In this unit encourage as hot as, as cold as, change,
• Fill one container with water from a
students to use comparative language, season, hotter than, colder than,
cold tap and another with lukewarm
eg “This is hotter than that. warmer than, cooler than,
water.
This is a lot cooler.” melting, frozen, freezing, not as
Ask students to compare the
Students from non-English speaking backgrounds hot, not as cold, getting hotter,
temperatures of the water in both
need many opportunities to develop comparative getting colder, temperature.
containers and describe their findings.
language.
“The tiled floor feels colder
• Ask the student
• Use both the “inside” and the “outside” environment than the carpet.”
“Which do you think is colder?”
to find cool and warm objects. “My hands feel warmer than
“Which do you think is hotter?”
yours.”
• Students should work in small groups to promote “What would happen if you put ice in
“This is as hot as that.”
discussion and clarification of understandings. here?”
“This container isn’t as hot as
“How do you know?”
• Parents and health care workers may be invited to talk that one.”
to small groups of students about safety in the home “That piece of metal feels hotter
involving “hot” things, eg boiling water, hot stoves, than the pencil.”
heaters. “My hands are hotter now than
they were before lunch.” EVALUATION
“It’s still hot.” • Did all the students in the group have
“It isn’t hot anymore.” an opportunity to participate actively?
• To what extent did I promote
discussion by posing open-ended
rather than closed questions?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
SORTING
WATER TRAY
Students are given a selection of pictures. Encourage students to
Fill a tray with water. The students feel the water. The tray is put give reasons for the groups the pictures have been sorted into.
in the sun for ten minutes. The students now feel the water and
describe the difference. Students identify items in the pictures as “hot” or “cold’. They
then compare these pictures using statements such as
This activity is repeated with the tray being put in the freezer for “This looks hotter than that.”
ten minutes. “This looks colder than that.”

SEASONAL CHANGES BOOKS

Students discuss seasonal foods, clothes, games and sports.
HOT AND COLD DAYS
Students discuss the things they do and the places they go on
warmer (hotter) days and cooler (colder) days.
Libraries contain many picture books which are based on a
temperature theme. The illustrations in such books are an
indication of how nature responds to seasonal changes.
Books which show Christmas in Australia can be compared with
those showing Christmas in cold climates.

SUNNY AND SHADY PLACES HOT AND COLD CLASSROOM AREAS

Place a tin in a sunny position in the classroom. Place another tin
in a shady position in the classroom. Blindfold one of the students.
Put the tins side by side and ask the student to tell which is hotter
or colder. Discuss how and why this happens to objects. Repeat
this activity with other objects, eg nails, pencils, plastic bottles,
stones.
WEATHER CHART
Make up a class weather chart for a week or more. Students
compare one day to another. Try to develop student language
through careful comments and questions.
Students are given some blue and some red pieces of paper. They
stick these pieces onto the cool and warm parts of the
classroom/school. They are asked to describe and compare two
temperatures using places where the shapes have been placed, eg
red shape on window, blue shape on cupboard.
“The window is hotter than the cupboard.”
“The tile isn’t as hot as the carpet.”
“The ruler feels warmer than the tile.”
Have students work in small groups to compare their findings.
Discuss, label and display the findings of each group.

RESOURCES
Red and blue pieces of paper, containers of cold and lukewarm water, picture books, magazine pictures.

168
TEMPERATURE 3
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Establishing the need for a device to measure
The student is able to
temperature.
• recognise the limitations of using the senses to measure temperature
• discuss and order the temperature of three objects
CONTENT • recognise the need for a device to measure temperature.
Awareness of the need for a temperature measuring
device.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• The purpose of this unit is to have students investigate Hot, hotter, hottest, cold, colder, Ask students to
the disadvantages of gauging temperatures according coldest, warm, warmer,
• list, draw or write about situations
to their own perception. warmest, cool, cooler, coolest,
where there are problems in
about the same, temperature,
• Students will need to realise that memory is not a measuring the temperature of
thermometer, isn’t as hot as,
reliable way to gauge temperature and, therefore, the something by feel
much warmer than.
need for a measuring device exists. Perception of
• tell about situations that arise where
temperature is also unreliable. “This is hotter than that.”
people measure temperature other
“This is not as hot as that.”
• Teachers should allow for the fact that not all students than by feeling, eg how hot the oven
“This is the hottest one.”
will have had the necessary background experience to is to cook the biscuits
“I can’t remember how warm
be able to accurately estimate the temperature of
the water was yesterday.” • discuss and order the temperatures of
scenes, photographs and pictures.
“It’s hard to compare them if three objects, eg iced water, a book
• Many activities in this unit can be integrated with they are not together.” and a hot drink.
themes in other curriculum areas. This approach will “Was yesterday hotter than
assist in the development of concepts and the today?”
refinement and extension of student language. “Tao said this is cool but I think
• Steam is a gaseous form of water. Its temperature is in it is cold.”
excess of 100°C It is invisible and can cause severe “First it felt cold, now it feels a EVALUATION
burns. The white vapour over hot water or ice fields is bit warmer.” • Were students able to use and
properly called “water vapour”. Accept students’ use of informal understand comparative language?
language to describe the • Did the range of activities challenge
temperature of liquids, objects the students?
and scenes, eg “Today is
freezing.”

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
THREE OBJECTS
Students are given three objects, eg a cold drink, a wooden block
and a tin. They are asked to feel the three objects and arrange them
in order from hot to cold.
Describe the relationships among the three objects.
Why did you arrange them in that way?
How could you have arranged them differently?
FAVOURITE DRINKS
What are your favourite drinks?
How cold or hot do you like them?
Make a list of favourite drinks. Put them into three groups. Make
up names for the groups according to temperature.
Repeat for favourite meals.
LOOKING HOT, LOOKING COLD
Students investigate when temperature should not be judged by
feel, eg boiling liquids, hot coals, dry ice.
How do we recognise objects as being extremely hot or cold?
What are some of the precautions that should be taken?
PICTURES
Students are given a set of three pictures and are asked to arrange
them according to likely temperature. such a set of pictures might
include an ice-cream, a tennis ball and a cup of coffee.
CHANGING CHOCOLATE
These activities focus on the effect of heat on solid chocolate.
Discuss with students the fact that a substance in its liquid form is
hotter than in its solid form.
• Each student places a piece of chocolate on their tongue and
records the changes as they occur. Students then explain what
happened to the chocolate and discuss individual results to
decide why.
• Students heat solid chocolate pieces by placing them in a
container over very hot water until they melt. Pour some of the
liquid chocolate over scoops of ice-cream. Discuss what
happens and why.
ESTIMATING TEMPERATURE
Students set up an investigation by filling containers with ice-cold
water, tap water and warm water.
Students place on hand in the ice-cold water and judge the
temperature. They then place the other hand in the warm water and
judge the temperature. Finally, they place both hands in the tap
water. Ask students to describe what they feel. Can they judge the
water temperature now? Discuss results.

RESOURCES
Various containers, tiles, tins, pictures from magazines, wooden blocks, cold drinks, chocolate, hot water, ice-cream, ice cubes.

169
TEMPERATURE 4
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
A thermometer is used to measure temperature. The student is able to
• observe, describe and record what happens to the liquid in a thermometer
• compare and order the temperature of liquids and objects using an
CONTENT unscaled thermometer.
The principle of the thermometer.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• This unit of work emphasises the use of unscaled
thermometers, ie thermometers that are not marked on
the outside glass.
• Students discuss and develop understandings of the
operation of an unscaled thermometer and then use it
for comparing and ordering a variety of temperatures.
• If an unscaled thermometer is not available stick
masking tape over the numerals on a scaled
thermometer.
• Students should understand that an increase in
temperature relates to the increase in length of the
column of fluid in a thermometer.
• Students should be involved in activities which
provide them with opportunities to estimate
temperatures through discussion.
• Mercury thermometers are potentially dangerous. Use
only alcohol thermometers. Ensure care is taken in
handling hot thermometers.
• Clinical or spirit thermometers may shatter if placed
in hot water. They should only be used to measure
temperatures within their scale range (refer to safety
rules given in Temperature Unit 6).
Bulb, alcohol, thermometer,
falling, rising, taller, smaller,
column, liquid, coloured thread,
difference in temperature.
“When I put the thermometer in
warm water, the coloured line
goes up.”
“When Zoe dips the
thermometer in cold water, the
coloured line goes down.”
“The top of the coloured line
show how hot or cold it is.”
“This container of water is
hotter than that one because it
made a longer line on the
thermometer.”
“This is the hottest; it has the
longest column.”
“This is the coldest; it has the
shortest coloured line.”
Students will develop precise
terminology related to
temperature through listening to
and speaking with teachers,
parents and their peers, in the
context of activities.
• Give students a container of warm
water and an unscaled thermometer.
The students put the thermometer in
the water and describe what happens
to the liquid in the tube and why.
• Give students three containers of
liquid at varying temperatures, eg tap
water, lukewarm water, water that has
been in the sun for a time. Give
students an unscaled thermometer
which they use to order the containers
according to the level of liquid in the
tube.
EVALUATION
• Have measurement skills,
understanding and knowledge been
applied in other curriculum areas, eg
Health Studies, Science and Craft?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES MAKE YOUR OWN THERMOMETER

Students examine a teacher made thermometer and then make their
WHAT IS A THERMOMETER? own using a small bottle, a sealed stopper, a capillary tube and
Students examine an unscaled thermometer, discussing its use and coloured water.
construction.
Name or label parts, eg tube, bulb. N.B
This activity
UNSCALED THERMOMETER will only work
if a capillary
Students place an unscaled thermometer in direct sunlight for ten
tube is used.
minutes.
Discuss and record what happens to the liquid in the tube.
The thermometer is then placed in the shade for five minutes.
Students note what happens and comment on the difference in the
temperatures. Ask students to comment on the levels of liquid in Warm the bottle between the hands. Discuss what happens. Allow
the tube. the bottle to cool. Discuss what happens.

REFLECTED AND ABSORBED HEAT

OBSERVING AND COMPARING
Students observe what happens to the alcohol when a thermometer
is placed in cold or warm water. This activity should be repeated in
different liquids at various temperatures.
Investigations involving two containers of water at different
temperatures can be undertaken. Students decide by feel which is
the cooler. Place the unscaled thermometer in the cooler of the
two. Note the height of the column of liquid. Place the
thermometer in the other container and compare the difference in
height of the column of liquid. Discuss the relationship between
the temperature and the level of the liquid.
Students take two unscaled thermometers. Place one under a sheet
of white paper and the other under a sheet of black paper. Leave in
the sunlight for 30 minutes. Compare the heights of the liquid and
comment on the differences in temperature. Discuss what caused
these differences.
GLASS HOUSE
Place two thermometers in the sun, one in an inverted glass jar and
the other in a jar but not covered. Leave them for ten minutes and
then compare the thermometers. Observe and discuss the heights
of the liquid in the tubes. Repeat after 20 and 30 minutes. Do the
investigation at different times of the day. Can students relate
observations here to everyday life? For example, why is it hot in
the car in summer?

RESOURCES
Unscaled thermometers, containers, liquids, ice, glass capillary tubes, cork stoppers with holes, sheets of white and black paper, glass
jars, stopwatch, automatic timer.

170
TEMPERATURE 5
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Units for measuring temperature can be informal. The student is able to
• make a scale for a thermometer
• measure and record temperatures using an informal scale.
CONTENT
Temperature measurement with informal units.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• It is not possible to measure heat directly. Scale, label, word scale, number • Give students three or more items to
Temperature is a measure of the amount of heat. (numerical) scale, rise, fall, order in terms of their temperature.
Thermometers are instruments for measuring freezing, boiling. Ask students to predict the order
temperature. before using a thermometer. The
“Our scale’s different from
thermometer used should be
• Through their experiences using the unscaled yours.”
graduated with the student’s chosen
thermometers to compare temperatures and detect “We want a scale that shows
informal units.
rises and falls in temperature the students will realise very hot, hot, warm, cool, cold,
the need for a scale to measure the height of the very cold.”
liquid. “We need to change our scale
now.”
• Students should be encouraged to design their own
“I’ve labelled the scale on the
scales and units for measuring temperature through
thermometer.”
investigation and discussion.
“I’ve decided to use a coloured
• Before using their thermometers to measure scale on mine.”
temperature, the students should be encouraged to “Is two hotter than ten on your EVALUATION
predict whether the column will rise or fall and to scale?”
estimate the temperature. • Would more or less teacher
Ensure that students understand supervision assist learning?
• Discuss with the students the idea of a scale, eg an the meaning of the word “scale”
equal interval scale has uniform distances between • How did parents work with groups
in the context of temperature.
graduations. and assist with resources?

• Clinical or spirit thermometers may shatter if placed

in hot water. They should only be used to measure
temperatures within their scale range.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
PICTURES
Students are given a set of five pictures progressing from cold to
hot, eg ice-cream, orange juice, biscuit, cup of soup, boiling kettle.
Students are asked to arrange the pictures in sequence from coldest
to hottest. They discuss reasons for their arrangement.
VERY HOT, VERY COLD
A scale of “Very Cold-Cold-Cool-Warm-Hot-Very Hot” is
introduced or devised by the students. Such a scale is based on
arbitrary units. Students place the set of pictures on this scale.
A NEED FOR A SCALE
Students are given a thermometer attached to a piece of cardboard.
They discuss the need for a scale to measure the height of the
column. Students devise an informal scale for measuring
temperature.
These informally scaled thermometers are useful for measuring
temperatures in the environment. Many of the comparison and
ordering activities of the previous units can be repeated. Before
measurements are taken, students should predict if the column will
rise or fall and estimate the reading, eg “The thermometer in the
milk reads blue, so when I put in the coffee it’ll go up to red.”

NUMBER-LINE SCALE
Use a line scale to mark on the arbitrary units. Students discuss the
idea of uniform distances between markings.
Freezing

Very cold

Cold

Cool

Warm

Hot

Very hot

Boiling

This scale could also include the words “freezing” and “boiling”,
as above. Introduce numerals to the scale. Ask students to place
pictures or names of items on the scale.
Relate this scale to the numerical and descriptive settings on
household appliances such as electric frypans, blankets and irons.
IN THE CLASSROOM
Students use their thermometers to detect differences in
temperature in various parts of the classroom. Mark these on a
map and report findings to the group.

RESOURCES
Masking tape, marker pens, containers, different liquids at various temperatures, cardboard, unscaled thermometers, sets of pictures,
numerically and descriptively scaled household appliances, eg electric frypan, blanket, heater.

171
TEMPERATURE 6
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
A standard unit is needed for communicating a uniform The student is able to
measure of temperature. • recognise and discuss the disadvantages of using differently scaled
thermometers
CONTENT • recognise and discuss the need for a standard unit.
Awareness of the need for a standard unit.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Students will have noticed shortcomings with the use Standard unit, water Ask students to measure the temperature
of their individually or group calibrated temperature, scaled of a number of specified items, using a
thermometers, eg direct comparisons cannot be made thermometer, clinical thermometer marked with the class
using thermometers with different scales. thermometer, to measure the standard unit.
Additionally, small differences in temperature cannot temperature.
be recorded if the informal unit is too large.
“Our scale has on it
• Discuss with the students the following safety rules
– very high, high, warm, cool,
for thermometers:
cold, very cold.”
– handle with care to avoid breakage
– very hot, hot, warm, low.”
– store vertically with the bulb downwards and away
– nought, one, two, three, four,
from direct sunlight
five, six, seven, eight.”
– allow to reach air temperature after use, before
– boiling, hot, ordinary, cold,
storing
freezing.”
EVALUATION
– use to measure temperatures within their scale
Students should be encouraged
range, eg a clinical or spirit thermometer will • Did the students have the pre-
to discuss and decide on a
break if put in boiling water. requisite knowledge and skills for the
preferred class standard unit for
activities to be meaningful?
• Data students collect about temperatures around the investigations.
school at various times of the day can be tabulated
using spreadsheet/database software on the computer.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
RECORDING TEMPERATURE
DISCUSSING QUESTIONS Repeat a variety of activities from the previous units including a
Groups or the whole class discuss the problems of using number of temperature investigations around school.
individually marked thermometers. Measure and record each temperature using the class “standard”
Discuss difficulties that arose during measurement activities using thermometer. Students compare morning and afternoon
informally scaled thermometers in Unit 5. temperature measures and discuss the advantages of having a
Discuss ways of overcoming such difficulties. standard unit.
Ask students what would happen if thermometers with different
By the bubblers
Assembly hall
Library area
Canteen
Cupboard
Storeroom
Under trees

Ketut
scales were used by people in different cities and towns in
and
Australia. Discuss instances when it is not necessary to measure
Agung’s
accurately but important to be within a certain range, such as in
group
preparing a baby’s bottle.

CLASS STANDARD THERMOMETERS

Students agree on a class standard temperature unit and explain
Morning 2 4 3
their choice. They then use this standard unit to calibrate the class
thermometers.
Afternoon 4 5 5
Very hot
Hot
Class “standard” Difference 2 1 2
Warm
thermometer.
Cool
Descriptive Scale
Cold
Very cold SUN AND SHADE
Measure and record the temperature in the playground in the sun
and in the shade. Use a class “standard” thermometer. Repeat this
This can also be done by sticking a strip of masking tape over the activity using the same locations over a period of time, eg four
scale on a Celsius thermometer and calibrating it according to the times in one day, over four days. Record results and comment on
class standard unit. Students use liquids such as hot coffee, iced- temperature differences in relation to the scale used. Discuss the
water and tap water to establish relative measures. results in a large group.

RESOURCES
Containers, liquids at different temperatures, thermometers, masking tape, database/spreadsheet software.

172
TEMPERATURE 7
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
A formal unit for measuring temperature is the degree The student is able to
Celsius. • estimate, measure and record temperatures in degrees Celsius
• measure and graph changes in temperatures
CONTENT • calculate differences in temperature using degrees Celsius.
The degree Celsius as a formal unit.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• A unit for temperature is the degree Celsius. The Degree Celsius, room Ask students to
abbreviation for “degrees Celsius” is °C. temperature, body temperature,
• measure the temperature of a
less than, more than, degrees,
• This scale was devised in 1742 by the Swedish container of liquid and record it in
boiling point, freezing point,
astronomer Anders Celsius. A reading of 0 units was degrees Celsius
maximum, minimum, predicted
assigned at the melting point of ice and a reading of
temperature, column, read a • use a thermometer to read the room
100 units at the boiling point of water, a centigrade
thermometer. temperature accurately
scale.
“It’s a bit less than twenty • measure the temperature changes in
• Mercury, spirit and metal thermometers are designed
degrees.” the classroom over a period of a day
to measure temperature indirectly by gauging the
“It’s a bit more than fifteen and a week and record results in the
expansion and/or contraction of a substance.
degrees.” form of a graph.
• Many of the activities involving informal units can be “The temperature of the
repeated using the Celsius thermometer. container is ten degrees.”
• Because of the different types and sizes of “The temperature is fifteen
thermometers available and the fine visual degrees Celsius.”
discrimination needed, young students often
EVALUATION
Written forms:
experience difficulty in reading a thermometer. “The temperature is sixteen • Did I closely observe the students and
degrees Celsius. Yesterday the discuss their actions and decisions
• Unscaled thermometers may be marked by sticking a
maximum temperature was with them?
strip of masking tape to the side and marking it with
felt pens. nineteen degrees Celsius. • Did I link this unit of work in
Tomorrow it is predicted to temperature with Science and Social
reach seventeen degrees Studies units, eg weather and
Celsius. seasons?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
WATER EXPERIMENTS
Working in groups, students immerse the bulb of an unscaled
thermometer into a container of ice and mark the point where the
liquid column rests as 0°C, Freezing Point (the uniform point for
the freezing of water). The teacher then places the thermometer
into boiling water and marks the resting point as 100°C, Boiling
Point. Close supervision of this activity will be necessary to ensure
safety.
Students divide the unscaled thermometers into ten points between
the 0°C and 100°C markings. These thermometers should be used
for informal temperature investigations and results recorded.
CELSIUS THERMOMETER
Students examine the scale on a Celsius thermometer and note that
the term given to the unit of measure is “degrees Celsius”.
COMPARING TEMPERATURES
Students have three containers of liquid marked A, B and C, at
different temperatures. Using a Celsius thermometer they measure
and record the temperature of each in order to make statements
about the relationships of the three containers. For example, “A is
the warmest with a temperature of fifteen degrees Celsius.”
CLASSROOM TEMPERATURE
Students use thermometers to measure and record the air
temperature in the classroom
- at floor level
- 2 m above the floor
- at ceiling level using a thermometer on a stick.
Discuss results and variations in readings.
RECORDING AND GRAPHING TEMPERATURES
Students measure rises and falls in temperature over a variety of
time spans (a day, a week, a term, etc) and record results in graph
format. Students formulate questions and use data from graphs to
answer. For example, “At which time was it hottest?” and “Does
air temperature vary greatly during the day/week/term?”
Students find the maximum and minimum temperatures for the
area where they live, over one month. Plot results on a graph using
lined or grid paper.
Fill a container with hot water. Place a thermometer in the water
and record the temperature every five minutes. Record the readings
on a graph.
INTERPRETING DATA
Students read temperature graphs and select various items of data,
eg hottest/coldest days, average temperature. Ask students to infer
why temperatures might vary from day to day. From newspaper
reports students collect data on temperatures recorded in cities
around the world.

RESOURCES
Thermometers, water, ice, containers, kettle, grid paper, newspaper, weather reports.

173
TEMPERATURE 8
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Instruments to measure temperature in a variety of ways The student is able to
have been devised. • use various thermometers
• describe the differences in design between various thermometers
CONTENT • describe the use of various thermometers.
The use of various thermometers and temperature scales.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Thermometers should be Negative, minus, climate, Ask students to
– handled with care to avoid breakage insulation, thermostat, cooking
– stored vertically with the bulb downwards and • nominate the approximate
thermometer, aquarium
away from direct sunlight temperature range of
thermometer, clinical
– allowed to reach air temperature after use and – the human body
thermometer, vacuum flask.
before storing – a winter’s day
– used to measure temperatures within their scale “The temperature at Jindabyne – a hot drink
range. (Before using a thermometer, students was minus three last night.”
should always estimate the temperature to be • use a number of different types of
measured to ensure that it is within its range.) Students should be encouraged thermometers to measure and record
• Clinical or spirit thermometers should not be placed to discuss their findings about temperatures.
in hot water. the operation and purpose of
• The normal body temperature is about 37°C. each thermometer they use.
• Students should have experience in examining and Students need to be familiar
using a variety of thermometers, eg clinical with the language of
thermometer, aquarium thermometer, cooking temperature and measurement
EVALUATION
thermometer. to participate in directed • Were library resources adequate to
• Much of the work on temperature and its effect can be activities, eg “Examine the..., enable the successful completion of
directly linked with Science, Social Studies, Craft and sketch the device..., note the research activities?
Language. difference..., record the
Themes which can be developed along with • Were research skills sufficiently
temperature..., measure the
temperature understandings include weather, fire, developed to enable individual
temperature...”.
sport, travel, animal habitats, food and hobbies. students to achieve success in
• Students could measure temperature change using research activities?
thermistor probes which are connected to a computer.
The computer can store the data and graph results.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
RESEARCH ACTIVITIES
THERMOMETERS Students find out about the work of Anders Celsius and the
Students collect and examine different thermometers, noting the historical development of the Celsius Scale. Similar research could
construction and scale of each. The differences found should be involve the work of Gabriel Fahrenheit and Lord Kelvin.
related to the specific use of each thermometer. Discuss ideas. Students select research topics which focus on temperature
understandings, eg thermostats, insulation, climates, climactic
A collection of thermometers could include zones, contraction and expansion, incubation, vacuum flasks,
– clinical thermometer evaporation, hot and cold blooded animals, temperature reports
– incubator thermometer and weather maps, droughts, wet/dry seasons, plants that grow in
sun/shade.
– aquarium thermometer
– cooking thermometer RECIPES
– wet and dry thermometer. Students look up their favourite recipes (cakes, biscuits, etc) and
Students measure and record temperatures using the different types find the temperature(s) at which they should be cooked. Have
of thermometers that they collect. students use these recipes in cooking activities.

TEMPERATURE MEASURING DEVICES
Students list everyday items of equipment which require
temperature measuring devices, eg motor vehicles, stoves and
hotplates, irons, refrigerators, heaters, air conditioners, electric
blankets, microwave ovens, incubators, dishwashers, washing
machines, clothes dryers, hair dryers.
Discuss how and why the temperature is regulated in each piece of
equipment.
Students examine the temperature setting device on a household
appliance, eg stove switch. Students sketch the switch, discuss the
temperature range and comment on the value of each calibration.
Compare and comment on the variety of results.
FROZEN FOODS
Investigate frozen foods packages by listing the temperature
recommendations. Which foods require coldest storage? Collate
information and record results.
PLANTS
Make terrariums from glass bottles and jars planted with seedlings
in a small depth of soil. Observe and record the effects of
temperature on the plants.
Record the temperature inside the terrarium at various times
throughout a day. Discuss how to regulate the temperature during
excessively hot/cold periods.
Arrange an excursion to a local nursery, botanical garden, parkland
or state forest to investigate the ways plants adapt to different
temperatures.

RESOURCES
Variety of thermometers, science tool kits and computer software, household appliances, reference books, recipe books, frozen food
packages, glass bottles and jars.

174
 TIME
SUMMARY OF OBJECTIVES

TIME 1 TIME 11
• use and understand terms like daytime, night-time, yesterday, • tell the time in one minute intervals using both analog and
today, tomorrow, all day, a long while, a little while, morning, digital clocks
afternoon

TIME 12
TIME 2 • compare seconds, minutes, hours, days, weeks and months
• sequence events within one day • select an appropriate unit for measuring time
• sequence events over more than one day

TIME 13
TIME 3 • recognise and read time using a.m. and p.m. notation
• use the names of the days of the week • read and interpret timetables
• identify special and significant times relevant to their daily lives

TIME 14
TIME 4 • recall time facts and the relationship between time units
• compare the durations of two or three events

TIME 15
TIME 5 • read and interpret timetables and time lines
• use informal units to show the passage of time • express 24 hour time in a.m./p.m. form and vice versa

TIME 6 TIME 16
• use a calendar to describe the day and date • operate and read a stopwatch correctly
• name and order the months of the year and the seasons

TIME 17
TIME 7 • understand what is meant by the speed of an object
• demonstrate an awareness of the duration of time related to an • determine the average speed of an object, given the necessary
hour, a minute and a second data
• read the instantaneous speed of a vehicle from a speedometer

TIME 8
• tell time on the hour on both digital and analog clocks TIME 18
• explain the basis of time measurement in terms of the
movement of the Earth around the Sun
TIME 9 • determine local time in various time zones of Australia
• tell the time on the half hour using digital and analog clocks

TIME 10
• read and write digital time in hours and minutes

175
TIME 1
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
The past, the present and the future are aspects of time. The student is able to
• use and understand terms like daytime, night-time, yesterday, today,
tomorrow, all day, a long while, a little while, morning, afternoon.
CONTENT
Awareness of concepts related to time.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Time activities should be related to the personal Morning, afternoon, today, Ask students to
experiences of students, eg “Today we are going to yesterday, tomorrow, now,
• discuss, draw or write about events in
the pool.” before, after, daytime, night-
the past, present or future
time, lunchtime, all day,
• Students need to develop a meaningful vocabulary of
morning tea, little lunch, • make night-time and daytime pictures
definite and indefinite terms, eg afternoon (definite), a
playlunch. using a variety of media.
long while (indefinite). Class news is a suitable time
to develop this language, which can be further “Gary and Nicky played Listen for student’s use of terms such as
encouraged by careful questioning. chasings at lunchtime.” night-time, daytime, yesterday, today,
“I like to play outside with my tomorrow, all day, a little while, a long
• Young students’ ideas of time revolve around
friend before teatime.” time ago.
themselves and their daily routine. Through this
“At night-time our cat sleeps Note general accuracy of usage.
routine a vocabulary is developed which will allow
inside.”
students to sequence events on a daily basis.
“I’m going to Penny’s house
• It is from early experiences which introduce ideas this afternoon and she’s coming
such as “before”, “after”, “how long”, “how soon”, to my place tomorrow.” EVALUATION
that the students gradually acquire the notion of the “In the daytime we go to • Did I use opportunity that arose
passage time and its measurement. school.” during the day to focus students’
• “Telling the time” and “timing” (bouncing a ball, “Tonight we’re going late night attention on the past, the present and
skipping, etc) are two quite different notions. One is shopping.” the future?
just “dial reading” and the other is counting in “Yesterday my brother was
• Did I encourage students to talk about
regular, short intervals. Both, however, assist students sick.”
their experiences?
in understanding the passage and measurement of “Today’s my name day.”
time.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES NIGHT-TIME WORKERS

ROLE PLAYING Discuss with students which jobs are done at night, during the day
or both. Invite a night-time worker to school to talk about working
Students can role play daytime and night-time activities, eg going at night.
to school, going to bed. Group role play activities for yesterday,
today and tomorrow. ANIMALS
Add pictures of night-time and daytime animals to the pictures on
CHART display. These might include
- owl and possum at night
Make a day and night chart by recording the students’ own ideas - echidna and farm animals during the day.
from group discussions.
PAINTING
NIGHT Students paint day time and night-time scenes and describe their
DAY work. The teacher writes descriptive comments and attaches them
to each painting.
Go to school
Wake up Go to bed MORNING AND AFTERNOON
Ride bike Have a bath
Design a variety of activities about morning/afternoon.
Have breakfast Eat dinner
Wash the dishes • On a bulletin board make a chart of morning and afternoon
Have lunch
Get ready for bed activities.
Play outside
Late night shopping • Make special signs and display around the classroom,
Go shopping
Watch TV Bedtime stories eg In the morning we have fitness exercises.
Signs and banners can be made using appropriate computer
These charts could be made using graphics software on computer.
software.
• Have a morning tea for someone/something special.
YESTERDAY, TODAY, TOMORROW • Make morning/afternoon mobiles with pictures of activities to
News time is an ideas session to develop concepts such as suit each time of day.
“yesterday”, “today” and “tomorrow”. This can be done by
questioning, eg “When did you see.......?” PICTURE SORTING
Students select a variety of daytime and night-time scenes from
Ask students what happened yesterday, what is happening today magazine pictures, photographs and books. Make an interesting
and what will/might happen tomorrow?
display on a bulletin board and label the pictures.

RESOURCES
Magazine pictures, photographs, books, paint, cardboard, graphics and sign making software.

176
TIME 2
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Events in time can be placed in a sequence. The student is able to
• sequence events within one day
• sequence events over more than one day.
CONTENT
Passage of time related to routine events in a day.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• When developing students’ understandings of time,
use real life situations to which they can relate.
• At this stage students will sequence events that
happen in the following ways:
– within a few minutes, eg “We walked to the
canteen, picked up the lunches and walked back to
class.”
– over a number of hours, eg “We drove to the zoo,
looked at the animals and took the ferry and train
home.”
– over a long time, eg “When I was a baby I crawled
around the floor, when I was bigger I could walk
and now I can ride my bike.”
• A graphics program could be used to print labels
depicting activities associated with different times of
the day.
All day, all night, this
afternoon, this morning, now,
next, first, last, today, yesterday,
tomorrow, playtime, home time,
lunchtime, little lunch, big
lunch.
“Let’s go to our cubby at
playtime.”
“Yesterday it was too wet to go
out at lunchtime but today it’s
OK.”
“How long is it to tea time?”
“How soon will we be going?”
“First Humpty Dumpty sat on
the wall, then he fell off.”
“I like having a muesli bar for
little lunch and my sandwiches
and fruit at big lunch.”
Ask students to
• arrange, in sequence, pictures or
photographs showing different times
of the day
• sequence events during the day, eg
- lunch time, recess, home time
- recess, library time, craft
• retell a familiar story in correct
sequence
• decide when specific events occur in
well known nursery rhymes, eg “Jack
fell down after he went up the hill.”
EVALUATION
• Were students given enough
opportunity to discuss their answers?
• Did the activities relate to students’
interests?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES MY LIFE

MY DAY Have students bring in baby and preschool photographs of
Photograph or have students draw different events during the day. themselves. Students can arrange and display them in interesting
Students sequence these pictures and match them with prepared ways. (A “Guess The Baby” game would be an enjoyable way of
labels. introducing this activities; students could discuss the ways in
which people change as they grow).
breakfast home time tea time lunch
after school play time school time morning tea STORY SEQUENCING
Collect simply sequenced comic strips. Cut them into separate
SCHOOL TIME frames and have students arrange them in correct sequence.
Discuss the sequence of events that happen at school, eg Tell a familiar story out of sequence. Have students retell it in the
“Did we have the health hustle before or after lunch?” correct sequence.
“Who used the dressing up clothes after you?” Make a set of cards for nursery rhymes, eg Humpty Dumpty on
“What did we do between assembly and lunch?” the wall, off the wall, all the King’s men. (These cards could be
drawn by students.) Ask students to order the cards in the correct
Photograph students at various stages of a construction activity
story sequence.
such as building a tower. Students sequence the photographs.
Computer programs are available that allow students to make
List the whole day’s activities on cardboard, eg Reading, Art,
comic strips. These can assist with sequencing activities.
Recess, Maths, Singing, Lunch, Games. Ask questions such as:
“What did we do after recess?”, “What did we do before Recess?” YESTERDAY, TODAY, TOMORROW
Students place activities in sequential order.
Fold a sheet of paper into three columns. Label the top of the
MATHS SINGING paper Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow. Have students draw pictures
about activities on the three days.
LUNCH READING GAMES
Yesterday Today Tomorrow
ART RECESS Yellow class Yellow class Yellow class
made paper are having will be going
puppets a story to the pool

RESOURCES
Pictures, photographs, picture sequence cards, cardboard, comic strips, display boards, nursery rhyme books.

177
TIME 3
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Time is an important social convention which may vary The student is able to
between cultures. • use the names of the days of the week
• identify special and significant times relevant to their daily lives.
CONTENT
Names of days, special days.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• The names of the days of the week are more Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Ask students to
meaningful to students when related to their Wednesday, Thursday, Friday,
• name the days of the week
experiences. Saturday, all day, today,
yesterday, tomorrow, last week, • order days of the week
• Students need to develop reference points within the
next week, this week, past, • talk about things they do on a certain
week, eg no school on Saturday and Sunday.
future, weekend. day
• Sunday is the first day of the calendar week. A week,
“On Wednesday we have • describe significant events that their
however, may begin on any day, eg “The week
assembly.” families celebrate.
beginning the fourth of May.”
“I stay at school all day.”
• Teachers should be aware of the multicultural nature “Today is Monday.”
of our society and be aware of the significant times in “Yesterday was Thursday.”
the year for different cultural groups. These could “It rained last weekend.”
include religious festival days, national days, sporting “How many days until the EVALUATION
events and anniversaries. weekend?”
• Did the students enjoy the activities?
• Did the students have the prerequisite
knowledge, skills and understandings
for the activities to be meaningful?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
DAYS OF THE WEEK
• Make special day books with pages headed, for example,
WHAT WE DO ON MONDAY.
• Make a large desk calendar for classroom display, showing
only the name of the day. Seven sticky labels, each with a day
of the week printed with a felt pen, could be placed on a
cylindrical tin inside a box. Students take turns each morning
to rotate the drum to the next day.
TODAY IS MONDAY
• Have five large cardboard signs on the classroom wall, each
showing a day of the school week. Under each sign, display
examples of student work done on that day.
DIARIES
Students draw pictures or write each day in a diary with the name
of the day marked at the top.
BOOKS
Find story books in the school library related to the telling of time
in various cultures, eg Aboriginal Dreamtime, Chinese year cycle,
Greek mythology.

WEATHER
A loop of paper attached to two rods and placed in a box Under signs showing the days of the week, record in pictures and
would allow more information to be displayed, as shown in writing the weather for that day.
below.
Monday Tuesday Wed....

YESTERDAY WAS MONDAY

TODAY IS TUESDAY
TOMORROW IS WEDNESDAY Cloudy Sunny

RESOURCES
Pictures from magazines, large scrap books, flash cards with days of the week, large books, cardboard, books of songs and rhymes.

178
TIME 4
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
The duration of events can be compared. The student is able to
• compare the durations of two or three events.

CONTENT
Comparison of time.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Comparison of time should be taught in a context Long time, short time, longer Ask students to
where students can relate examples to everyday time, shorter time, longest time,
• describe or demonstrate events that
situations. shortest time, early, late, earlier
take a long time and events that take
than, later than, slow, slowly,
• It should be noted that the time spans considered here a short time
slower, slowest, on time.
are personal judgements. These judgements can be
• order three activities by their
affected by certain factors, eg it seems to take a long “Toni took the shortest time to
duration, eg walking to school,
time to do a boring task. blow up the balloon and Norm
singing a song, cooking a cake.
took the longest.”
• Students should be given opportunities to try to
“It takes about the same time to
explain why some things seem to take a longer time
walk to school as it does to
than others.
walk home.”
• Many students find great difficulty in differentiating “Svetlana took the longest time
between time and space. For instance, if two cars to finish the puzzle.”
started and finished at the same instant but travelled “The blue container was the EVALUATION
different distances, many young students would think slowest to empty.”
that the car travelled the greater distance travelled for • Did I encourage students language
“We were very late.”
a longer time. through careful questioning?
“Gerhard was the quickest.”
• The words “long” and “short” when applied to time • Have the problems been part of the
could be confusing to students who have only students’ real life experiences?
experienced these words in terms of length
measurement. Students will need experience with the
words “long” and “short” in both length and time
contexts.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
EARLY OR LATE
GUESS AND CHECK Provide opportunities for students to describe everyday
Students make predictions and test them using various activities. experiences in terms of being early, on time or late.
Examples could include
• Drop two suitable objects into water and note which one
• arrival at school
reaches the bottom of the container first.
• the school bus
• Drop two balls from the same height and note which one stops
• canteen lunches
bouncing first.
• Note which of two holed tins filled with dry sand is quicker to Provide opportunities for students to describe everyday
empty. experiences in terms of being early, on time or late.
• Note which of two wind-up toys is quicker to run down. Examples could include
• arrival at school
SHORT, SHORTER, SHORTEST TIME • the school bus
• canteen lunches
Repeat the types of activities above using three objects. Order the
• TV programs
objects in terms of the duration of the event.
• arrival at assembly.

ORDERING TIME
LONG TIME, SHORT TIME
Each student in a pair engages in a different activity and the
Ask students to tell about all the things they can think of that take
lengths of time for the activities are compared.
a long time. Repeat for things that take a short time. Write the
Present the results in pictorial or written form.
events on cards and make a display.
get dressed eg Short time - for a balloon to pop.
It takes longer to
Long time - for a tree to grow to full height.
than to eat a biscuit.
Note that confusion could result between the speed and duration of
an event. Discuss fast things that still take a long time such as a jet
plane flying to another country. Investigate slow things which take
a short time such as a balloon dropping a short distance onto a
table.

RESOURCES
Blocks, beads, string, small and large containers, balls, cardboard, pictures, bottles, water tray, plasticine, wind-up toys.

179
TIME 5
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Units for measuring time can be formal or informal. The student is able to
• use informal units to show the passage of time.

CONTENT
Passage of time using informal units.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• This unit is about measuring short term time and
leading students to an awareness of the need for
standard units of time measurement. The next unit is
about long term time. Short term time is about
seconds, minutes and hours. Long term time is about
days, months, seasons and years.
• Students should have opportunities to explore how
time can be measured in different ways.
• Students should compare their results to show that
different people take different times to do similar
tasks.
• Students may construct a variety of informal timers,
including candle clocks. These activities will require
close supervision for safety reasons.
Longer time, shorter time, Ask students to
candle clock, water clock, sand
• measure the duration of an event or
timer, egg timer, pin units, start,
task using an informal unit, eg how
finish, before, after, pendulum.
many hand claps does it take to tie
“It took twenty of my claps for your shoelace?
Jamie to tie his shoe-lace but it
• discuss the advantages and
took fifteen of Kathy’s claps.”
disadvantages of various informal
“Susan clapped faster so it isn’t timing devices, eg running a tap,
fair.” wind-up car and the sun dial.
“Jean touched her toes five
times before the ball stopped.”
“The candle clock burnt down
three notches between recess
and lunch.” EVALUATION
“The water clock dripped
• Did students enjoy the activities?
slowly.”
“The sundial wouldn’t work • Did student-to-student discussion take
because it was cloudy.” place?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
TIMING USING INFORMAL UNITS
Students work in pairs. One student performs a task while the
other claps and counts the number of claps. Suitable tasks could
include touching toes five times, threading twenty beads on a
string, bouncing a ball ten times, tying shoe laces, etc.
Repeat activities using the pendulum from the next activity
CANDLE CLOCK
Take a house candle and score ten equally spaced marks on its side.
Light the candle at the start of a certain activity. When the activity
ends, note the number of marks remaining. Hence, find the number
of marks that were “used”. Compare the durations of various
activities using this method. Compare the burning rates of candles of
different thicknesses. Pins can be stuck into the candle at each mark.
The time elapsed is related to the number of pins that drop out.

PENDULUM WATER CLOCK

Make a pendulum from a piece of string with a mass on the end.
Students should work in pairs to see how many times the
pendulum moves from one extent of its path to the other while a
simple task is performed. See above activity.
Students could compare on pendulum with another to see if they
take the same time to swing. Consider how to make the swing time
longer. Does changing the mass have any effect?
SAND TIMER
Use two small empty bottles, one with a screw cap. Punch a small
hole in the cap. Fill the capped bottle with fine, dry sand and invert
it into the other bottle or jar. Such egg timers can be made to time
different durations by varying the amount of sand used.
Use a clean, empty tin. Make a small hole in the bottom of the tin.
Place the tin on top of a jar which has vertical sides. Fill the tin
with water. Place an adhesive label on the side of the jar and make
equally spaced marks so that the level of water can be related to
time elapsed.
SUNDIAL
Place a stick vertically in a sheet of plywood. Place this sundial in
an open position and record the shadow position on the plywood at
various times of the day, taking care that the sundial is not moved
at any time during the day.
Discuss the disadvantages and advantages of sundials.
INFORMAL TIMERS
Ask students to suggest other devices which could be made to
measure time. Any practical ideas should be investigated and the
device constructed.

RESOURCES
Milk bottles, funnel, pins, candles, matches, sand, strings, counters, blocks, puzzles, pegs, ribbon, mechanical toys, stamps, balls,
plasticine, bottles, sand timer, rocker timer.

180
TIME 6
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
The year can be divided into seasons, months, weeks and The student is able to
days. • use a calendar to describe the day and date
• name and order the months of the year and the seasons.
CONTENT
Seasons, months, weeks and days.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• This unit should be developed incidentally as well as January, February, March, April, Ask students to
formally. May, June, July, August,
• name and order the months of the
• Calendar activities can be used daily in classrooms. September, October, November,
year
• Activities here should be on-going throughout the December, winter, spring,
year rather than completed all at once. summer, autumn, year, month, • use a calendar to find the correct day
• The months of the year should be related to the calendar, first, second.... thirty- and date
students’ world, as should the seasons, eg “We swim first. • match the months to the seasons
in summer, the leaves fall in autumn, it is cold in
“We went to the snow in July.” • discuss the characteristic features of
winter and the flowers blossom in spring.”
“During January we went to the each season.
• Teachers should note that students who have lived in
beach.”
other parts of the world will have different concepts
“It is hot in summer.”
of the seasons. Contrast the seasons in different parts
“At Easter we go to the Show.”
of the world, eg wet season and dry season in the
“In May we sow wheat.”
tropics. Note that it is winter in the northern
“My nameday is next Monday.” EVALUATION
hemisphere when it is summer in Australia, and so on.
“We had a dry winter and a wet
• Parents could be asked to write the names of the • Did the students have the prerequisite
spring.”
seasons and months in their community language for knowledge and understanding for the
display in the classroom. Calendars from various activities to be meaningful?
cultures could also be displayed. Teachers need to
• Was I able to cater for individual
consider and explore with students the concept of
differences?
time in traditional Aboriginal culture.
• Graphics/publishing computer programs can be used
to create a calendar of significant religious festivals,
national days, birthdays etc.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
EXPLORING CALENDARS
HOW MANY DAYS IN THE MONTH?
Using a real calendar, preferably one that shows all months on one
Teach students the rhyme page, discuss format and function. Consider the order of the
Thirty days hath September months.
April, June and November.
All the rest have thirty-one SEASONS
Excepting February along
Which hath but twenty-eight days clear • Students should be encouraged to observe the current season,
And twenty-nine in each leap year. comparing it with past and coming seasons. Discuss
characteristic behaviour associated with each season, eg the
By placing their two fists together, students may note another
clothes that we wear, the sports we play, the food we eat. Make
method of remembering the number of days in each month. From
wall charts featuring this information.
left to right and avoiding thumbs, match each knuckle and valley
with the names of the months in order. Those matched with • Discuss with students the seasons in other parts of the world,
knuckles have 31 days while the others have 30, except February. eg Christmas cards showing snow.
• Make charts showing in which months the various seasons
BIRTHDAYS occur in Australia.
Make charts showing which class members were born in each • Read stories about seasons or stories in which a season is
month. important. Ask students to paint a scene from the story.

STUDENT CALENDAR
On a blank calendar each student records days and dates that have
personal or cultural significance.
During the year coming events should be highlighted on a wall
chart, eg Easter Hat Parade, swimming carnival, Ramadan.
• Link with other areas of study through themes. Listen to music
written about the seasons (Haydn, Vivaldi, modern composers)
and find paintings which depict scenes associated with
particular seasons.
• Ask students to research the ways Australian Aborigines used
their knowledge of the day/night sky to measure time and
predict seasons.

RESOURCES
Calendar (tear off sheets), calendar (complete year), graphics/publishing software, charts, birthday candles, popsticks, art material,
greeting cards.

181
TIME 7
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
The passage of time can be both measured and calculated. The student is able to
• demonstrate an awareness of the duration of time related to an hour, a
minute and a second.
CONTENT
Hours, minutes and seconds.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Activities in this unit focus on the passage of time as Hour, minute, second, more Ask students to
measured in hours, minutes and seconds. than a second, less than a hour,
• observe an activity and indicate when
Formal work on telling time is not introduced until takes longer, doesn’t take as
it has gone on for one minute
the next unit. long, in a minute, a few
minutes, a couple of hours, an • demonstrate things that take about
• At this stage, it is not important for students to know
hour ago. one second, eg closing eyes for one
that there are 60 minutes in an hour. Rather, it is
second
important to have students develop a sense of one “Wait a minute.”
hour, one minute and one second through as many “I’ll be a few seconds.” • state activities or events that take one
practical experiences as possible. “I took longer than a minute.” hour, less than an hour and more than
“I can do twenty sit-ups in a an hour
• Use a variety of devices to measure these units, eg a
minute.” • rank several activities in terms of
rocker timer, a water clock, a digital clock, a
“I watch TV for an hour each time, eg cleaning teeth, cooking a
stopwatch.
day.” cake, recess
• Students should estimate time periods and then check, “I can write my name in five
eg “I think I take about a minute to eat a piece of seconds but Juanita takes ten • state when an hour seems a long time
apple.” seconds.” and when it seems a short time.
“My personal best is twenty
words a minute.”
EVALUATION
“You went longer than a
minute, about a minute and a • Were the activities relevant to
half.” students’ interests?
• Did student-to-student discussion take
place?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
SPEED AND DURATION
ONE MINUTE
One student walks very slowly for one minute. Another walks very
Discuss with students how long they think a minute is. Ask quickly for one minute. Students discuss which one walked for the
students to sit still until they think one minute has passed. Students longer period. Repeat for other activities such as clapping slowly
try various tasks for a minute while a partner counts and times. and quickly, talking slowly or quickly, etc.
Before each activity, students guess how many times they can
repeat the activity in one minute, eg TEN SECONDS
• skip, jump or clap
• write words, names or letters Students predict how many push-ups, sit-ups, jumps, etc they can
• count by ones, fives or tens complete in ten seconds. Repeat the activity over 30 seconds. Once
• tie and untie shoe laces. students understand the concept that a second is a small unit of
time, it can be related to other units of time, eg 60 seconds = 1
Students could make a graph of results. minute.

DISCUSSION
AN HOUR
Discuss with students the concept that the duration of one minute
• Compile a scrapbook, collage or wall mural with a collection
is constant, eg ask if one minute of play takes as much time as one
of pictures and sentences written by students to illustrate and
minute of push-ups.
describe familiar experiences that take place over an hour, eg
Discuss the question of whether we can all do the same number of TV programs, lunchtime, train trip.
activities in one minute.
• See how far a candle burns down in an hour.

DURATION • Have a class activity such as model making or cooking lasting

exactly one hour.
Students are selected to turn on the radio and turn it off again
when they estimate that one minute has passed. Another student • Discuss activities which take less than or more than one hour.
can judge the closeness of the estimate. Similarly students can
close their eyes, run a tap or ring a bell for one minute.

RESOURCES
Stopwatch, digital clock, rocker timer, sand timer, clock face stamp, clock with second hand, construction cubes, bell, cards.

182
TIME 8
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
A day can be divided into hours. The student is able to
• tell time on the hour on both digital and analog clocks.

CONTENT
Time – o’clock.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Digital and analog time telling are developed Clock, digital clock, clock face, Ask students to
concurrently. hour hand, minute hand, hours,
• The “o’clock” times are read as such on both analog • show o’clock time on a clock
minutes, o’clock, the hour, next
and digital time pieces. • tell the time on the hour from a class
hour, hour before.
• Clock faces marked clearly with the twelve numerals digital clock
should be used. “We start school at nine
• Students should be able to see a clock in the o’clock.” • tell the time on the hour from a class
classroom during the day. This will assist in the “The minute hand is on the analog clock
understanding that time is continuous. twelve, so it’s (something)
• Clock reading activities should be related to the • match clock faces with words and
o’clock.” numerals
students’ real world as much as possible, eg “School
starts at nine o’clock.” “I went to bed at ten o’clock.”
“Mum set the video to start at • state events or activities that take less
• Students can be very easily confused when reading
two o’clock.” than, more than or about one hour.
analog clocks, eg 3 o’clock with 9 o’clock, 12 o’clock
with 6 o’clock. “It’s only one o’clock.”
• Students may be able to read the clock face but may
not have an understanding of the sense of the passing EVALUATION
of time, eg the duration of an hour.
• Students need to know that 7 o’clock in the morning • Were students’ different experiences
is not the same as 7 o’clock at night. with clocks taken into account?
• Use the terms “hour hand” and “minute hand” rather
• Did the students enjoy the activities
than “big” and “little” to promote understanding of
their respective functions. in this unit?
• Students will have had a variety of experiences with
clocks. Some students may not have clocks at home
while other students will have personal as well as
family time pieces.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
MAKE A CLOCK
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
Using a paper plate, mark the centre and 12, 6, 3 and 9 in their
Are all clocks the same? How are they different? respective positions. Make cards showing the numerals 1, 2, 4, 5,
What is the biggest clock you have seen? 7, 8, 10 and 11. Students practise placing these cards in their
What types of clocks are there? correct positions. Repeat the activity with twelve numbered cards
When do we use clocks? and no numerals marked on the face. Make short and long hands
Do all clocks tell the same time? from cardboard.
What is another name for the big hand?
What is another name for the little hand? READING THE CLOCK
Informally and over a period of weeks, draw the students’ attention
CLOCKWISE
to specific events, eg lunchtime, library time, and relate these to
To help develop understanding of clockwise rotation, make a class the time shown on the clock.
clock from cardboard. Divide the clock into twelve sectors and Teach the students action songs which relate o’clock times to
colour each sector differently. Label each sector with a student’s specific events.
name from the class. Students rotate the hand each day to indicate Make displays matching o’clock time with specific events.
whose turn it is to do a job.
Get up 7 o’clock
Give the Tod Jo School starts 9 o’clock
clock a Idi Bao
Recess 11 o’clock
purpose, Jim Jan School ends 3 o’clock
eg “Today’s Henry Ed
Plant Waterer”
Min Ian
Di Ben
DIGITAL – ANALOG MATCH
Set an analog clock and a digital clock at five minutes to an hour.
O’CLOCK Have students watch the clocks, comparing the gradual movements
Using a real clock or a geared clock, ask students a question that of the analog’s hands with the sudden changes of the numerals on
has an o’clock time as the correct answer, eg school starting time. the digital clock. Ask students to suggest advantages and
The teacher selects a student to make 9 o’clock on the clock face. disadvantages of each type.

RESOURCES
Variety of clocks, paper plates, cardboard, puzzles, workcards, clear plastic, adhesive cover, clock face, clock face stamp, geared clock.

183
TIME 9
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
The day can be divided into hours and half hours. The student is able to
• tell the time on the half hour using digital and analog clocks.

CONTENT
Half hour.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Students should have a knowledge of a half, eg half Hour, minute, half an hour, half Ask students to
the pie. hour, minute hand, hour hand,
• read digital and analog clocks for half
past, half past one, one thirty.
• Students should have opportunities to see time shown past times
on digital and analog clocks side by side. “It’s one thirty.”
• describe events or activities that last
“The short hand is the minute
• When writing digital time, two dots or points should half an hour.
hand.”
be separate hours and minutes, eg 9:30.
“Alex’s got a digital watch.”
• All time activities should be related to real life “I wrote for half an hour this
situations as much as possible, eg the party is at half morning!”
past three. “The minute hand went half
• Students need to be aware that in this unit there are way around the clock face.”
three ways of expressing the time. “At six thirty we have dinner.”
“In an hour and a half it’ll be
twelve o’clock.” EVALUATION
7:30 half past seven
• Did I have a variety of clocks in the
room for students to handle?
seven thirty thirty minutes past seven
• Did the students have enough
opportunities to talk about time?
• When reading analog clocks students need to
understand that when the minute hand shows the half
hour, the hour hand is always half way between two
hour markers.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES TIME SNAP

Use a set of blank cards. Stamp half of the cards with a clock face
INTRODUCTION OF HALF PAST and record a time on them. On the other half of the cards
Use a real clock for these activities to enable students to observe corresponding times are written in words.
the complementary action of the hour and minute hands. 12
Set a clock on 10 o’clock, then move the minute hand to the 6, ie 11 1
half way around the clock. Students should discuss how far around 10 2
the clock the minute hand has travelled. Repeat this process by HALF PAST 7 9 3
resetting the clock at different o’clock times and observing both 8 4
hands. Students should observe the movement of the hour hand 7 5
6
and be able to predict where it will be at various half hourly
intervals, eg “At 10:30 it will be half way between 10 and 11.”
TIME MATCH
Discuss activities and events that take about half an hour, eg
Students complete activities in which they match written times,
getting ready for school, eating dinner. digital times and clock face representations.
DIGITAL TIME Join the same times together Join the same times together
Students should have the opportunity to see how time is 5:30 Half past nine 8:30 Four thirty
recorded/measured in digital time as compared to analog time. 6:30 Half past six 4:30 Half past 8
Compare digital and analog clock faces showing the same time. 9:30 Half past five 3:30 30 minutes past 3

12 ADVERTISEMENTS
11 1 Display advertisements, timetables and catalogues showing
9:30 10 2 different digital times.
9 3
8 4 News 6:30 Closing
SALE BEGINS 9:30
at 5:30
7 5
6

Are the clocks showing the same time? MAKING UP REAL PROBLEMS
Students may enjoy creating everyday time problems for other
students to solve, eg cooking, travelling and sport themes.

RESOURCES
Blank playing cards, various clocks (digital, alarm, analog), clock stamp, magazines, timetables, workcards.

184
TIME 10
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
The day can be divided into hours and minutes. The student is able to
• read and write digital time in hours and minutes.

CONTENT
Reading digital clocks.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Students need to be aware of the following: Minute, hour, past, digital Ask students to
- the minutes and hours are separated by a colon clock, numerals, o’clock, the
• write the time they get up, have
- the minutes are shown on the right and the hours hour, half past, thirty minutes
lunch, go to bed, etc in digital form
on the left of the colon, eg 5:17 is seventeen past, three past six, six-oh-three.
minutes past five • write times such as six o’clock, half
“It’s three fifty-six. That means
- the minutes advance to 59 before changing to 00 past five and five minutes past nine in
it is nearly four o’clock.”
- when the minutes advance to 00, the hour digital form.
“It’s ten minutes past three.”
advances by one, eg 6:59 becomes 7:00.
“At ten thirty we have
• Digital time is always read as past the hour, eg 7:35 is assembly.”
read as seven thirty-five. “Should I put another zero on
this (8:0)?”
• Students may have difficulty reading times between
the hour and nine minutes past the hour, eg 2:01,
2:02, 2:03 ..... 2:09. The 0 is a place holder. 2:04 can
be read as “two-oh-four”, “four minutes past two” or EVALUATION
“four past two”.
• Were the activities appropriate to the
• Students should see a variety of digital watches and students’ interests?
clocks. The accuracy of time can be discussed where
two clocks or watches show different times. • Did I allow for individual
differences?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
WRITTEN TIMES
MAKE A DIGITAL CLOCK
Ask students to rewrite digital times in hours and minutes, eg 1:13
Students make their own digital clocks as illustrated. becomes “thirteen minutes past one”.
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
DAILY TIMES
2 2 2 Students make a chart of planned activities either for a school day
3 3 3 or for a weekend.
4 4 4
Slits 9:00 School starts 9:00
5 5 5 Contracts
9:30 Reading
6 6
10:10 Singing 10:45
7 7 10:45 Recess 11:00
8 8 Group
11:00 Measurement projects
9 9 0 2 4 7
11:45 Craft or 12:30
12:30 Lunch 1:30
1:30 Publishing Maths
2:00 Social Studies 2:30 games
The two paper strips used to show the minutes can be in one Music/
colour and the strips showing hours in a contrasting colour. 2:45 Games Drama
3:00 Home time 3:30

NEXT TIME
Students could be encouraged to keep a diary of daily events.
Give students various times and ask them to write what time it
would be one minute later, one minute before, half an hour later, At news time, students could be asked what the time was when
an hour before and so on. they did the things about which they are reporting. Students could
use graphics/publishing software on computer to make a chart
READ ALOUD about “daily times”.

Give students times written in digital form and ask them to read
the times aloud.

RESOURCES
Variety of digital clocks, cardboard, construction cubes, graphics/publishing software, diary.

185
TIME 11
MAIN IDEA
The day can be divided into hours and minutes.
CONTENT
Time – 1 minute intervals.
TEACHER NOTES
• Telling the time should be related to real life
situations as much as possible.
• Use clock faces which show the numerals one to
twelve and have clearly marked minute intervals.
• Students should have frequent daily practice in
reading the time and have experience with both digital
and analog clocks.
• Differences between the minute and hour hand and
how their movements relate to each other should be
stressed.
• A clock showing 7:05 can be read as “five minutes
past seven” as well as “seven-oh-five”, the numbers
being in the opposite order. This may be confusing for
students.
• Time is non-decimal. Attention should be drawn to
the transition to the “new” hour, ie the next time
shown after 6:59 is 7:00, not 6:60.
• Students often find the “to the hour” form difficult.
Teachers should delay introducing it until students can
confidently tell the time in “past the hour” form.
SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
THE MINUTE HAND
• Have students count from zero to sixty as the teacher moves
the hand around the marks on the clock face, either on a
cardboard clock or on an overhead projector transparency.
• Mark 5, 10, 15 … 60 on the clock face and repeat the activity
with the students counting by fives.
• Repeat the activity using a geared clock or a real analog clock,
drawing the attention of students to the movement of the hour
hand as the minute hand completes a revolution.
WORK CARDS
Prepare a set of work cards as illustrated. Cover with plastic so
that students may use water based felt pens without destroying the
card. These can be made using graphics software.
12 12
9 3 9 3
6 6
NOW 35 MINUTES LATER
RESOURCES
OHP transparency of a clock face, digital clocks, analog clocks, cardboard clocks, counters, graphics software, television programs, work
cards, advertisements showing clocks.
OBJECTIVES
The student is able to
• tell the time in one minute intervals using both analog and digital clocks.
LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT
Hour hand, minute hand, clock Ask students to
face, early, late, start, finish,
• tell the time from a clock face
o’clock, earlier than, later than,
minute, hour, past, digital, • tell what the time will be in another
almost, nearly, just after, just five minutes
before. • show various times on a clock face
“The bus leaves at ten past • record, in words, various times as
three.” shown on analog and digital clocks.
“I set the video recorder for ten
forty-five.”
“The lesson lasted twenty
minutes.”
“At nine fifty-five we were
singing.”
“In two minutes time it will be EVALUATION
recess.” • Did all the students in the group have
“Each mark on the clock face
an equal opportunity to participate?
means one minute.”
“It’s just after noon.” • Did the activities relate to students’
“It’s nearly eleven thirty.” real life experiences?
• Did the activities challenge the
students?
DIGITAL CLOCK FACE MATCH
Show various times on a digital clock and ask students to show
that time on an analog clock face.
Show various times on an analog clock face and ask students to
write the time in the digital form.
PAST THE HOUR, TO THE HOUR
Using a real analog clock, set the hands to one minute past an hour
and ask students to suggest what time is shown. Move hands to
two minutes past, half past, quarter past, quarter to, twenty-three
past and so on. Initially, times past the half hour should be named
in digital form at this stage rather than in the “to the hour” form,
except for a quarter to. When students are confident introduce the
“to the hour” form.
ALARM CLOCK
Set an alarm clock to ring during the day. When the clock rings,
students record the time in digital form.
NEAR ENOUGH
In everyday situations, time is often expressed to the nearest five
minute mark. Set an analog clock to such times as 7:26, 8:59, 3:16
and ask students to write the time to the nearest five minute mark,
ie 7:25, 9:00, 3:15 respectively.
WRITING TIMES
Give students times written in words, eg sixteen minutes past
three. Ask students to write the time in digital form and draw the
hands on a blank clock to show that time.
186
TIME 12
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
The basic unit for measuring time is the second and from The student is able to
it other units can be derived. • compare and read time using a.m. and p.m. notation
• read and interpret timetables.
CONTENT
Comparison and ordering of time intervals.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Students should be given practical opportunities to Earlier, later, second, minute, Ask students to
consider the length of different time intervals. hour, day, week, month, year,
• name events that occurred
leap year.
• Before ordering and comparing hours, minutes and one day ago
seconds students should have understanding and “I ran one hundred metres in one week ago
awareness of these time spans. twenty-four seconds.” one month ago
“I jumped ten times in fifteen one year ago
• Students need to learn the relationships
seconds.”
60 seconds = 1 minute • name activities which take
60 minutes = 1 hour one second
24 hours = 1 day one minute
7 days = 1 week. one hour
Discuss the relationship between weeks and months; one day
there are approximately four weeks in a month. one week
one month
Discuss the relationship between weeks and years;
one year
there are approximately 52 weeks in a year.
From previous units, students will have learned that
there are 12 months in a year.
EVALUATION
• Were all students given practical
opportunities to consider the lengths
of different time intervals?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
COUNTING SECONDS
• Using a large clock with a sweep second hand, have students
count the seconds as they pass, starting from the o’clock
position. Repeat using a digital clock with a seconds display.
• Ask students to investigate various ways of estimating one
second, eg by the pulse, or parachutist’s method of estimating
seconds by counting “one (one thousand), two (one thousand),
three (one thousand) …”
ONE SECOND, ONE MINUTE, ONE HOUR
• List and complete activities which take one second, one minute
or one hour.
• Make a book showing activities which take one second, one
minute or one hour.
ORDERING TIME
Use opportunities as they arise to place times in order. At the
school athletics carnival, awarding first, second and third place in a
race involves ordering time. This leads to Unit 16, involving the
use of a stopwatch to distinguish between times which are only
slightly different.
SPENDING TIME
Have students record and make graphs showing the amount of
time they spend on average watching TV, sleeping, eating, working
at school and doing other things.
RESEARCH ASSIGNMENTS
• Students research the various types of clocks which are in
common use, eg analog, digital, sundial, bundy, stopwatch.
• Students write about a significant day in the Australian
calendar, eg Anzac Day, Australia Day, Remembrance Day,
Wattle Day, giving the history of the day and making a wall
display if appropriate.
• Students research the origins of the names of the days of the
week and the months of the year.
• Students research special days in other countries, eg national
days such as Bastille Day. Link with Social Studies.
• Students find objects where the year of manufacture is shown,
eg wine bottles, coins. Have students write about the significant
events of the year shown. Link with Social Studies.
• Students research such terms as anniversary, century, centenary,
millennium and decade.
SELECTING APPROPRIATE TIME UNITS
Discuss with students the most appropriate unit of time to use to
record
• the time it takes to walk to school
• the time it takes to boil an egg
• the time it takes to wink
• how long ago dinosaurs lived
• how long it is until Christmas.

RESOURCES
Clocks of various types, calendars that can be given to students, alarm clock.

187
TIME 13
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Time can be a quantity measured between two events or The student is able to
be a point in a sequence of events. • recognise and read time using a.m. and p.m. notation
• read and interpret timetables.
CONTENT
Recognising and reading time in a.m. or p.m. notation.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• The abbreviation a.m. is for the Latin words “ante Noon, midday, midnight, Ask students to
meridiem” which means “before midday”. afternoon, morning, evening,
• place times within one day in order
The abbreviation p.m. is for the Latin words “post a.m., p.m.
meridiem” which means “after midday”. • record the times of events in a.m. or
“We got up at seven a.m.”
p.m. form
• a.m. and p.m. are used only for the digital form of “The evening news starts at
time recording, ie 9:30 p.m. or 9 a.m., not with the seven p.m.” • give the time one hour later than
o’clock terminology. “The clock strikes twelve at 11:15 a.m., 11:58 p.m., etc.
midnight.” • give the time one hour before 12:38
• Midday and midnight need not be expressed in a.m.
or p.m. form. Use 12 noon, 12 midday or 12 Note: a.m. and p.m. are printed a.m., 12:45 p.m., etc.
midnight, even though 12:00 p.m. and 12:00 a.m. are in lower case letters separated • convert informal times of the day to
sometimes seen. by stops. a.m. or p.m. times.
• Note the ways various digital clocks distinguish a.m.
and p.m.
• Discuss informal time units and the advantages and EVALUATION
disadvantages of these. Ask students which a.m. or • Were girls as well as boys given
p.m. times these informal times match. opportunities to become involved in
activities?
• Did the students understand that
sometimes there is no need to know
the precise time.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
TIMETABLES
INTRODUCING a.m. AND p.m. NOTATION
Provide students with copies of train timetables. Ask students
• Introduce a discussion in an ambiguous way, eg “Did anyone questions such as “If we caught a train from Kingsgrove Station
see the program on TV at eight o’clock?” Discuss the now, at what time would it arrive at Central?” Answers are to be
confusion caused by not knowing whether you mean morning given in a.m. or p.m. form. Use timetables relevant to the students
or night. at the school.
• Ask students to list the times of the major events of their day in Ask students to determine from a timetable the length of various
a.m. and p.m. form. journeys. Include some which extend across one o’clock.
• Ask students to match statements with times written in a.m. or
p.m. form, eg “The tennis match starts at nine o’clock”. EAST HILLS 12:48
• Discuss with students the part of the day when times are p.m. PANANIA 12:53
and those when times are a.m., ie between midday and PADSTOW 12:58
midnight and between midnight and midday respectively. RIVERWOOD 1:02
• Students write a trip report giving the times of all events in NARWEE 1:06
a.m. or p.m. form. BEVERLEY HILLS 1:10
KINGSGROVE 1:15
NGAANYTJARRA TIMES OF DAY BEXLEY NORTH 1:19
Discuss with students which a.m. or p.m. times of the day match BARDWELL PARK 1:22
the Ngaanytjarra times of the day listed here. ..........
SYDENHAM 1:31
The ground becomes clear, the first light; sunrise; early morning;
.......
mid-morning; sun has risen up some distance; midday; not quite
afternoon; afternoon; sunset; twilight (morning or evening); night; REDFERN 1:37
middle of the night (any time from 2 hours after dark until signs CENTRAL 1:41
that show morning is coming).

RESOURCES
Digital and analog clocks, bus/plane/ferry/train timetables, computer simulation and adventure games.

188
TIME 14
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
The passage of time and the duration of an event can be The student is able to
both measured and calculated. • recall time facts and the relationship between time units.

CONTENT
Relationships between time units.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Time relationships should be continually revised Fortnight, lunar month, calendar Ask students to
through incidental experiences during the school day. month, decade, century,
• convert times expressed in one unit to
millennium, A.D., B.C., leap
• Students should have experience, wherever possible, times expressed in another unit, eg
year.
with a variety of clocks and calendars. minutes to seconds, minutes to hours,
“Nineteen eighty-eight was the days to weeks
• Abbreviations for the names of days and months may
school centenary.”
vary. • recall the number of
“Two thousand is the last year
seconds in a minute,
• There are several abbreviated forms of dates. of this millennium.”
minutes in an hour,
• Leap years occur every four years, except for century “I was born in the previous
hours in a day,
years not divisible by 400. Hence the year 2000 will decade.”
days in a week,
be a leap year but 1900 was not. “A leap year has three hundred
weeks in a year,
and sixty-six days.”
• The calendar month typically has 30 or 31 days. The days in a year,
“From twenty B.C. to sixty
lunar month has 28 days, the time taken for the Moon years in a decade
A.D. was eighty years.”
to complete one orbit around the Earth. • write dates in shortened form
• Note the abbreviations A.D. (anno domini) meaning • calculate the number of days from
“in the year of our Lord” and B.C. for “ before one date to another.
Christ”.
EVALUATION
• How much revision of previous work
was required before beginning this
unit?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
NUMBERING OF CENTURIES
RESEARCH ACTIVITIES
Discuss why the 1900s are the twentieth century, and so on.
• Ask students to find out the many different ways that dates are
recorded, including abbreviated forms. Ensure that American, TIME LINE DISPLAYS
Arabic and Chinese forms are included. Group cultures that Each student selects a number between zero and ninety-nine at
record the date in the same form. Create a wall display of random. If the number selected is 34, the student creates an
results. illustrated time line of events which occurred in 1934, 1834, 1734
• Ask students to research the way time is recorded in various and so on.
languages, translated literally. 1588 - Spanish Armada sails for Britain
• Research such terms as Olympiad, centenary, bicentenary, 1688 - English Revolution
sesquicentenary and anniversary. Link with Social Studies. Ask
students to write about events that happened exactly one year 1788 - Captain Arthur Phillip establishes Sydney
ago, one decade ago, one century ago, three centuries ago, etc. 1888 - Gilbert and Sullivan produce “Yeomen of the Guard”
• Research the birthdays of important people in history. Consider 1988 - Seoul Olympic Games.
the birth and death date of people who died in years B.C. and
discuss the fact that the birth year is a higher number than the
death year.
• Research the origins of the names of the days and the months.
• Research the numbering of years in non-Christian countries.
Discuss the cyclical Chinese calendar and the Jewish calendar.
• Research the history of the calendar, noting times when
adjustments were made.

RESOURCES
Timetables, calendars, calculators, reference library.

189
TIME 15
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Events in time can be placed in a sequence. The student is able to
• read and interpret timetables and time lines
• express 24 hour time in a.m./p.m. form and vice versa.
CONTENT
Timetables, time lines and 24 hour time.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• The notion that some timetables are cyclical could be Timetable, arrives, departs, Ask students to
linked to the idea that time is continuous in nature, eg express, all stops, all stations,
• read and interpret train, bus, ferry or
midnight is both the end and the beginning of the day. quickest, slowest, fastest,
plane timetables
column, row, begins, finishes,
• Teachers should discuss with students where 24 hour
semester, term, vacations. • convert 24 hours times to a.m. or p.m.
time is used, eg
times.
transport “The train starts from East Hills
armed forces at eight fifteen a.m. and arrives
science forty-five minutes later at
digital watches Central.”
video tape recorders. “I set the timer for twenty-two
thirty hours to record the ten
• Discuss with students the advantages and
thirty p.m. news.” EVALUATION
disadvantages of a.m./p.m. form and 24 hour time.
• Link with Australian Studies by considering the • How relevant were the activities to
arrival of various ethnic groups, eg Aborigines, the students’ everyday lives?
British, Chinese, Europeans, etc.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
PERSONAL TIME LINES
READING AND INTERPRETING TIMETABLES
Students make a personal time line, illustrated with photographs if
Ask students to bring to school any timetable that they have at possible. A diary giving where they were living, where they went
home, eg train, bus, ferry, plane. Discuss similarities and to preschool, etc could be attached.
differences.
Use an interstate bus timetable with 24 hour time to calculate the 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993
lengths of trips listed.
born baby preschool kinder

24 HOUR TIME Students could use graphics software to make personal time lines.
• Add another ring of number to a clock face to show the p.m.
hours in 24 hour time. MONTHLY TIME LINES
• Show students the time display on a device such as a video Using a square piece of paper for each day of the month, students
recorder. Advance the time slowly, noting when the time build a time line for a whole month.
displayed is not the same as a.m./p.m. time, ie after 12:59, the TIME LINE FOR APRIL
digital display may show 13:00.
1 2 3 18
• Students prepare a timetable in a.m./p.m. form and convert it to April Party Cricket End of
24 hour time. Fools’ Match term
Day
TIME LINES
24 25 28 31
Students research topics and develop time lines. The following Show Anzac Term 2 Athletics
could be suitable: Day Day begins Carnival
– models of a particular make of car
– push bike design
– Australian Prime Ministers
– space travel

RESOURCES
Train/bus/ferry/plane timetables, TV programs, reference library, graphics software.

190
TIME 16
MAIN IDEA
Accurate time measurement sometimes requires parts of a
second.
CONTENT
Use of a stopwatch.
TEACHER NOTES
• A stopwatch is a complex measuring device which
allows accurate measurement of time intervals.
Students should be given opportunities to handle
stopwatches and discover for themselves how
stopwatches operate.
• Group work will allow more efficient use of resources
in this unit.
• Digital stopwatches are easier to read than analog
stopwatches. Students should use digital stopwatches
whenever possible but the skills involved in reading
the analog watch face should be taught.
• Mistiming is common amongst stopwatch users.
Discuss the sources of error and ways of minimising
error.
• Some students may have a stopwatch capability on a
digital watch. This type of instrument should be
investigated where possible.
• Link this unit with work on decimals in the Number
strand.
SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
THE NEED FOR ACCURACY
Students complete a series of activities which can be timed, eg
saying tables, running from point to point, bouncing a ball ten
times. Other students time these activities using devices such as
egg timers, wind-up toys, analog clocks and water clocks.
Compare the results obtained from the different devices and
discuss the reasons for the different answers, eg the difficulty of
starting and stopping the timing device, difficulties in watching the
event and the timer at the same time, lack of accuracy as an
inherent feature of the device.
STOPWATCHES
• Allow students to examine and operate various types of
stopwatches, both mechanical and electronic. Show start, stop
and reset features. Extend to other features found on the
various instruments, as appropriate.
• Have students read digital stopwatch displays. Digital
stopwatches commonly show time from left to right in minutes,
seconds and hundredths of a second.
2 : 34 : 26
RESOURCES
Digital stopwatches, analog stopwatches, calculators.
OBJECTIVES
The student is able to
• operate and read a stopwatch correctly.
LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT
Stopwatch, delay, reset, start, Ask students to
stop, mode, lap.
• use the start, stop and reset buttons on
“Sandra ran the seventy metres a digital stopwatch
race in fifteen point three
• use the start, stop and reset buttons on
seconds.”
an analog stopwatch
“Three students finished the
race so close together that they • read times from various types of
had the same times, even stopwatch
though we could pick first, • time events using a stopwatch
second and third.”
• compare times obtained from
stopwatches.
EVALUATION
• Were students sufficiently confident
with decimal concepts to attempt this
unit?
STOPWATCH TRIALS
• Students need to practise the skills involved in stopwatch
operation. Allow students to be timekeepers at athletics
carnivals and swimming carnivals.
• Discuss the reasons for timing a 100 metre race by starting the
watches when smoke is seen rather than from when the gun is
heard at the starting line.
• Discuss cases where accurate timing is important, eg athletics,
swimming, TV advertising at $200 per second.
• To demonstrate the errors that can occur in using a stopwatch,
hand out stopwatches to as many students as resources will
allow. On the command “GO”, all students start their
stopwatches. On the command “STOP”, all students stop their
watches and record the reading on the display. List all results in
a table. Discuss the range of results, the sources of error, the
ways that error could be reduced and the time that should be
taken as correct. Discuss the implications for the timing of
athletics events.
TIMING EXPERIMENTS
• Students make estimates and check by timing various events
with a stopwatch, eg
– the time for an object dropped from the top floor of a
building to reach the ground (attention to safety)
– the time for a car seen in the distance to reach a chosen
point.
191
TIME 17
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Time is an element in the concept of speed. The student is able to
• understand what is meant by the speed of an object
• determine the average speed of an object, given the necessary data
CONTENT • read the instantaneous speed of a vehicle from a speedometer.
Speed.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Students should develop the concept of speed
informally before being introduced to formal
calculations involving time and distance.
• Integrate with other subject areas such as Physical
Education, Road Safety and Science. Link with work
in the Space strand.
• An odometer is an instrument used in vehicles to
measure the distance travelled. Using this meter and a
timing device, the average speed of the vehicle can be
calculated.
• Average speed is calculated by considering the
distance travelled and the time taken. If the distance is
measured in kilometres and the time in hours, the unit
of speed is kilometres per hour. For experiments,
distance is usually measured in metres and time in
seconds, giving a speed in metres per second.
• If a car travels 100 km in two hours, the average
speed is 50 km/h, ie on the average, 50 km is travelled
each hour. Formulas for calculating speed are not
required.
• The instantaneous speed of a vehicle may be read
from a speedometer. Since some bicycles have
speedometers, the principles behind the operation of
various types could be investigated.
Speed, fast, faster, slow, slower,
slowest, quick, quicker,
quickest, rapid, rate.
“The speed limit near the school
is forty kilometres per hour.”
“Mike rode his bike across the
playground. He covered fifty
metres in eight seconds so his
average speed was six point two
metres per second.”
“The bus is travelling at thirty
kilometres per hour, according
to its speedometer.”
Abbreviations:
km/h – kilometres per hour
m/s – metres per second.
Ask students to
• state common speed limits for road
traffic
• give reasonable estimates for the
speeds at which animals and transport
travel
• determine the average speed, given
the distance travelled and the time
taken in simple cases
• determine the distance travelled given
the average speed and the time taken
in simple cases.
EVALUATION
• Were enough measuring devices
available for student use?
• Were talented students adequately
challenged?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
SPEED SIGNS
Discuss speed limits for road users. Why are they required? How
are they enforced? Discuss the speed limits in residential areas,
country roads, expressways, and so on.
INSTANTANEOUS AND AVERAGE SPEED
Discuss the differences between the average speed of a car and the
instantaneous speed as read from the speedometer. Discuss what
happens to the speed of a car during a trip and why the average
speed is less than the cruising speed.
SPEED TRIALS
• Find the average speed of various students in the class by
measuring how far they walk or run in a given time, eg 10
seconds.
• Find the average walking speed of various students by timing
them over a long distance. Discuss how this information could
be used by the students to
– determine how long it would take them to walk a certain
known distance
COMPARING SPEEDS
At an athletics carnival compare the times for the same runner over
different distances. Discuss whether a runner who could run 100 m
in 15 seconds could therefore run 1 km in 2 minutes 30 seconds.
Compare the world records for various length races, noting that
longer distance races are run at a slow pace.
RESEARCH
• Ask students to research the methods used for timing sports
where speed is important, eg skiing, horse racing, car racing.
• Ask students to research the speeds of very fast objects such as
a jet aeroplane, a cricket ball bowled by the fastest bowler, etc.
Compare these speeds with the speed of light and the speed of
sound.
• Ask students to research the maximum speeds of which certain
animals are capable. Make a wall display of results.
GROWING RATES
Measure the growth of broad beans or other suitable plants and
record the speed of the growing tip in millimetres per day.

– determine how far they had walked if they knew how long
they had been walking.
• Calculate the speed of various wind-up toys running at constant
speed by measuring the distance travelled in a specified time.

RESOURCES
Speed signs or photographs of speed signs, stopwatches, speedometers (including odometers), calculators, tape measures, trundle wheels,
wind-up toys.

192
TIME 18
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Time is related to astronomy and geography. The student is able to
• explain the basis of time measurement in terms of the movement of the
Earth around the Sun
CONTENT • determine local time in various time zones of Australia.
Geographical and astronomical time.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• The earth spins from west to east, taking 24 hours to Time zone, latitude, longitude, Ask students to
complete one rotation. Greenwich Mean Time,
• give the time elsewhere in Australia
The earth takes about 365.25 days to complete one international date line, meridian,
for given times where they live
orbit about the sun. The tilt of the earth causes the parallel, daylight saving,
sun’s rays to concentrate on the northern hemisphere revolution, orbit, equinox, • explain how our time system is
for one half of the orbit and the southern hemisphere solstice, equator, Tropic of related to the motion of the earth
for the other half, giving the seasons. Capricorn, Tropic of Cancer. about the sun.
• The division of the day into hours, minutes and “Melbourne and Sydney are in
seconds is the result of the sexagesimal system of the same time zone.”
counting used in ancient Babylon and has no other “Adelaide is thirty minutes
logical foundation. The same applies for the division behind Sydney so at eight
of angles into degrees and hence the latitude and o’clock in Sydney it is seven
longitude system based on 360. thirty in Adelaide.”
“When daylight-saving starts
• Australia is divided into three time zones: Eastern EVALUATION
we advance our clocks by one
Standard Time, Central Standard Time and Western
hour.” • Did I take advantage of links with
Standard Time. Daylight-saving in some states causes
“The equinox occurs when the Science and Social Studies?
more time differences during summer months.
sun shines directly over the
• World time zones depend on longitudinal distance equator in spring and autumn.”
measured from Greenwich in England. The 180 “There is a winter solstice and a
degrees meridian of longitude, the international date summer solstice.”
line, determines the change of day.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
TIME ZONES
RESEARCH TOPICS
• Discuss the reasons for time zones rather than having each
• Students find the time differences between their town and place operating to the time taken strictly from its longitude.
various places in the world. Some students might have a
• Discuss the problems of having different time zones. Discuss
particular connection with another city and so might wish to
the implications for making phone calls, travelling to another
investigate the time there. Set clocks for display in the
state, listening to national radio stations, etc.
classroom to show the time at some of these places.
• Discuss the implications of having the whole of Australia in
• Research the terms “equinox” and “solstice”. Note the dates on
one time zone.
which they occur. Make displays showing the implications.
• Discuss air travel across the international date line which
THE WINTER SOLSTICE OCCURS THIS THURSDAY.
appears to allow travellers to arrive at their destinations before
THURSDAY HAS THE SHORTEST PERIOD OF DAYLIGHT.
they leave.
• Research the history of the calendar, noting the alterations
made by the Romans and by Pope Gregory XIII. SPACE TIME
• Have students research the length of time in earth years for
MODELLING THE SOLAR SYSTEM each planet to complete one orbit of the sun. Have students
Use balls of appropriate sizes to make a model of the sun and the calculate their ages in Venus years, Jupiter years, etc.
nine planets. Set Pluto at the maximum convenient distance and • Have students research the distance to near stars. Discuss the
divide that distance proportionally for the other planets. problems of interplanetary travel and interstellar travel. Explain
the term “light year” as the distance light travels in one year.
MOTION OF THE EARTH Calculate the distance in kilometres.
Use a globe and a strong torch to show the daily rotation of the
earth as it progresses in its orbit around the sun. Note the constant
tilt which gives the change of seasons.

RESOURCES
Globes of the world, atlases, charts, a range of balls for modelling the solar system.

193
 NUMERATION
SUMMARY OF OBJECTIVES
NUMERATION 1
• describe and name simple objects and their properties
• classify objects and sort them into groups according to their
similarities
NUMERATION 2
• match objects by one-to-one correspondence
• compare groups of objects by one-to-one correspondence
• use the language of comparison to describe objects
NUMERATION 3
• order groups according to the number of objects in the group
NUMERATION 4
• recognise, copy and create simple patterns
• continue a pattern or supply a missing element
NUMERATION 5
• read and write the numerals 1–9
• count and order groups of up to nine objects
• say numbers in the correct sequence
• rote count forwards and backwards by ones
• use the ordinal names “first” to “ninth”
NUMERATION 6
• use the language of zero, nought, nothing and none
• recognise the zero symbol
• count forwards and backwards using zero
NUMERATION 7
• make groups of ten objects
• read and write the numeral 10
NUMERATION 8
• make groups of 11 to 19 objects
• read and write numerals 11 to 19
• count to nineteen and backwards from nineteen
NUMERATION 9
• make groups of 20, 30, 40 ....... 90
• count to 90 by tens and backwards from 90 by tens
194
NUMERATION 10
• make groups of 20 to 99 objects
• read and write the numerals 20 to 99
• count to 90 by ones and back from 90 by ones
NUMERATION 11
• make groups of 100 objects
• read and write 100
• count to 100 by ones, twos, fives and tens
• count backwards from 100 in ones, twos, fives and tens
NUMERATION 12
• represent groups to 999 using concrete materials
• identify the place value in a three-digit number
• read, write and order numbers to 999
NUMERATION 13
• read and write numbers up to 9 999 in numerals and words
• order numbers up to 9 999
• state the place value of any digit in a four digit numeral
NUMERATION 14
• read and write five-digit numerals
• read and write five-digit numbers in words
• state the place value of any digit in a five-digit number
• order a set of numbers of up to five digits
NUMERATION 15
• read and write numerals up to one hundred million
• write numbers in words up to one hundred million
• state the place value of any digit in a numeral with up to nine
digits
• place a set of nine-digit numbers in ascending or descending
order
NUMERATION 1
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Objects can be sorted and classified. The student is able to
• describe and name simple objects and their properties
• classify objects and sort them into groups according to their similarities.
CONTENT
Classification of objects according to one or more
attributes.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Numeration Units 1–4 emphasise the processes of
sorting, classifying, comparing, ordering and
patterning. These units may be treated concurrently
before more formal number work begins.
• Allow the students to explore the materials freely
before commencing directed activities. When
selecting objects for classification take care to choose
a variety of materials, including natural and
manufactured objects.
• Sort objects according to one attribute first, eg colour.
Increase the number of attributes as students become
more competent, eg consider colour and shape.
• As a result of sorting experiences students may come
to the understanding that an object may belong to two
or more groups.
• When the students identify an object that can belong
to more than one group allow them the time to
explore the possibilities of how to resolve the
difficulty.
Like, alike, belongs, doesn’t Ask students to
belong, not alike, together, put
• name and describe objects and their
together, the same as, a group
attributes, eg “It’s a small, brown
of, sort, different, big, little,
gumnut.”
long, short, heavy, light, full,
empty, black and white, colour • sort objects into groups, describing
names, not big, not little, not the reasons for assigning items to a
long. particular group.
“Where will this bead go? It
can’t go here because these
things aren’t red but it can go
here because these are red.”
EVALUATION
“I’ve got all the long, red
ribbons here and all the short, • Did the students have enough
red ribbons over there.” opportunities to select and name their
“Are there any more things that own groups?
belong here?” • Did the students participate freely
Encourage the use of the word with each other during activities?
“not” when naming groups, eg
red, not red.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
CUT-OUTS
EXPLORING OBJECTS
Display a collection of cut-outs with distinctive shapes. Ask the
Give each student or group of students a collection of objects to students to arrange the cut-outs in two groups so that the cut-outs
explore. Allow discussion and sharing of ideas between students. in each group are alike in some way. Discuss their arrangement.
Ask students to choose an object and describe it.

SORTING
Ask students to sort a collection of objects into groups of their
own choice. Ask students to describe and name the group. Ask
students to suggest other ways of grouping the same objects.
Teachers may need to guide the students by suggesting possible
groupings. Ask students to suggest other objects that would be
suitable for each group and to investigate where items are sorted
and stored separately at home, eg cutlery, crockery.
WHAT’S THE SAME
One group of students selects another group of students who are
alike in some way, eg dark hair. The rest of the class tries to guess
how the students are similar.
Repeat the activity choosing other groups.
THE “NOT” ATTRIBUTE
The teacher sorts a group of objects into two groups, eg “yellow”
and “not yellow”. Ask students to suggest names for the groups.
Encourage students to form groups showing the “not” attribute.
Straight-sided shapes Curved-sided shapes
WHERE DOES IT BELONG?
• Using a collection that has been partly sorted ask the students
to decide into which group the next object will fit and why.
• From a collection of objects ask students to sort all the blue
objects into one group and all the blocks into another. Discuss
the problem of placing a blue block into one of the groups.
• Some computer programs involve students in classifying
objects.
SORT THE PATTERN
Ask students to collect pieces of wrapping paper and wall-paper
off-cuts. Ask students to sort the collection suggesting their own
criteria.

RESOURCES
Buttons, string, wool, ribbon, tape, pebbles, sticks, leaves, fabric, wood off-cuts, cups, saucers, cutlery, blocks, Lego bricks, Duplo bricks,
Multilink, stamps, art material, clothing, toys, computer programs involving classifying.

195
NUMERATION 2
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Objects and groups can be compared by matching and The student is able to
showing one-to-one correspondence. • match objects by one-to-one correspondence
• compare groups of objects by one-to-one correspondence
CONTENT • use the language of comparison to describe objects.
Comparing by matching and one-to-one correspondence.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• The process of comparing is the forerunner to Each, enough, not enough, a lot, Ask students to
ordering, counting and measuring. It is important for a few, fewer than, many, too
• match objects one-to-one, eg pens
students to manipulate objects and describe their many, the same as, more than,
and books, socks and shoes
actions when comparing. less than, belongs, match.
• compare groups, eg “There are more
• In comparing two groups students may focus on the “I have more pencils than
pencils than straws,” and use the
relative size of the objects or the way they are books.”
language of comparison to describe
arranged rather than the number of items. They may “I have fewer books than
two groups.
see pencils.”
“I have less sugar than Di.”
as being more than this arrangement.
“There is one glue pot on each
• Daily classroom activities and routines provide many EVALUATION
table.”
opportunities for students to use pairing to find if “The Three Bears each had a • Were all students given an
there are “as many as” or “enough” and to use that bowl of porridge.” opportunity to match objects and
language in reporting their findings. groups?
Note that “fewer” is used for
• Reciprocal relationships should be emphasised when things that can be counted while • Did I develop the students’ language
students are comparing, eg “There are more books “less” is correctly reserved for by effective questioning?
than pencils so there are fewer pencils than books.” measured quantities.
• Use incidental activities when studying other
curriculum areas to practise matching students and
objects one-to-one, eg when handing out paint
brushes to students in Art.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES MORE OR FEWER

CONSERVATION OF NUMBER Show a group of objects arranged in a line. Ask students to decide
which other groups, not arranged, have more objects and which
Students need to be taken through a sequence of conservation have fewer objects. Ask students to explain how they reached their
activities where a number of objects in two groups are compared conclusions.
in different arrangements.
STEP 1. BUTTONS AND CORKS
Each group of students is given some buttons and some corks (or a
STEP 2. number of other objects which are readily available). Ask students
to make statements about the relative number of objects they
STEP 3. received. For example,
• “We have more corks than buttons.”
STEP 4. • “We have fewer buttons than corks.”
• “We got the same number of buttons as corks.”
STEP 5.

SINGING AND MOVEMENT

STEP 6.
When telling stories and singing songs take advantage of
opportunities to stress the one-to-one correspondences. Examples
STEP 7. occur in “The Three Bears” (each bear has a chair, a bowl of
porridge and a bed). “The Three Little Pigs” (each pig has a
MATCHING ONE-TO-ONE house) and so on.
• Students working in pairs receive a small number of metal Rhymes such as “Where is Thumbkin” have one-to-one matching
spoons and plastic spoons (or similar objects). Students match implications.
the different types one-to-one and decide which of the types is
more numerous. “Musical Chairs” shows the implications of not having one-to-one
correspondence.
• Card games such as “Tops and Tails” may be used to show
matching on a one-to-one basis.

RESOURCES
Shells, pebbles, sticks, leaves, bottle tops, buttons, cotton reels, ribbon, wool, tape, pegs, containers, fabric, bottles, beads, egg cartons,
toys, dice, Lego bricks, Duplo bricks, Unifix, Multilink, Base 10 material.

196
NUMERATION 3
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Groups can be ordered according to the number of items The student is able to
in each group.
• order groups according to the number of objects in the group.
CONTENT
Ordering groups by number.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• In early stages when comparing groups by number the
objects in the groups should all be of the same type,
eg three groups of buttons.
• When students are confident with ordering three
groups they may order four or more groups.
• Students should be encouraged to order groups by
matching objects one-to-one and finding out which
group has the most and which group has the fewest
objects.
• Students should order groups in ascending and
descending order.
• Be aware of different interpretations students may
have of language used. For instance, if the task is to
find the biggest group from groups of three books,
four pencils and five rubbers, some students may
choose the books on the basis of their size.
• Students should experience ordering groups of real
objects before ordering pictorial representations.
Smaller, smallest, larger, largest, Ask students to
bigger, biggest, next, before,
• order groups of objects according to
after, next to, first, second,
the number of objects they contain,
third, last, less, few, fewer,
eg packets and cans in the class shop.
fewest, more, most, in the
middle, middle size.
“The blue pencil group is the EVALUATION
biggest. The red pencil group is
• Did I encourage discussion between
the smallest and the green
individual students?
pencil group is in the middle.”
“There are more crayons than • Were parents or older students able to
rubbers but the smallest group be involved in the activities?
is the rulers.”
“This red group is the smallest • Did I use appropriate computer
software?
group.”
“There are more boys than
girls.”
“There are not as many six year
olds as five year olds.”
“The shell group is a bit smaller
than the stick group but there
are fewest leaves.”

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
DISJOINT GROUPS
SAME OBJECTS
Ask students to suggest ways in which the class could be divided,
• Working in groups of three, students are asked to make a
necklace using beads. Ask students to decide who has the eg girls and boys, dark hair and fair hair, five year olds and six
fewest beads and who has the most. year olds. Discuss the number of people that would be in each
• Ask three students to grab a handful of buttons from a group.
container to make a pattern. Students decide who has the
smallest group, who has the biggest group and who has the ORDERING GROUPS BY NUMBER
middle size group.
• Play a game such as Skittles with three or more students and Present each group of students with three sets of objects. Ask
give students a token for each win they have. Ask students to students to order their three sets according to the number of
show who has the most tokens and who has the least. objects in each set. Make sure that the students do not take into
account the nature or size of the object in the set. Ask students to
MATCHING OBJECTS
indicate which set has the least number of objects, the most objects
• Ask students to order groups of different types of objects that and the middle number.
have an obvious one-to-one relationship, eg a group of knives,
a group of forks and a group of spoons.
• Give students a group of plastic eggs, egg cups and plates and
ask them to show which group has the fewest things.

PICTURES TOYS
Give students three pictures, each showing a different number of Students sort the class toys into groups of their own choosing.
the same objects and ask them to order these. They then order the groups according to the number of toys in
each group.

RESOURCES
Buttons, sticks, stacking barrels, toys, Lego bricks, Duplo bricks, Unifix, Multilink, rods, blocks, sequence pictures, computer problem
solving software.

197
NUMERATION 4
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Objects and groups can be arranged in patterns. The student is able to
• recognise, copy and create simple patterns
CONTENT • continue a pattern or supply a missing element.
Recognising, copying, creating and continuing patterns.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• The idea of pattern is fundamental to mathematics. Match, next to, repeat, copy, Ask students to
Encourage students to observe patterns found in the same, before, after, follows,
• make a pattern
natural and built environments. Students can collect between, pattern, continue,
examples of these patterns or find pictures of them in mixing, border, all over, in a • recognise and describe a given pattern
magazines, eg fences, walls, honey-combs, floor tiles, line, beginning, middle, first, • copy a given pattern
shells, fabrics, wallpaper, flowers. last.
• predict the next element of a given
• Pattern work may be integrated with art and craft, “The pattern goes red, yellow, pattern
movement, handwriting, music and language blue, red, yellow, blue .......”
programs. Further activities in pattern making are “My pattern is the same as • identify the missing element of an
listed in the Space strand. Ed’s.” incomplete pattern.
“The circle is the bit missing
• Encourage students to create patterns where two three
from this pattern.”
or four elements are repeated.

EVALUATION
(a) • Was a wide variety of materials used?
• Did I use sounds, actions and pictures
(b) in forming patterns?

• Vary the colour, shape, size and position of objects.

Construct patterns from right to left, left to right, top
to bottom, etc. Explore a variety of patterns, eg linear,
border and “growing” patterns.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES CREATING PATTERNS

RHYTHM PATTERNS Have students make patterns by threading beads or arranging

blocks, tiles, cotton reels, plastic tubing, etc.
• The teacher claps a pattern and students, singly or in groups,
copy the pattern. Use plasticine or playdough to make different shapes with biscuit
cutters. Arrange the shapes to form patterns. Use icing of different
• The teacher claps well-known nursery rhymes and the students
colours to give different patterns.
try to identify the nursery rhyme.
• The teacher uses a variety of percussion instruments to play a Have students make shapes using potato prints.
rhythm pattern. Students copy the pattern. Have students create cyclic
patterns.
BODY PATTERNS
Student groups arrange themselves in patterns, eg
• two students standing, one sitting
• one sitting on a chair, vacant chair, one standing.
Other groups join the group which created the pattern, attempting PAPER PATTERNS
to recognise the pattern and continue it. • Have students make paper chains from coloured strips of paper.

COPYING PATTERNS
• The teacher puts a number of objects in a pattern sequence.
Students study the pattern and close their eyes. The teacher or a
student removes one object and students are asked to name the
missing object.
• Students work in pairs. One student makes a pattern from Lego
bricks, Cuisenaire rods, attribute blocks, etc. The other student
copies the pattern and continues it.
CEILING HANGERS
Attach objects or paper to string across the room to form patterns.
• Have students design patterns of their own, using art materials
or by folding and cutting coloured paper and gluing to
cardboard for display.
• Encourage students to make border patterns for stories, pictures
or the class notice board.
PATTERN BOOKS
Students collect patterns found in fabrics, wrapping paper,
wallpaper, etc and paste the patterns into a book or onto cardboard
for display.

RESOURCES
Percussion instruments, pattern cards, tiles, beads, cotton reels, blocks, Lego bricks, Duplo bricks, Unifix, Multilink, fruit, vegetables,
wrapping paper, coloured paper, glue, plasticine, clay, playdough, pattern blocks, toys, coins.

198
NUMERATION 5
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
The student is able to
Items in a group can be numbered.
• read and write the numerals 1–9
• count and order groups of up to nine objects
• say numbers in the correct sequence
CONTENT
• rote count forwards and backwards by ones
The numbers 1 to 9. • use the ordinal names “first” to “ninth”.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Concentrate initially on the numbers 1 to 5. More than, less than, the same Ask students to
• Students should come to realise that by adding one as, as many as, not as many as,
• recognise and write the numerals
more object to a group of objects, a group with the almost, nearly, names of
1 to 9
“next” number of objects is formed. numbers one to nine, first,
second ....... ninth, last, next, • match numeral cards with groups of
• Place numbers in ascending and descending order.
before, after between, most, objects
Ask students to count backwards as well as forwards.
least, smallest, largest, equal, • place numbers in ascending or
• Young children sometimes think that the number
match, enough. descending order
name is a label for the object.
• Students should develop the ability to recognise when “I’ve got five spoons.” • state the order of objects in a
a group has more than or less than a given group of “Ed’s got more than Di.” sequence from first to ninth or last.
objects. “I’ve got the same as him.”
“One, two, three, four, five,
• Most young children need to touch the objects they
are counting.
Once I caught a fish alive.” EVALUATION
“My sister is three years old.”
• By ordering groups of objects students develop a • Have I allowed sufficient time for
“Derek came fourth in the race.”
concept of the structure of the number system and individuals to consolidate these
therefore the ability to count meaningfully. Be aware Have students read the word important skills?
that students may be able to rote count but may not corresponding to the numeral.
• Did all students participate actively in
have a true understanding of number. It is common Refer to current handwriting
for young students not to realise that counting activities?
policy documents for the correct
involves starting from 1, the last number said giving forms for writing numerals. • Did I encourage students to collect
the number of items. resources from home?
• It is important that students have a very clear
understanding of numbers 1 to 9 before 10, with its
place value considerations, is introduced.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
STAIRCASES
Students build staircases using Unifix, Multilink, Lego
or Duplo bricks.
• Ask students to place the stairs in order.
• Ask students to count aloud as they touch each stair.
ROTE COUNTING
These ideas are designed to help students learn the number names
in the correct sequence. Have students
• count forwards and backwards, one to nine
• count on from a given number
• count from one to a given number
• stand in a line and call out their position number
• count with a partner, each calling a number alternately
• continue counting from where the teacher stops.
INSTANT RECOGNITION
Make flash cards each with a number of dots ranging from one to
five. Show cards momentarily to students and ask students to say
how many dots there were on the card.
RHYMES, SONGS AND STORIES
Picture books, songs and nursery rhymes can be used to develop
number concepts, for example, “The Three Little Pigs”, “The
Three Bears”, “Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs” and “Ten
Green Bottles”.
Use stories to teach ordinal names by asking questions such as
“What came second?” and so on.
NUMBER HINTS
Find things in nature that are made up of a certain number of
elements, eg flowers with five petals, an octopus with eight legs,
an ant with six legs.
NUMERAL BOOKS
Have students make up scrap books and charts by cutting out and
pasting pictures to match the numeral.

ORDERING AND COUNTING SNAIL RACES

Give groups of students various numbers of similar objects, eg
some spoons, some dice, some coins. Students sort the objects into
groups and count the number of objects in each group. Students
then order the groups according to how many objects are in each.
Set up some snail races and order the snails from first to ninth.
MAKING NUMERALS
Have students make numerals by tracing, modelling playdough,
making biscuits, sticking sand to paper, etc.

RESOURCES
Unifix, Lego or Duplo bricks, Multilink, counters, numeral cards, containers, buttons, beads, shells, toys, cutlery, plasticine, playdough,
art paper, paint brushes, dice, scissors, paste, pegboards, paper clips, computer software involving number study.

199
NUMERATION 6
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Zero is an important concept in the Hindu-Arabic The student is able to
numeration system.
• use the language of zero, nought, nothing and none
CONTENT • recognise the zero symbol
Investigating zero. • count forwards and backwards using zero.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Zero is a difficult concept which is used in a number Zero, nought, nothing, none, Ask students to
of different ways, eg none left, nothing left, none at
• recognise the symbol 0 and use the
all, more than, less than.
- the starting point on a number line terms “zero” and “nought”.
“There are no pencils in the
- the number of a group which has no objects in it • make different groups and describe
tin.”
those with no objects using the
- a place holder in a numeral. “Rebecca went to the dentist
correct language.
• This unit concentrates on zero as the number of and had no fillings.”
elements in a set with no objects in it. The idea of “The number of people away
zero as the starting point of a number line can be today is zero.”
“I gave away some lollies and EVALUATION
consolidated when a ruler is introduced in measuring.
Zero as a place holder is treated in later Numeration now I’ve got none.” • Did the activities challenge the
units. students?
• During activities provide comparisons with zero, eg • Were all students given opportunities
“There are four pencils in this tin but the number of to use a range of concrete materials?
pencils in that tin is zero.” • Did I allow enough time for students
to solve problems before I
intervened?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
NUMERAL STRIP
DISCUSSION
Discuss with students the everyday situations where zero occurs.
Build on student statements such as “I don’t have a dog.” “There
are no holidays in May.” “Five, four, three, two, one, BLAST Flaps may be raised to cover a particular numeral.
OFF!”, etc.

CONTAINERS
Show students six containers holding 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 and zero objects. Questions may be asked about what number is covered, what
Ask students to state how many objects are in each container. number comes before one, etc.
Match the number stated with a card showing the numeral and a
card showing the word form of the number.
ZERO BOOKS
4 FOUR Make a book of zero. Leave some pages blank. On other pages
have students paste pictures and label them suitably, eg on a
picture of a desolate beach write the caption “There are no people
0 ZERO
at this beach”.
Discuss the result of labelling a blank page with the words “This
SONGS, STORIES AND RHYMES page has no words on it.”

Introduce students to songs, etc that involve zero, eg

DOMINOES
• “Ten Green Bottles”
• “Green Grow the Rushes - O” Play Dominoes using the standard rules. Draw the attention of
• “Five Little Ducks”. students to the squares with no dots and ask students to explain the
meaning of this.
GRAPHS LINK
When studying statistics incorporate groups which have zero ZERO AS A STARTING POINT FOR COUNTING
elements, eg when making a graph about hair colour there may be Discuss cases where we start from zero, eg an odometer, and cases
no redheads. where we start from one, eg house numbers.

RESOURCES
Unifix, Lego bricks, Duplo bricks, Multilink, numeral cards, numeral strips, containers, paint, brushes, glue, magazines.

200
NUMERATION 7
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
The Hindu-Arabic system is a Base 10 system. The student is able to
• make groups of ten objects
CONTENT • read and write the numeral 10.
The number 10.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• At this stage students are not expected to explain 10
as “one ten and zero units”.
• Teachers can encourage students to count to ten in
their first languages, eg Greek or Arabic and to teach
other students to do so.
• Students need a lot of experience with everyday
objects before using Base 10 materials to represent
10. Free play with Base 10 materials is essential,
however, for familiarity.
• Students should be encouraged to count collections as
well as individual items, eg bunches of flowers,
groups of counters, bags of marbles, shelves of books.
This helps in the later development of place value
concepts.
More than, less than, the same
as, exactly, larger than, smaller
than, ten, groups of ten, bundles
of ten.
“Ten people can fit into our
van.”
“Two starfish have ten pointy
legs.”
“There aren’t enough toothpicks
in this pattern; there are only
nine.”
“I used a one card and a zero
card to show ten.”
Ask students to
• make groups of ten objects
• read the numeral 10 from wall-charts
or cards
• count groups of ten or less and label
them with appropriate numeral cards
• count aloud to ten and backwards
from ten.
EVALUATION
• Did I involve all the students in
discussions?
• Did the students work cooperatively?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES DOT PICTURES

ESTIMATION Give students numbered dots which may be joined to form a

picture.
• Students investigate whether ten people can fit
- in a hoop LEGS
- around a hoop Have students create wall charts or big books showing pictures of
- on a desk things with ten legs, eg five people, one beetle and two birds, two
- along a skipping rope starfish.
- along a seat
and so on. CONSERVATION
Ask students to make predictions before checking. Ask students to make as many different patterns as they can using
• Students investigate whether ten ten dots. After a suitable period of exploration discuss student
- bean seeds will fit in a matchbox patterns and, if necessary, look at these.
- buttons will fit in a film container
and so on.

TRACING
Students help each other trace around hands and/or feet. Fingers
and toes are then numbered on the tracing. Students write signs
CLICK COUNTERS
such as Explore the concept of nine and one more by having students
observe odometers and counters on cassette recorders.
I HAVE TEN TOES.
CALCULATORS
SONGS, STORIES AND RHYMES Have students enter 1 + 1 + 1 + repeatedly. Ask them to describe
Further develop counting through songs such as “Ten Green what appears on the display and match it with concrete materials.
Bottles” and “Ten Little Indians”.
ACTIVITIES REVISITED
Refer to earlier units and extend other activities to ten where
appropriate.

RESOURCES
Toys, popsticks, beans, shells, empty cans, hoops, skipping ropes, cardboard, paper clips, blocks, coloured paper, scissors, string, numeral
cards, cards with dot patterns.

201
NUMERATION 8
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
A digit has a fixed face value but its place value varies The student is able to
according to its position in the numeral.
• make groups of 11 to 19 objects
CONTENT • read and write numerals 11 to 19
Numbers 11–19. • count to nineteen and backwards from nineteen.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• The numbers eleven to nineteen often cause Ten and one, ten and two, ....... Ask students to
difficulties for students because of the way they are ten and nine, eleven, twelve,
• make groups of 11 to 19 objects
said and read. The oral language pattern of fourteen as thirteen ....... nineteen.
“four and ten”, for instance, is the reverse of the usual • count from 11 to 19
“Ten and seven is bigger than
pattern of “tens first and then ones” as in “forty- • count up to nineteen and back to one
ten and four.”
seven” (four tens and seven ones). Students should from nineteen
“ There are ten and seven
first be encouraged to describe the “teen” numbers as
matches in this box.” • count on to nineteen from some given
“ten and one”, “ten and two”, and so on, before the
“I need one more to make ten smaller number
common names are introduced. Linking terms such as
into eleven.”
“ten and three” with the number 13 helps students to • read and write 100.
“My monster has thirteen arms.”
understand the meaning of the number.
“There are fourteen boys in the
• Teachers may prefer an alternative sequence for class.”
Numeration 8, 9 and 10. EVALUATION
• Students should be able to recognise “teen” numbers • Did I encourage student language
before being asked to write them. through careful questioning?
• Some languages, such as Vietnamese, name the teens • Were there sufficient resources
in the pattern of tens first then ones. Teachers can available for each student?
encourage students to count in languages other than
English to highlight different approaches to naming
numbers.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES COUNTING GAMES

NUMBER CHART Place a handful of beans or Base 10 shorts in a clear plastic

container. Ask students to estimate the number and check by
Have students record each number on a chart. counting.
ten ten 10
DOT PATTERNS
ten one eleven 11
Have students investigate patterns of dots formed using between
ten two twelve 12
ten and twenty buttons or counters.
ten three thirteen 13
15
COUNTING AND BUNDLING
Have students CALCULATOR
• count beads, buttons, shells, popsticks or blocks into • Students enter a given number and are given a target number.
collections of 11 to 19 and label them with numeral cards They guess how many ones must be added to the given number
• bundle popsticks into tens and show the numbers 11 to 19 as a to make the target number and check using the calculator.
bundle and one, a bundle and two, etc • Students enter 9 and continue to add 1 noting the change on the
• count beads, buttons or shells into suitably cut egg cartons to display.
show ten, ten and one, ten and two, etc.
JOIN THE DOTS
Ten and two. Give students a series of dots numbered 1 to 19 which they join to
form a picture or pattern.

LEGS TEENS BOOK

Have students make posters which illustrate collections with a Make a big book with each page featuring a number from 11 to
certain number of legs, eg “An octopus, a dog and a person 19. Show examples where each number is used, eg 12 is one
together have 14 legs.” dozen, 18 is the voting age.

RESOURCES
Place value charts, number flips, calculators, blocks, numeral cards, beans, buttons, counters, shells, popsticks, toy cars, egg cartons, dice,
bottles, Unifix, Multilink.

202
NUMERATION 9
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Place value is fundamental to the Hindu-Arabic The student is able to
numeration system. • make groups of 20, 30, 40 ....... 90
• count to 90 by tens and backwards from 90 by tens.
CONTENT
2-digit multiples of 10.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Initially students label sets “20” which they initially Two tens, three tens, four tens Ask students to
call “two tens” as well as “twenty”. They will ....... nine tens, twenty, thirty,
• make bundles of concrete materials to
probably know the words “twenty”, “thirty”, etc but forty ....... ninety.
form multiples of ten
may not have a clear idea of what those terms mean.
“I can make three tens.”
• state the number of popsticks in a
• Encourage students to continue counting in their first “Becky Made five groups of
given number of bundles of ten
languages. Display labels for sets in languages ten.”
appropriate to the class. “That number is smaller than • write a multiple of ten given the word
seven tens.” form, eg forty
• Encourage students to develop different counting
“Eight tens is the same as • write the word form of a given
strategies. For example, if they are counting a large
eighty.” multiple of ten
number of shells they can count out groups of ten and
“I need two more to make
then count the groups. • count by tens from a given starting
forty.”
• Reference groups of 20, 30 ....... 90 can be point.
constructed to display on tables or on walls using
such materials as bottle tops, popsticks and ring-pulls
from cans. EVALUATION
• Allow students to count on past 90 if they wish. • Did I encourage a range of problem
solving activities?
• Were parents asked to help with
counting in other languages?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
CALCULATOR
GROUPS OF TEN
• Ask students to enter 10 and then add another 10 and record
• Students take a large handful of materials such as toothpicks, the result displayed. Students continue to add ten, noting the
matchsticks or popsticks and estimate how many bundles of ten display and matching with concrete materials.
they could make. They then make as many complete bundles of
• Give students a multiple of ten and a target, eg “How can we
ten as possible and, ignoring leftovers, count in tens to find the
turn 30 into 60 on the display?” Ask students to think of other
actual number.
ways it could be done.
• Form the class into groups of ten. Repeat by combining two or
more classes and count the number of students. OTHER LANGUAGES
• Have students make displays using bundles of popsticks, Base Make class displays showing the words for the multiples of ten in
10 material and numeral cards to show representations of various languages. Discuss any word patterns that students notice.
multiples of ten side by side.

PICTURES MEASUREMENT LINK

• Ask students to note the markings on a thermometer.
Find pictures where many people or animals can be seen. Cover
the picture with clear plastic. For instance, a picture of a beach • Ask students to find small containers which show multiples of
crowd could be shown to students. They could estimate the ten for nett weight or capacity on the labels.
number of people in the picture and then circle groups of ten using
• Show the markings on a metre rule and discuss the meaning of
a felt pen. Counting the groups gives the total number in the
the multiples of ten.
crowd.

ACTIVITIES REVISITED
THE ENVIRONMENT
Activities from previous units should be continued or extended
Ask students to find cases where multiples of ten are shown in the
wherever possible.
environment, eg speed signs.

RESOURCES
Buttons, shells, blocks, sticks, cardboard, glue, bottle tops, leaves, cans, numeral cards, Base 10 materials, calculators, place value chart,
toothpicks, matching cards, popsticks, rubber bands.

203
NUMERATION 10
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
A digit has a fixed face value but its place value depends The student is able to
on its position in the numeral.
• make groups of 20 to 99 objects
CONTENT • read and write the numerals 20 to 99
Numbers 20 to 99. • count to 90 by ones and back from 90 by ones.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• This unit focuses on place value. The value of digits Ones, tens, units, the ones Ask students to
in various numerals is investigated. Students should place, the units place, the tens
• represent the number which is
understand, for example, that the five in 35 represents place, trade, three tens and nine,
- one more or one less than
five ones but the 5 in 53 represents five tens. thirty-nine.
- ten more or ten less than
• Thirty-five is described at first as 3 tens and five to “There are four tens and no the number on a numeral card using
emphasise place value. The term “thirty-five” is ones.” concrete materials
introduced soon after. “Three tens and five ones is the
• estimate the number of objects in a
same as thirty-five.”
• Student estimates of the number of tens in a group group from 10 to 99 and check by
“Bettine traded ten shorts for a
may be quite inaccurate at first. Encouraging the counting
long.”
development of estimation skills is more important
“Four longs is the same number • count to ninety-nine from a given
than achieving a correct answer.
as four bundles of ten.” starting number or back from ninety-
• Numeral expanders and number flips are useful for nine to one
demonstrating the relationship between the place
• give the number just before a multiple
values of digits in a number.
of ten, eg 40.

2 tens 4 ones 2 4
EVALUATION
• Were the students stimulated by the
way the activities were organised?
• Did I use a checklist or diary to keep
a record of student progress?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
TENS AND ONES
• Give a collection of popsticks or similar materials to students
and ask them to estimate how many there are. Have students
make bundles of ten and then write the correct number.
• Repeat using Base 10 shorts. Students swap groups of ten
shorts for one long and then count the longs and the number of
shorts not traded.
• Refer to previous activities related to pictures of crowds or
flocks of birds where groups of tens were circled. Ask students
to give the exact answers by considering both the circled
groups and those not circled.
PLACE VALUE CHARTS
Use place value charts and blocks to count forwards and
backwards by ones between 20 and 99. Students change number
flips on the wall as they count “twenty-nine, thirty, thirty-one .......”
or “two tens and nine, three tens, three tens and one .......”.
CARD GAMES
Groups of from two to four students use a pack of numeral cards
marked 0 to 9. Each player is dealt a card and places it secretly on
a place value chart in either the tens column or the units column.
Each player then receives another card and places that in the other
column. The winner can be the player with the greatest number,
the smallest number, the number closest to fifty, etc.
NUMBER LINES
Have students count backwards and forwards along a metre stick
or along a number line drawn in the playground. Ask students to
move along the line using instructions such as “Move to the
number which is ten more than the number you are standing on.”
CALCULATORS
Give students a starting number and a target number. Ask them to
state how much more has to be added to reach their target.
Students check their answers on a calculator.

Given Target How many more tens?

ESTIMATION 26 46 Student says 3.
Students estimate the number of beans in a clear jar. They then Check: 26 + 10 + 10 + 10 = 56, so the student tries again.
empty the jar and compare the correct count with their estimates.

ACTIVITIES REVISITED
Refer to activities from previous units. Continue or extend them as
appropriate.

RESOURCES
Base 10 material, calculators, numeral cards, number flips, popsticks, beans, numeral expanders, Unifix, abacus, place value charts,
pattern blocks, 1c and 10c coins, dice, tins, plastic containers.

204
NUMERATION 11
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
The Hindu-Arabic numeration system is a Base 10 The student is able to
system. • make groups of 100 objects
• read and write 100
CONTENT • count to 100 by ones, twos, fives and tens
• count backwards from 100 in ones, twos, fives and tens.
One hundred.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• To understand the concept of 100, students will need
experiences in estimating, counting, manipulating and
grouping 100 objects.
• Students will need to understand that 100 ones, 10
tens and one hundred all have the same value.
Students will need experience “trading” 10 ones for 1
ten and 10 tens for 1 hundred.
• Students should be given as many opportunities as
possible to see 100 in concrete forms in the real
world, eg 100 bricks, 100 cans.
• Students should have ready access to Base 10 material
(flats, longs and shorts). These can be put into ice
cream containers or tote trays for storage.
• Work with the calculator does not replace the need to
use concrete materials. Concrete materials can be
used during calculator activities to reinforce number
concepts.
• Students can use a variety of strategies to verify that
an amount is one hundred.
Ones, tens, one hundred, units,
flats, longs, shorts, century,
centicube, cent, dollar, digit,
ones place, tens place, hundreds
place, trade.
“Josh found one hundred
bricks.”
“Steffi saw 100 on a road sign.”
“One hundred is ten tens.”
“I traded ten longs for a flat.”
Ask students to
• represent 100 using Base 10 materials
• make estimates of 100 items
• count forwards to one hundred in
ones, twos, fives or tens
• count backwards from one hundred in
ones, twos, fives or tens.
EVALUATION
• Were any students reluctant to use
concrete material?
• Were parents invited to provide help
or resources?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
ESTIMATION AND COUNTING
• Have students take what they think is 100 objects, eg popsticks,
marbles, blocks, stones. Have students count the number.
Discuss the accuracy of the estimates.
• Students estimate 100 items on paper by circling them Suitable
cases included dots on a grid page, words in a newspaper and
people in a photograph of a crowd.
• Students predict whether 100 objects will fit in a container, eg
will 100 marbles fit in an ice cream container?
• Students consider the area taken up by 100 people standing and
discuss whether 100 people would be able to stand in the
classroom, on a basketball court, etc. Combine some classes, if
necessary, to check predictions.
BASE 10 MATERIAL
• Have students show the equivalence of 1 flat, 10 longs and 100
shorts using Base 10 material.
• Students model 99 in Base 100 material and then add one
short. Have students describe the trading that takes place in
order to finish with one flat.
MONEY
Repeat the Base 10 material activities using 1c coins, 10c coins
and dollar coins.
WIN A FLAT
Students take turns to throw two dice. The total on the dice tells them
how many shorts they may take from the “bank”. When they have ten
shorts they must trade them for a long. When they have ten longs
they trade them for a flat. The first player with a flat wins the game.
GAMES
Have students play board games which involve 100 squares, eg
Snakes and Ladders.
HUNDREDS CHART AND ORAL COUNTING
Make or buy a hundreds chart, a square containing 100 small
squares numbered 1 to 100. Use the chart during practice of oral
counting by twos, fives and tens, having students point out the
patterns formed by the sequences.
CALCULATOR
Have students add twos until the calculator display reads 100 as an
aid to oral counting. Repeat for counting by fives and by tens.
Repeat, counting backwards.
DISPLAYS
Have students make wall posters illustrating the number 100, eg
cricketers who scored a century in their first test innings.
Make a collection of jars which hold 100 mL or packets which
have a new mass of 100 g.

RESOURCES
Base 10 material, beans, blocks, popsticks, cups, dot paper, grid paper, calculators, hundreds, charts, geoboards.

205
NUMERATION 12
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
The Hindu-Arabic numeration system uses base 10, place The student is able to
value and zero. • represent groups to 999 using concrete materials
• identify the place value in a three-digit number
CONTENT • read, write and order numbers to 999.
Numbers 100 to 999.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Concrete materials should continue to be used by
students to represent numbers to 999.
• The importance of the position of each digit in the
number should be emphasised.
• Special attention needs to be given to zero as a place
holder, eg in 300, 301 and 310.
• Where abbreviations are used for column headings in
place value charts, the ones column should not be
headed “O” due to the confusion with zero. U for
units may be considered as an alternative word or
write “ones” in full.
• In order for students to perform operations with three-
digit numbers a strong understanding of place value is
needed. Many errors in computation stem from
students’ lack of understanding of place value.
• The word “and” is used when reading a number or
writing it in words, eg five hundred and sixty-three.
• The students’ attention should be drawn to the fact
that bus and telephone numbers are said differently
from ordinary numbers.
• Students should develop the understanding that one
thousand, ten hundreds, one hundred tens and one
thousand ones are equivalent. This can be shown
through Base 10 material.
Ones, tens, hundreds, one
thousand, shorts, flats, longs,
blocks, odd, even, highest,
lowest, nearest, closest, missing,
before, after, numeral, value,
place value, nought, zero, trade,
millilitre, litre, gram, kilogram.
“Three flats, five longs and two
shorts makes three hundred and
fifty-two.”
“My house number has three
digits.”
“Nine dollars is nine hundred
cents.”
Ask students to
• make models of numbers up to 999
using Base 10 material
• identify the number modelled with
Base 10 material
• give the missing number in a
sequence of counting numbers
• give the place value of a digit in a
given three-digit number
• order three-digit numbers.
EVALUATION
• Were students given plenty of
opportunities to model three-digit
numbers?
• Was enjoyment of mathematics
promoted by the activities?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
NUMERAL EXPANDER
PLACE VALUE CHARTS
Make numeral expanders to show three-digit numbers.
Give each group of students a three-digit number to model using
popsticks on a place value chart, eg 235. Hundreds Tens Units

Hundreds Tens Units Write numerals in the shaded squares, eg 349.

3 Hundreds 4 Tens 9 Units

Folding shows other place value facts, eg 349 is 34 tens and 9

BASE 10 MATERIAL
Have students build models of three-digit numbers using Base 10
materials.
ABACUS
Have students show a given three-digit number on an abacus.
THREE-DIGIT NUMBERS IN THE ENVIRONMENT
Ask students to note examples of numbers up to 999 seen in the
environment, eg on car number plates. Make displays where
possible. Discuss the use of zero as a place holder at the beginning
of the number, eg
ARK – 082
units.
3 4 Tens 9 Units
DIGIT GAME
Students in a group receive a numeral card from the dealer. Each
student decides in which place column on a place value chart to
place the card. Once the card is placed it may not be moved. Each
player then receives another card and places it in one of the
remaining two columns. The third card dealt to each player must
go in the remaining column. The player with the largest number
wins a point. The first player to win ten points wins the game.
As a variation award a point to the player with the lowest number
in each round.

Discuss the properties of the numbers, eg all zeros, all the same, as
in 333, etc.

RESOURCES
Base 10 material, grid paper, abacus, dice, cardboard, blank playing cards, calculators, place value charts, numeral expanders arrow cards,
counters, centicubes, Unifix, popsticks, toothpicks, paper clips, straws.

206
NUMERATION 13
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
The Hindu-Arabic numeration system uses base 10, place The student is able to
value and zero. • read and write numbers up to 9 999 in numerals and words
• order numbers up to 9 999
CONTENT • state the place value of any digit in a four digit numeral.
Numbers 1 000 to 9 999.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Use structured material to show the relative value of Units, ones, tens, hundreds, Ask students to
each digit in the numeral. Emphasise the importance thousands.
• represent four-digit numbers using
of the position of each digit. Special attention needs
“One thousand two hundred and concrete materials
to be given to zero as a place holder.
fifty-three.”
• state the place value of each digit in a
• “O” should not be used as a heading for the “ones” or “Dates are said differently from
four-digit numeral
“units” column of a place value chart because of ordinary numbers.”
possible confusion with zero. • write a spoken number in words or
numerals
• It is important that students understand that 1
thousand, 10 hundreds, 100 tens and 1 000 ones all • read a four-digit number using the
have the same value. These understandings are standard language
important when “trading” in addition, subtraction, • state the next number given a number
multiplication and division. like 6 399.
• When writing four-digit numerals, a space is left after
the thousands column. A comma is NOT used.
EVALUATION
• Did students show confidence with
four-digit numerals?
• Did language difficulties hinder any
students?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
BASE 10 MATERIAL
Have students model four-digit numbers using Base 10 material.
Have students place numeral cards on their models and write the
number in words.
ABACUS AND OTHER CALCULATORS
Have students show given four-digit numbers on an abacus and on
an electronic calculator.
TELEPHONE BOOKS
Tear several consecutive pages from an old telephone book and
shuffle. Ask students to place the pages in correct order. They
could estimate how many entries there are per page and how many
pages would be required to give 5 000 entries.
DISPLAYS
• Make wall displays related to the use of four-digit numbers, eg
sporting crowds, news headlines.
• Link with Time by contrasting the words we use for numbers
with the words we use for the names of years.
ORDERING PRICES
Have students collect prices of items displayed in advertising, eg
prices of motor bikes, boats, etc that are more than $1 000 and less
than $10 000. Ask groups to place the items in order of price.
HIGHER OR LOWER
Two players and adjudicator are selected from the class. The
teacher gives the adjudicator a card upon which is written a
number. Initially the numbers given could be three-digit numbers.
Later they could be four-digit numbers. In future units they could
have five digits or even more.
The players are told outer bounds for the number on the card, eg
“The number is between 4 000 and 5 000.” The first player makes
a guess and the adjudicator responds by telling the players whether
the number is higher or lower than the one guessed. The other
player then offers a number and the adjudicator responds. The
game continues until a player gives the correct number.
Discuss the strategies used by players.
WIPE-OUT
The teacher asks the students to enter a four-digit number into a
calculator, eg 2 657. The teacher then asks the student to “wipe
out” one digit, ie change it to a zero. For example, “Wipe out the
5” would require the student to change the number to 2 607 and
the operation required would be subtraction of 50. At the same
time, the student demonstrates the meaning using Base 10
material.
EXPANDED FORM
The teacher gives students four-digit numbers and asks them to
write the numbers in expanded form, eg
1 468 = 1 000 + 400 + 60 + 8.

RESOURCES
Base 10 material, counters, abacus, calculators, number expanders, digit cards, arrow cards, numeral cards, old telephone books.

207
NUMERATION 14
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
The Hindu-Arabic numeration system uses base 10, place The student is able to
value and zero. • read and write five-digit numerals
• read and write five-digit numbers in words
CONTENT • state the place value of any digit in a five-digit number
• order a set of numbers of up to five digits.
Numbers 10 000 to 99 999.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• The extent of the number system is incomprehensible Ones, units, tens, hundreds, Ask students to
to students unless they encounter the very large thousands, ten thousands, place,
• read a given five-digit number
numbers necessary for recording long distances, twenty-five thousand four
population figures, etc and relate them to their own hundred and fifty-one. • write a given five-digit number in
experiences of crowds and so on. words and numerals
“The newspaper reported a
• Structured material should be used to illustrate the crowd of nearly thirty thousand • state the place value of a given digit
place values and face value properties. Special people at the cricket.” in a five-digit numeral
attention should be given to zero as a place holder. “The circumference of the earth • place a set of numbers with up to five
is about forty thousand and digits in ascending or descending
• It is important that students understand that 10
seventy-six kilometres.” order
thousand = 100 hundreds = 1 000 tens = 10 000 ones.
“There has been a continuous
• When writing a five-digit numeral there must be a Aboriginal presence in Australia • count on by thousands from a given
space, NOT a comma, to the right of the thousands for at least forty thousand number
place. years.” • state the number before a given
• Students can have difficulty appreciating large number.
numbers, such as 40 000. The use of a time can help.
For example, a time line could be constructed to
contrast European presence in Australia with EVALUATION
Aboriginal presence here. If 1 cm represents
European presence then at least 2 m would be needed • Were students familiar with situations
to show Aboriginal presence. involving large numbers?
• Were extension activities arranged for
students?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
TENS SLIDE
PLACE VALUE CHARTS
The teacher writes a number on the moveable strip of a tens slide,
Have students represent five-digit numbers using popsticks or eg 35. The class is asked to give the result of multiplying the
similar materials on a place value chart, eg number by 10, by 100 and by 1 000.
Ten thousands Thousands Hundreds Tens Ones
Ten thousands

Thousands

Hundreds

Units
Tens

3 7 4 0 3

BASE 10 MATERIAL
3 5
Have students model 12 472 using Base 10 material. Ask students
to suggest ways of overcoming the shortage of blocks so that
38 219 could be modelled.
INVESTIGATIONS
MAKE THE NUMBER Ask students to do research on the population of
This game requires a set of playing cards marked with digits 0 to 9 - their town or suburb
and a set of “task cards” with instructions such as “Make the - their shire or municipality.
number closest to 20 000.” or “Make the biggest number.” Each Link with social Studies and Science.
player receives five cards from the dealer. Each player then takes a
task card. The players arrange their cards to fit the task best and
the player who best meets the task receives a point. After a given
ACTIVITIES REVISITED
number of rounds the player with the most points wins. Continue and extend activities from previous units, eg numeral
expanders.

RESOURCES
Population statistics, crowd statistics, tables of distances to capital cities, numeral expanders, numeral cards, tens slide, place value chart,
Base 10 material, calculators, pegs, measuring tape.

208
NUMERATION 15
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
The Hindu-Arabic numeration system allows very large
numbers to be written and there are no limits on how The student is able to
large the number may be. • read and write numerals up to one hundred million
• write numbers in words up to one hundred million
CONTENT • state the place value of any digit in a numeral with up to nine digits
• place a set of nine-digit numbers in ascending or descending order.
The numbers 100 000 to one million and beyond.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• The main content of this unit is the numbers up to one Ones, units, tens, hundreds, Ask students to
million. Discussion of numbers greater than one thousands, ten thousands,
• read a given number with up to nine
million should be seen as extension material. Students hundred thousands, hundred
digits
should have a very sound understanding of the Hindu- thousands, millions, ten
Arabic numeration system before they undertake millions, hundred thousands, • write a given number with up to nine
activities concerned with numbers greater than one place value, infinite, infinity. digits in words
million. • show an understanding of the place
“One million Base 10 shorts
• It is difficult to represent one million in concrete form will pack into a metre cube.” value of any digit in numbers up to
but by no means impossible. (See activities.) Students “There are millions of grains of one hundred million
should come to distinguish between the concept of sand on Bondi Beach.” • place a set of numbers less than
infinity and very large numbers. Students should “There is no end to the counting 100 000 000 in ascending or
come to understand, for instance, that one million numbers; they go on forever.” descending order.
small objects may occupy a modest amount of space. “There are an infinite number of
fractions less than one.”
• Very large numbers and the concept of infinity usually
fascinate students. Infinity is not a number and EVALUATION
teachers should not give students the impression that
it is the largest number. • Were students ready to consider very
large numbers?
• The term “billion” has become ambiguous, sometimes
meaning one thousand million and sometimes • Was material available to show large
meaning one million million. numbers adequately in concrete
form?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
INVESTIGATING ONE MILLION
• Give students some Base 10 shorts and ask them to estimate
how much space a million of these would occupy if they were
packed together. Ask “Would they fit in the cupboard? Would
they fit in this room? Would they fill all the classrooms in the
school?” Discuss students’ suggestions for finding out the
answer.
• Ask students if they think they could ever see a million things
at once. Having considered replies provide millimetre grid
paper for the class and ask them to find out how many sheets
would be needed to have one million little squares. Lay out the
sheets on the floor.
• Link one million with other sub-strands, eg consider problems
such as “How long is one million seconds?” Ask students to
write a story telling what they would do with one million
dollars.
APPROXIMATIONS
Give students a six-digit number and ask them to say to which of
two boundary numbers it is closer, eg “Is 290 000 closer to
200 000 or 300 000?”
CALCULATOR ACTIVITIES
Use sources of real data and link with other curriculum areas. For
example, use population statistics of Australian capital cities to
have students find the total number of people to those cities.
LARGE NUMBER PROBLEMS
Give students problems for which no clear solution strategy exists
except sensible estimation. For instance, ask students to estimate
how many meat pies are sold on average each day in Australia. In
this example the answer can be checked, (it is about one million),
but a problem such as “How many grains of sand are there on
Bondi Beach?” cannot be answered with any certainty.
INFINITY
Discuss the question “What is the greatest number?” For any
number suggested ask students if they can think of a greater
number.
Ask students to think of examples of infinity as distinct from
numbers which are very large or sets which are finite but difficult
to count.
Link with Science by considering the concept of infinity in
astronomy.
Consider the problem “How many points are there between two
given points?”

ACTIVITIES REVISITED
See previous units for numeral expander activities, etc.

RESOURCES
Base 10 material, a metre cube, grid paper, place value charts, abacus, reference material for statistics, calculators, dice.

209
 ADDITION
SUMMARY OF OBJECTIVES

ADDITION 1 ADDITION 6
• demonstrate the meaning of addition by joining two groups of • add combinations of one-digit and two-digit numbers up to 99
objects using concrete materials
• describe the action of adding two groups of objects • record combinations using numeral and symbol cards

ADDITION 2 ADDITION 7
• use and read symbol cards for the operation of addition • add combinations of one-digit and two-digit numbers to 99
• describe the operation of addition • relate addition to the written algorithm using concrete material
• use mental strategies to solve addition problems

ADDITION 3
• represent the joining action using pictures and numeral cards ADDITION 8
• recognise the patterns created for individual numbers • add numbers with and without trading to 999

ADDITION 4 ADDITION 9
• use concrete materials to build addition facts to 20 • add two or more numbers of up to four digits with and without
• use numeral and symbol cards to record addition facts to 20 trading

ADDITION 5
• recall basic addition facts to 20

210
ADDITION 1
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
The operation of addition involves combining groups of The student is able to
objects. • demonstrate the meaning of addition by joining two groups of objects
• describe the action of adding two groups of objects.
CONTENT
Joining two groups of objects, up to a total of 10 objects.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Before this unit is commenced activities in Greater, more, less, fewer, join, Ask students to
Numeration Units 1–5 should be completed. and, altogether.
• join two groups of objects such as
• There are many incidental opportunities during the “Nick has three pencils.” toys, beads, pencils, to illustrate an
school day to draw students’ attention to addition, eg “Tanya has five pencils.” addition problem
“Nick and Bielant are collecting pencils. How many “We put them together.”
• describe the action of joining two
have they altogether?” “There are eight pencils.”
groups of objects, eg “Three marbles
“I put my two marbles with
• Initially use a small number of objects until the and two more makes five marbles.”
Oliver’s three marbles and got
students feel comfortable with joining larger groups.
five.”
• Wherever possible, commence with a real world
problem and use concrete materials to help
understanding.
• Students do not need to write formal number
sentences at this stage. Rather, recording by pictures
and stories should be encouraged.
EVALUATION
• Students should be encouraged to use a variety of
• Did all students have opportunities to
terms to describe the joining of groups of objects, eg
use concrete materials?
put together, add, makes, join.
• Did I allow students to discuss their
• Students should have experience in arranging objects
ideas in their first language?
in vertical and horizontal formats as a foundation for
later symbolic operations.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
PROBLEMS
Students can solve real world problems using the actual objects in
the problems. Students might be discussing the number of toys
they have in their bag. The toys can be put together and counted,
eg “Jay has three toys and I have three; that’s six toys altogether.”
MAGNETIC BOARD
Using a magnetic board, students show groups of objects and find
the total number of these. Students could show the number of
children in their family and in a friend’s family. Ask students to
describe the pictures they make on the magnetic board.
BOXES, JARS AND TRAYS
Have students put some green beads in a box, jar or tray. The
students put a few beads of another colour into the container. Ask
students how many beads they have.
BEAD THREADING
Students thread some beads of one colour or shape onto a string.
Then they thread some beads of a different colour or shape onto
the string. Students discuss the number of beads they have on the
string.
DICE
A student rolls a die and takes that number of counters. The
student rolls the die a second time and takes the number of
counters indicated. The student joins both groups of counters and
states how many counters there are.
PICTURE CARDS
Students make picture cards of various groups of objects and these
can be used to show the action of addition.

ONE CENT COINS

Students take a few one cent coins in each hand. They combine
their handfuls of coins and find out how many coins they have.
Students can ask each other how many objects are pictured on the
two cards.

RESOURCES
Dice, blocks, beads, counters, toys, magnetic boards, coins, boxes, trays, jars, magazines, computer number study software.

211
ADDITION 2
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
The operation of addition involves combining groups of
The student is able to
objects.
• use and read symbol cards for the operation of addition
• describe the operation of addition.
CONTENT
Addition number sentences.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Students should have had experience with joining Join, add, and, plus, together Ask students to
activities so that they feel quite comfortable in linking makes, equals, is equal to, same
the word cards with the numeral cards when • use concrete materials to demonstrate
as, more than, less than, greater
representing their actions. a problem
than.
• record the action of adding two
3 and 7 makes 10 “Three and four more makes
groups using numeral and symbol
seven.”
cards
• Where possible begin activities with a real life
problem. Have the students represent the problems “I joined three blocks and five
• read number sentences and relate
with concrete materials and then use word and blocks together and made
them to real life problems.
numeral cards to show the number sentence. eight.”

5 people in my house “Six and one more makes

4 people next door seven.” EVALUATION
5 and 4 makes 9 “Three and three is equal to • Were students given sufficient time to
six.” use word cards before symbol cards”
• Gradually more formal vocabulary can be introduced, “Four plus one is five.” • Was each activity introduced by
eg plus, equals.
means of a real life problem?
• Finally, when students are ready, introduce the symbol
cards.
+ =

• Students can use a calculator in conjunction with

concrete material to explore using the addition
symbol.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
ADDING CARDS
PENS AND PENCILS
Give the students blank cards, magazines, scissors, paste, numeral
Use problems that arise incidentally and are related to students’ cards and word cards. Ask them to make an adding story by
experiences. Students might want to know how many pens and cutting and arranging pictures of various objects.
pencils their group has for a survey they will be undertaking. Ask
students to count the number of pens and pencils. Students made a
number sentence using word and numeral cards to show what they
have found.

TENS TRAY
Have students represent a problem using an egg carton and
counters, eg six cars in the park and two more arrived.

3 frogs and 3 frogs makes 6 frogs

The students represent the same problem using numeral cards and CLASS BOOK
word cards. Discuss this.
Make a class book of students’ joining stories. The students can
6 join 2 makes 8 write and illustrate these and add a number sentence about the
story. As students develop their understandings they can add more
number stories and make number sentences using numeral and
symbol cards.

3 + 3 = 6

RESOURCES
Word cards, symbol cards, numeral cards, egg cartons, counters, pens, pencils magazines, scissors, paste.

212
ADDITION 3
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Number patterns can be explored through addition. The student is able to
• represent the joining action using pictures and numeral cards
• recognise the patterns created for individual numbers.
CONTENT
Addition combinations to 10.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Students are not expected to memorise number facts Equals, is equal to, total, more, Ask students to make various number
in the unit but rather investigate addition join, add, plus, makes, combine, patterns with concrete materials. Have
combinations. together, greater than, less than, the students label these patterns using
zero, nought, number story, word and numeral cards.
• Addition of zero should be related to real world
number sentence.
situations, eg “Frances was given seven cents by her
dad yesterday but none today.” “Four red pegs and six yellow
pegs. Ten pegs altogether.”
• There is no need for students to record addition
“Three quoits and four more
combinations in symbols at this stage. Students can
makes seven altogether.”
record in words and use numeral cards. 1 plus 3 equals 4
“Seven add nothing is still
7 plus 3 makes 10 seven.” 2 plus 2 equals 4
“Five and three is the same as
Some students may want to express number sentences three and five.” 3 plus 1 equals 4
using symbol and numeral cards. This can be “When we put all the eggs
4 plus 0 equals 4
encouraged and will be a useful model for other together we filled the carton.
students. That’s ten.”

• The commutative law of addition should be explored EVALUATION

by students, eg 3 + 4 = 4 + 3. There is no need for • Were students able to formulate
students to use this term. problems of their own?
• Once students have gained confidence in addition of • Were any students reluctant to use
two groups of objects, they can investigate addition of concrete materials during the
three groups of objects. activities?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
BEAD CARDS
PATTERNS Students thread ten beads onto a string and attach this to a card.
Students join a number of interlocking cubes, eg five Unifix cubes. The beads can then be grouped in various ways to show number
Ask students to make a line of cubes the same as this in as many combinations to ten. The student can record the combinations they
ways as they can using two colours. make and discuss any number patterns that they discover.

5 + 0 = 5 SHAKE RATTLE OR ROLL

1 + 4 = 5 MATERIALS
An egg carton with a number 0-5 written in each division. Two
2 + 3 = 5 counters.
3 + 2 = 5 0 4 2 3 2 5
4 + 1 = 5 5 1 4 0 3 1

Repeat for other addition combinations to 10. Students can also

demonstrate this with a calculator.
SKITTLES
Students bowl a ball at ten skittles and count the number knocked
over and the number of skittles left standing. Ask students to make
addition number sentences about the two groups of skittles.
A similar activity can be done using ten quoits. Students count the
number of quoits they throw onto the stick and the number of
quoits that missed the stick.
HOW TO PLAY
The game is for two, three or four players. The first player puts the
two counters in the egg carton and closes the lid. The player
shakes the egg carton and opens the lid to see where the counters
have landed. The player adds these two numbers and then records
this. After each player has had three turns, the player with the
highest or lowest score wins. A calculator may be used to check
the scores.
DOMINOES
Students make a number sentence for each domino using numeral
and symbol cards.

RESOURCES
Beads, Unifix, Multilink, egg cartons, counters, numeral and symbol cards, dominoes, picture cards, sticks, stones, shells, calculators.

213
ADDITION 4
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
The operation of addition involves combining groups of The student is able to
objects.
• use concrete materials to build addition facts to 20
CONTENT • use numeral and symbol cards to record addition facts to 20.
Addition combinations to 20.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Allow time for students to discover patterns and
relationships when adding groups of objects.
• Students need to be confident in adding two groups of
objects before adding more than two groups.
• Emphasis should be placed on the basic facts which
will result from addition of two single digits, eg 8 + 7.
• When students record using symbol and numeral
cards, they should be encouraged to use both the
horizontal and vertical forms.
6 “I pressed the equals button.”
Plus, add, is equal to, makes, Ask students to
the sum of, altogether, total,
• represent and solve an addition
zero, nought, calculator, keys,
problem using concrete material
buttons.
• arrange up to 20 objects to make an
“Eleven is two and nine more.”
addition story.
“Six and eight makes fourteen.”
“Seven plus seven is fourteen.” • represent the action of addition using
“Eight add three is the same as numeral and symbol cards.
three add eight.”
“This is the add button.”

6 + 7 = 1 3 + 7 EVALUATION
• Were all combinations to 20
1 3
considered?

• When students are using calculators teachers should • Were parents involved in working
relate the setting out of concrete materials and with small groups?
numeral and symbol cards to the order in which the
calculator keys are pressed.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES CHARTS, MOBILES AND BOOKS

INVESTIGATING NUMBERS TO 20 Practical activities can be consolidated by making charts, mobiles

and books showing the addition facts for combinations up to 20.
Ask students to take 11 objects and arrange them in two groups.
Students record this as a number sentence using numeral and Students can draw and display representations of addition facts for
symbol cards. Ask students to find all possible combinations of combinations to 20. These can be used to make class big books.
two numbers that add up to 11. Repeat this activity for the Students will enjoy reading commercially made and class big
numbers 12–20. books. Class books could be made using graphics or publishing
programs on computer.
TOWERS
Using 20 interlocking cubes, eg Multilink, students build two
towers with any number of cubes in each tower. Students might
enjoy finding out how many combinations of two towers they can
build using the 20 cubes.

UNIT SQUARES
Give students 11 paper squares, coloured on one side. Ask students
to put the squares in a row, coloured side up. Students turn over PLAYGROUND JUMP
one square at a time and record this as an addition number Draw a large grid on the ground. Have students jump on two
sentence, adding the number of coloured squares and white numbers that will add up to a given number, eg given 14 as the
squares showing. Continue until all the squares have been turned target the student jumps on nine and five.
over.
6 7 1 3
FUN PROBLEMS
Students might enjoy writing problems for each other. They can 0 5 9 4
use a calculator to help solve the problems as well as pen and
paper.
2 8 5 3
• An octopus has eight legs. Find different ways its legs can be
arranged into three groups. Repeat for combinations of three numbers.

RESOURCES
Coloured squares, Unifix, Multilink, counters, numeral and symbol cards, calculators, graphics and publishing software.

214
ADDITION 5
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Recall of addition facts is useful in everyday life. The student is able to
• recall basic addition facts to 20.
CONTENT
Memorisation of addition facts.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• It is essential that students have an understanding of
addition before drilling and memorisation of number
facts takes place.
• Various strategies can be used by students to
determine addition facts, eg counting on,
manipulating concrete material.
• Students can use a range of strategies to aid quick
recall of number facts. These strategies include
– learning doubling of single digit numbers,
eg 2 + 2, 3 + 3, etc
– renaming numbers for easier computation,
eg 8 + 5 = 8 + 2 + 3 = 10 + 3 = 13
– renaming numbers for easier computation,
eg 8 + 5 = 8 + 2 + 3 = 10 + 3 = 13
– nearly double numbers, eg 8 + 7 is one off
double 8 so that’s one off 16, which is 15
– bridging numbers,
eg 5 + 5 + 1 + 4 = 10 + 5 = 15
– near tens, eg 9 + 5 = 10 + 4 = 14.
• Students should explore adding zero or nought to
numbers, thereby finding out this does not change the
number.
Doubles, plus, add, sharing,
total, involving, number facts,
patterns, combinations.
“Five and three, that’s six,
seven, eight.”
“Four and five, four and four is
eight, and one more is nine.”
“Eight and six. Take two off six
and add it to the eight, that’s
ten. Ten and four is fourteen.”
“Nine and zero is nine.”
“Five and five is ten.”
“Two more makes twelve.”
• As students are solving problems or
playing games where simple addition
is required, eg dice games, note how
quickly students recall the addition
number fact.
• Observe any strategy employed by
students to recall simple addition
facts.
EVALUATION
• Did I note which students had
memorised addition number facts to
20?
• Were students able to use a range of
strategies to recall basic facts?

4 + 0 = 4

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
FIND THE FACT
DOMINOES
Students work in groups of three. One student uses blocks or
Give each student five dominoes face down. Ask the students to counters, one uses a calculator and the other student uses numeral
make a number sentence for each domino, using numeral and symbol and symbol cards.
cards. The first student with five number sentences is the winner.
The teacher or another student asks an addition combination
6 + 6 = 1 2 number fact. The first group in which each student can show the
answer is the winner.

LOTTO FIVE DICE

Make lotto cards containing selections of numerals 1–20. You will Students take turns in rolling five dice. The first student to roll
need one card for each player and enough counters for each player numbers that add up to exactly twenty is the winner.
to cover the numbers on the lotto card.
Students can invent variations of this game by allowing some of
3 11 14 0 5 2 18 5 6 the dice to be rolled a second or third time to try and get exactly
9 5 17 11 3 16 7 13 15 twenty.

8 10 12 19 4 9 8 20 1
BUTTERFLY
One student calls out addition combinations and the students give Make a large cardboard butterfly with numerals in each segment.
the answer. If the answer is on the lotto card the student covers it. This can be used by students to play various adding games.
The first student to cover all the numbers on the card wins and can
be the next caller.
Students could throw two
dice and cover the answer
SENTENCE MAKER
that the two numbers shown
Give the students a collection of numeral cards. Allow two or three on the dice add up to.
minutes for students to make as many number sentences as
possible.

RESOURCES
Numeral and symbol cards, blocks, counters, dice, calculators, cardboard.

215
ADDITION 6
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Operations with whole numbers can be represented using The student is able to
concrete materials. • add combinations of one-digit and two-digit numbers up to 99 using
concrete materials
CONTENT • record combinations using numeral and symbol cards
Addition to 99.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Students should have experience with trading Trade, swap, bundle, unbundle, Ask students to
activities to 100 before commencing work on this long, short, tens, ones, plus,
• solve an addition problem using Base
unit. Trading games, especially those with Base 10 add, total, equals, makes,
10 material
materials, such as Win A Flat, will help students altogether.
develop these understandings. These games are found • describe the steps in solving an
“I have ten ones, so I can trade
in the Numeration sub-strand. addition problem
for a ten.”
• The continued use of concrete materials is important • use numeral and symbol cards to
“Two longs and one long is
to help develop understanding of the symbolic represent the problem.
thirty. Add seven shorts, that’s
operation. The language associated with manipulating
thirty-seven altogether.”
concrete materials is also useful in understanding and
talking about the written form of addition. “It will be about forty, so I
don’t have enough.”
• Where Base 10 materials are not available, other
“I can add the tens in my head.”
EVALUATION
materials may be substituted for some activities, eg
popsticks. • Did the students use place value
“It’s close to my guess.”
charts to help solve the problem?
• Students should be encouraged to estimate the answer
before calculating. • Did I use everyday problems as a
basis for addition?
• Continue to use numeral and symbol cards for
students to record addition number sentences.
Students should show both the vertical and horizontal
form of setting out.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
PICK A BOX
NUMERAL AND SYMBOL CARDS
MATERIALS
When students are adding two-digit numbers using concrete
Numeral cards for the numbers 10–50, counters, and a calculator.
materials ask them to use numeral and symbol cards to record their
computation.
13 21 45 48
and makes
14 25 16 13
2 3 + 4 4 = 6 7

ADDITION SQUARE HOW TO PLAY

+
Arrange eight of the numeral cards to make a target a little
distance from the students. Students throw or flick two counters
onto the numeral cards in turn. The numbers hit are added using
Base 10 material. Another player checks the addition using the
calculator. Students can decide how to win the game, eg the first
27 player to hit all the numbers wins.

Draw a grid on a large cardboard square.
Place Base 10 material on the square, as above.
Students take turns to add a horizontal box and a vertical box. The
students place Base 10 material on the square to show the answer.
This can then be replaced with numeral cards.
PROBLEMS
Use problems that students encounter in everyday situations.
These may include
- adding the cricket scores of their own team
- adding the cost of items at the canteen
- adding amounts of money collected for an excursion.
Students might solve the problems by using Base 10 material,
trading where necessary or by using a calculator.

RESOURCES
Base 10 material, place value charts, calculators, numeral and symbol cards, popsticks.

216
ADDITION 7
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
An addition operation can be expressed as a number The student is able to
sentence or algorithm. • add combinations of one-digit and two-digit numbers to 99
• relate addition to the written algorithm using concrete material
CONTENT • use mental strategies to solve addition problems.
Addition to 99.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Students should be encouraged to talk about and Sum, add, plus, altogether, Ask students to
represent real life problems in concrete and symbolic estimate, algorithm, trade, tens
• write an algorithm to match an
forms. place, ones place, digit, column.
addition problem
• Students at this stage should have had experience with “Fifty-seven plus twenty-two.
• solve a real life problem, eg “Van
the vertical form of working a problem. Care should That’s about sixty plus twenty,
scored thirty-six and Kim scored
be taken to ensure that students have an understanding eighty.
fifty-eight. How much did they add to
of place value. Now I’ll work it out.
the team’s total score?”
I reckon the answer’s about
• Grid books are recommended for setting out the
ninety. Note the strategies students use to solve
symbolic form of the algorithm. They help to
I traded twenty shorts for two addition problems in various situations,
reinforce place value concepts.
longs. That’s two in the tens eg playing games, during investigations,
• Students should be encouraged to find their own place.” collecting data, etc.
strategies to solve problems.
Two of the possible forms of
These strategies include
recording are shown here.
- manipulating concrete materials EVALUATION
- drawing pictures to illustrate objects Tens Ones
- writing down an algorithm • Did the students enjoy using the
- mentally adding the tens first, then the ones calculator?
2 8 2 8
- using a calculator. • Did I encourage students to estimate
+4 5 +4 5 the answer?
• Encourage students to reflect on the answers to
problems. They can explain to a partner what they did
or write a description of their actions.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES PUZZLE MAPS

BASE 10 Students can invent and solve addition problems using maps such
as the one shown here.
Students solve problems using Base 10 material. Students find a
variety of ways to add the material, eg add the tens first or the
ones first. Have the students record their actions as they
manipulate the material.

DIGIT DRAW
Students draw a numeral card 0–9 one at a time from a hat and
place them in a square on an addition sheet, as shown. They then
find the answers.

+ +
POPSTICK PICK-UP
+ +
Students can use mental strategies to solve addition questions.
Have students write their questions on cards for other students to
answer, eg “What is the shortest route from Doomsday Bay to
Skull Point?”
1 2

Write a number, 1–50, on each of 50 popsticks. NUMBER CROSS

3
Students arrange these face down on the floor.
Across Down
They turn over any two sticks in turns and add the numbers shown. 4 5
The answer can be checked on a calculator. If the answer is 1. 28 + 36 2. 25 + 23
correct, the student keeps the sticks. The student with the most 4. 57 + 18 3. 17 + 30
6
popsticks wins. 5. 19 + 18 4. 45 + 25
7. 15 + 16 6. 8 + 15
16
16

7
Computer programs are available that
enable users to make crosswords.

RESOURCES
Base 10 material, popsticks, grid books, numeral cards, place value charts, calculators, symbol cards, crossword making software.

217
ADDITION 8
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Addition can be expressed as an algorithm. The student is able to
• add numbers with and without trading to 999.

CONTENT
Addition to 999.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Students should have considerable experience trading Sum, total, altogether, plus, add, Ask students to
ones to tens before being asked to trade tens to digit, hundreds, trade, abacus.
• solve an addition problem, eg Kari
hundreds.
“I think the answer will be scored 275 goals this season and
• Students should have already had experience with about four hundred.” Kylie scored 146. How many goals
larger numbers before attempting activities in this “I can add the hundreds first. did both players score?
unit. The tens and ones are easy”
• describe how they solved an addition
See the Numeration sub-strand. “Two hundred and fifty plus
problem
three hundred and seventy-five.
• Students can use a variety of strategies to solve
Seventy and fifty is one hundred • invent an addition problem to match a
addition problems, including using a calculator.
and twenty, and five more is one given worked example.
• Students should experience adding various hundred and twenty-five. Add
combinations of one-digit, two-digit and three-digit H T Ones
the one hundred to the three
numbers. It is recommended that grid books be used 1 1
hundred and the other two
for setting out these sums. 1 4 6
hundred makes six hundred.
+2 7 5
• although some students may be ready to use an Plus the twenty-five makes six
hundred and twenty-five.” 4 2 1
abacus to help solve addition problems teachers
should remember that it is an abstract form of
H T U
concrete material and should follow after other forms
1 EVALUATION
of concrete material.
2 5 0
+3 7 5 • Did I encourage student discussion?
6 2 5 • Did I model strategies for solving
addition algorithms?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES TOSS

PROBLEMS Give two students two counters each. Each student in turn tosses
their counters onto a playing board marked with various numbers.
Students can solve problems that arise either as part of the The first student totals the two numbers that the counters landed
workings of the school, eg totalling the number of students on while the other student checks the addition with a calculator.
enrolled, or as part of an investigation they may be undertaking, eg Continue until all numbers have been used.
finding the distance between local towns and the regional centre.
Students might like to find the total mass of a tug-of-war team or
148 436
the total number of runs a particular cricketer scored in a season.
Problems that relate to the students’ interests and are of real use 243 72
will be the most meaningful.
351 44
DIGIT CARD DRAW
269 396
Students pick six cards from a pack of cards marked with the
digits 1–9. Ask students to place the cards on the playing board to
make either the smallest or largest answer possible. CODES
This activity can be played as a game or done as an individual Students enjoy making and decoding coded messages. Students
activity. can make codes using symbols or numbers for their friends to
solve. Below is an example of one type of code.

387
+ =
+ 135 263 147
________________________

________________________ 359

RESOURCES
Base 10 material, abacus, grid books, digit cards, calculators, place value charts.

218
ADDITION 9
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Addition can be expressed as a number sentence or The student is able to
algorithm. • add two or more numbers of up to four digits with and without trading.

CONTENT
Addition to 9 999 and beyond.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Students can continue to use concrete materials to Thousands, sum, total, add, Ask students to
represent problems where necessary. plus, digit, place value.
• represent an addition problem as an
• Continue to ask specific questions about place value, “Ten flats make one block.” algorithm, eg “our school has eight
eg “How can you show this number with Base 10 hundred and ninety-six students. West
“I’m adding two thousand so
material.” has one thousand four hundred and
I’ll put on two blocks.”
sixty-nine and North has five hundred
• If students have the strategies and understandings to
“My guess is about six thousand and forty-eight students. How many
add four digit numbers they can try problems with
cans in the bin.” students are there in our town
larger numbers.
“I left a space to show the altogether?”
• The most efficient method for solving addition
thousands place.” • solve the addition problem and write
problems with large numbers will, on many
“I can add four thousand and the answer
occasions, be by using a calculator.
eight thousand in my head.” • explain how they arrived at the
• Students should be encouraged to show the place
answer.
value of thousands by leaving a space when recording
these numbers, eg 10 627.
• Abacus is a convenient aid for computation with large EVALUATION
numbers. Students need a good understanding,
however, of place value and to have represented these • Did students work in cooperative
large numbers with other less structured material groups?
before using the abacus. • Did I encourage peer tutoring?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES INVESTIGATIONS

Students can carry out a number of investigations related to other
WRITE A STORY curriculum areas that will involve addition of large numbers.
Give students a problem and ask them to write about how they Students may
would solve the problem. These can later be shared and discussed - find the total populations of the three nearest towns
by the class. For example the local newspaper may have reported - add various sports scores and related data
- total the number of cars made in Australia
an expansion of 1 679 as a factory already employing 3 492 people.
- add the number of days everyone in the class has been alive.
thousands hundreds tens ones ROUNDING OFF
When students are adding up numbers in the thousands, especially
with a calculator, encourage them to guess about how many
thousands will be in the answer. Discuss with students why it’s a
good idea to know an approximate answer when using a calculator.

BIG NUMBERS
Some students may enjoy adding large numbers. They could be
asked to find the populations of the three biggest cities in the
world and add these. They might like finding the total travelled in
the last holidays by everyone at school. Others could find the total
number of kilometres of major highways in Australia. (See also
Numeration Units 13 –15.) Students could draw their large
numbers from prepared computer database programs, such “First
Fleet” (Computer Education Unit).

CALCULATOR RACE
Give students a series of addition combinations of various
numbers. Half the class solves these using calculators while the
other students use pencil and paper. Students will see that for some
calculations pen and paper is the more efficient method of
computation.

RESOURCES
Base 10 material, abacus, calculators, record books, newspapers, grid books, prepared computer database software.

219
 SUBTRACTION
SUMMARY OF OBJECTIVES
SUBTRACTION 1
• demonstrate the meaning of subtraction by taking an object or
objects from a group of objects
• describe the action of taking away an object or objects from a
group of objects
SUBTRACTION 2
• use and read symbol cards for the operation of subtraction
SUBTRACTION 3
• demonstrate and describe the difference between two groups of
objects by using the language of comparison
SUBTRACTION 4
• use the symbols for subtraction, addition and equality to
represent the comparison of two groups
• demonstrate the understanding that addition may be an
appropriate strategy for solving a subtraction problem
SUBTRACTION 5
• model subtraction facts using discrete materials
• discuss and record these facts using symbol cards in vertical and
horizontal arrangement
SUBTRACTION 6
• recall basic subtraction facts to 20
• demonstrate understanding of the relationship between
subtraction and addition
SUBTRACTION 7
• model and discuss problems involving subtraction using
concrete materials
• record using symbol and numeral cards
SUBTRACTION 8
• demonstrate and describe the comparison method of subtraction
for two-digit numbers using concrete materials
• record using numeral and symbol cards
220
SUBTRACTION 9
• recognise and discuss patterns and relationships when single-
digit numbers are added to or subtracted from two-digit
numbers
• model these patterns and relationships using concrete materials
and algorithms
SUBTRACTION 10
• subtract two-digit numbers from two-digit numbers without
trading
• record subtraction operations in symbolic form
SUBTRACTION 11
• subtract from a two-digit number with trading
• record these subtractions in symbolic form
SUBTRACTION 12
• subtract numbers of up to three digits using concrete materials
• subtract numbers of up to three digits using “counting on” and
“comparison” methods
• subtract from three-digit numbers without exchanging using
concrete materials and recording the operation in the form of an
algorithm
SUBTRACTION 13
• subtract from three-digit numbers where trading is required
using concrete materials
• record subtractions with trading in an algorithm
SUBTRACTION 14
• subtract from four-digit numbers with exchanging using
concrete materials
• record subtractions involving four-digit numbers is an algorithm
SUBTRACTION 15
• subtract four-digit numbers and beyond with or without trading
using concrete materials and a written algorithm
SUBTRACTION 1
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Subtraction may be considered as the removal of part of a The student is able to
group. • demonstrate the meaning of subtraction by taking an object or objects
from a group of objects
CONTENT • describe the action of taking away an object or objects from a group of
objects.
Taking away from a group of 1 to 10 objects.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Before commencing this subtraction unit, ensure that Take, get, goes, picked, less, Ask students to
students have carried out activities such as those goes, go away, lost, not as many
• take away objects from a group and
outlined in Numeration Units 1 to 5. as, gave, many, spend, took,
describe what has happened to the
take away, move them away,
• The “take away” type of subtraction is introduced in size of the group.
cover up, remove, take out.
this unit. The “comparison” type will be introduced
and developed in later units. “I took away a cake. There are
not as many left now.”
• No formal written recording by the students should be
“I took two buttons out.”
undertaken during this unit.
The word “left” has several
• The word “minus” should not be used at this stage.
meanings, eg remaining, the
• The concept of subtraction should be related to real opposite of right. EVALUATION
world problems that can be modelled by students Students may find the use of the • Did I use a variety of materials?
using concrete objects. word “left” ambiguous.
Consider this question: • Did I use informal situations to
• Students should be encouraged to record mathematics
“There are fifteen people at a observe the students’ use of
in a variety of ways, eg by writing, drawing or
bus stop. Eight got on the bus. language?
painting.
How many left?” Does it ask for • Were parents invited to help with
• Students should be given opportunities to discuss their the number left at the bus stop community languages?
actions in their first language with a view to or the number that left on the
developing their concepts and vocabulary in both their bus?
first language and in English.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
PENCILS, COUNTERS, PEGS AND BLOCKS
• Each student is asked as put out a given number of objects not
exceeding ten. They are then asked to remove a given number
and describe what has happened.
• Students place a given number of pegs on the rim of an ice
cream container and remove a given number. They then draw
pictures called “before” and “after”.
Before After
OUTDOORS
• Place a hoop on the ground and have students place a given
number of books in the hoop. Ask a student to remove a given
number of books. Ask students to describe what happened.
• Have a group of students standing. Ask some to sit down. Have
students describe what happened.
KNOCK THEM DOWN
Line up nine cans or plastic fruit juice containers. Have students
roll a ball to knock down as many cans as possible. Ask students
how many have been knocked down and how many remain
standing.
BLOW THEM OUT
Set up birthday candles in plasticine for a student’s sixth or
seventh birthday. The birthday child has one puff only to try to
blow out the candles. Ask students to say how many remained lit
and how many were blown out.
ROLL A DIE
Use a die or a spinner marked 1, 2, 3. Each student begins with ten
counters, beads or blocks. In turn, students roll the die or spin the
spinner and take away the number shown from their pile. The
winner is the person having the least number of objects after three
turns. (Alternatively, the winner can be the player with the most
left.)

COMPUTER GAMES
Some computer games present students with problems that involve
taking away objects from a group of up to 10 objects.

RESOURCES
Pencils, chairs, counters, books, hoops, shells, pegs, blocks, Multilink, cans, plastic containers, candles, plasticine, magnetic board,
computer number study software, dice.

221
SUBTRACTION 2
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Subtractions can be expressed in the form of number The student is able to
sentences or algorithms. • use and read symbol cards for the operation of subtraction.

CONTENT
Subtraction — number sentences using symbol cards.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• No formal writing of number sentences should be
undertaken at this stage. Students should, however, be
encouraged to write, draw and model mathematical
problems. Teachers can write for students where
applicable.
• Numeral and operation cards should be written by the
teacher.
• All work should involve the manipulation of concrete
materials. As students remove objects from a group
they should be encouraged to discuss their actions.
• This unit deals with subtraction as “take away”. When
recording pictorially, ensure that the pictures reflect
this action, eg
Take, took, picked, ate, went
away, lost, not as many, gave,
many, spent, take away, move
them away, cover up, leaves,
gives, is, is the same as, is equal
to, equals, nothing, haven’t got
any left, empty, none, nought,
zero.
“We had five fish and two died.
Now we have three.”
“I gave one of my plums to
Asimo but I’ve still got two left
for myself.”
“If I give five marbles away I
won’t have any left.”
Ask students to
• remove a given number of objects
and describe their actions in their own
words
• make a number sentence which
describes a given subtraction problem
using symbol cards
• read a number sentence given in
symbolic form and use concrete
material to demonstrate it.
EVALUATION
• Did I allow sufficient time for each
step?

Six beans take away four beans leaves two beans. • Was I able to cater for individual
differences?
• Students need to develop an understanding of equality
as well as subtraction.
• Some students may be confused when two tenses are
used within the one problem, eg “I had six beans and
took away four. How many do I have?”

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
Step 6. Similarly, replace the words “take away” with the minus
INTRODUCING THE SYMBOL sign card.
The symbol cards = and – may be introduced in six steps with 8 – 3 leaves 5
associated activities.
Step 1. Transcribe student stories involving subtraction using the
student’s language, eg “I had eight strawberries for Little Lunch SUBTRACTING ZERO
and I gave some to Effie. She had three and I had five.” • Ask questions such as
Step 2. Discuss with students the idea of condensing the story so “If there are five drinks on a shelf and we don’t drink any, how
that it takes up less space while retaining the sense. Record their many are left?”
suggestions using cards. “There are four pencils in this tin. Come out here (name) and
remove none. How many are left?”
8 gave away 3 leaves 5 • Ask students to describe situations such as those mentioned
above.
Step 3. Introduce the phrase “take away” as the general way of
expressing the action involved in this type of problem. Introduce “Four pencils take away no pencils leaves four pencils.”
the card “take away”.
• Ask students to model the operation using numeral and symbol
8 take away 3 leaves 5 cards.

Step 4. Introduce the phrase “is equal to” and its associated card. 4 – 0 = 4

8 take away 3 is equal to 5 • Suggest to students that they check the answer using a
calculator.
Step 5. Most students will have seen the “equals” sign on a • Finally, ask students to write a general rule in their own words,
calculator and in Addition activities and could now substitute the eg “If we take zero away we get what we started with.”
sign for the words.

8 take away 3 = 5

RESOURCES
Numeral and symbol cards, beans, beads, 1c coins, real or plastic fruit, balls, basket, Unifix, calculators, models of animals (or flowers or
people), plates, cards, cups, pegboard, skittles, toys.

222
SUBTRACTION 3
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Subtraction can involve comparing. The student is able to
• demonstrate and describe the difference between two groups of objects
by using the language of comparison.
CONTENT
Comparing two groups of objects.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Subtraction covers two different situations: Each, enough, not enough, too Ask students to
- taking away from a group many, the same as, more than,
- comparing two groups. • compare groups of objects using one-
less than, as many as,
The first type was introduced in earlier units. Do not to-one correspondence and state by
difference, different, no
introduce this unit until students are confident with how much one group is bigger than
difference, not different, bigger,
the “take away” type. the other
smaller, compare, equal.
• Aspects of the comparison type of subtraction involve • state by how much one group is
– finding how many more need to be added to a group “We need four more pairs of
smaller than another
to make it equivalent to a second group scissors if everyone is to have a
– finding the difference between two groups. pair.” • state how many more objects would
Students can solve the “how many more” comparison “There are the same number of be needed to make two groups the
problems by counting on, ie complementary addition. boys as girls in our class.” same.
The “difference” problems can be solved by matching “There are many more triangles
one group with the other and counting the remainder. than squares in our pattern
Give students the opportunity of comparing groups
blocks.” EVALUATION
where there is no difference.
• No formal written recording by students is required at The word “difference” has a • Did the activities relate to the
this stage. specific meaning in this context, students’ interests?
referring to the numeric value • Did discussion between students take
• Students should be able to compare groups of objects
of the group. In everyday place?
by using one-to-one correspondence before being
asked to find out how many more or how many less language it can refer to any
there are in a group (see Numeration units). attribute. When students say
that a group is bigger, they may
• When comparing two groups, compare larger to
mean the size of the objects
smaller as well as smaller to larger, eg “There are two
more red cars than blue cars. There are two fewer rather than the number of
blue cars than red cars.” objects.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
TARGET PRACTICE
DANCING
Give groups of students six objects such as bean bags and ask
Form two groups. Ask each student in one group to take a partner. them to toss the objects into a hoop from a given spot. They record
Discuss which group is bigger and ask students to state by how how many bags land inside the hoop and how many miss for each
much. Ask students to draw pictures of their dancing and write person. Students discuss the results in terms of addition and
about the relative group sizes. subtraction aspects.
Four of Toni’s throws stayed in the
CONCRETE MATERIALS hoop and two missed.
Ask students to model comparisons using popsticks, blocks, 4 + 2 = 6
pencils, commercial cubes or Base 10 shorts. Ask students to place
cards between the groups they make to illustrate the comparison. 6 – 2 = 4

There are more white blocks than red blocks. 6 – 4 = 2

This activity could be repeated using more bags.

There are two more red blocks than white blocks.
NO DIFFERENCE
Ask students to count out a number of objects such as red counters
and then count out the same number of other objects such as
centicubes or shorts. Ask students to write as many different
statements as they can about the numbers in the groups.
A similar activity could involve students bowling at skittles.
DICE
Each player in turn throws two dice. They record the difference
between the two numbers. They total the differences after each
player has had ten throws. The player with the highest total wins.
The game may be varied by declaring the player with the lowest
total the winner.

RESOURCES
Counters, egg cartons, shells, beans, Unifix, popsticks, Centicubes, small toys, pencils, beads, Multilink, Lego bricks, bean bags.

223
SUBTRACTION 4
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Subtraction can be expressed using a number sentence. The student is able to
• use the symbols for subtraction, addition and equality to represent the
comparison of two groups
CONTENT • demonstrate the understanding that addition may be an appropriate
strategy for solving a subtraction problem.
Subtraction involving comparison.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• The “counting on” and comparison type of subtraction Nothing, none, not any, nought, Ask students to
is more difficult for students to grasp than the “take nil, zero, how many more, how
• model comparison problems using
away” type. It should be introduced only after many less, difference, what’s
concrete materials and describe them
students have a sound understanding of “take away”. the difference, between, same,
using symbol and numeral cards
different, not as many.
• While no formal written work need be completed by
• show an understanding of the
students at this stage, students may clarify their ideas “I’ll need two more cakes and
“counting on” strategy by using it in
by inventing ways of recording their actions. then we will have one each.”
solving subtraction problems.
“There are three more red
• The total number of objects should be limited to ten
lollies than green lollies.”
or fewer.
The language used in EVALUATION
• It is important to encourage students to use the
subtraction problems of the
“counting on” strategy as a method of solving • Did the problems relate to the
comparison type is quite
comparison problems. This can be recorded in either students’ interests?
different from that used in take
an addition or subtraction algorithm.
away problems. • Did all the students in the group have
• Graph work can provide a good starting point for an opportunity to participate in
By the end of this unit, students
many comparisons and teachers should encourage activities?
should understand that the need
students to describe the comparisons in a variety of
to carry out subtraction can be
ways.
indicated by a variety of
• Pictures of objects should be introduced only after language structures.
students can successfully model and discuss
subtraction problems using real objects.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
UNIFIX CUBES
• Compare the number of trees in the Infants playground with
Ask students to pick up five cubes in one hand and two cubes in the number in the Primary playground. Ask students to state
the other hand. Ask them to compare how many cubes there are in how many more there are in one than the other.
each hand in as many ways as possible.
• Compare the number of cars in the parking area with the
Ask students to put out numeral and symbol cards to show suitable
number of spaces. Have students use symbol cards to express
number sentences.
the number sentence.
5 – 2 = 3
DICE
2 + = 5
Each player in turn throws two dice. They record a number
= 5 – 2 sentence to show the difference between the two scores. After an
agreed number of turns, the total of the differences for each player
is compared and the player with the highest total wins. As a
COUNTERS AND CENTICUBES variant, make the player with the lowest total the winner.
• Place three counters in a shoe box and eight centicubes in a
margarine container. Ask students to make statements TOWERS
comparing the number of objects in each container.
Students have ten interlocking cubes each. They build as many
• Place some centicubes in a line. Alongside each, place a
counter and continue the line of counters so there are more different pairs of towers as they can and record a corresponding
counters than centicubes. Ask students to make and write number sentence using cards.
statements comparing the two numbers of objects.

MONEY 10 – 6 = 4
Have students write, comparing the prices of small objects such as
pencils and rubbers in the class shop, eg “The rubber costs eight
cents and the pencil costs nine cents so the pencil costs one cent
more.”

RESOURCES
Centicubes, Unifix, egg cartons, pattern blocks, dice, numeral and symbol cards.

224
SUBTRACTION 5
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Subtraction can be expressed using a number sentence or The student is able to
algorithm. • model subtraction facts using discrete materials
• discuss and record these facts using symbols cards in vertical and
CONTENT horizontal arrangement.
Subtraction to 20.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• The emphasis in this unit is on developing
understanding of subtraction and the methods of
recording this operation. This is best done with
discrete materials, eg buttons, leaves, shells, rather
than structured material such as Base 10 material.
This avoids the need for trading.
• Formal recording should be done with numeral and
symbol cards.
6 box and counted how many
– 4
= 2
• Algorithms at this stage are a record of student
actions with concrete materials.
• Students should be encouraged to use a variety of
informal recording methods, eg pictures, stories.
These may incorporate the formal symbols.
• Students should be encouraged to make up their own
problems to suit a subtraction fact.
Different, difference, what’s the
difference, more, how many
more, remove, take away, took
out, covered up, is, leaves, left,
what’s left, how many left, is
equal to, equals, how much
change.
“I took eight of them out of the
were left.”
“What’s the difference between
the two groups?”
“If Aliki takes away nineteen
she won’t have any left.”
Ask students to
• model a given word problem using
concrete materials
• match the modelling of a word
problem with suitable numeral and
symbol cards.
EVALUATION
• Did I provide students with enough
problems of each type of subtraction
situation?
• Did I encourage students to record
both formally and informally?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
DICE
PROBLEM SOLVING
Use a spinner marked with numbers between 11 and 20 to give
Present students with various types of problems either orally or in students a way of randomly selecting a number target. Students
written form. Encourage students to model the problem using roll a die to give a number and have to state how many more are
concrete materials and then use symbol and numeral cards to show required to reach the target, eg if the spinner shows 14 and the die
the algorithm. Encourage students to use both vertical and
shows 5, the student makes the number sentence.
horizontal forms of the algorithm.
5
UNIFIX CUBES
5 + = 1 4 +
Students make a stack of ten Unifix cubes or similar materials.
Taking away one cube at a time, they record the subtraction facts
1 4
using numeral cards and say what the cards mean.

1 0 – 2 = 8 NONSENSE TAKE AWAYS

Give students three counters each and ask them to take away five
“Ten take away two equals 8.” counters. Discuss the difficulty of doing this and record in numeral
and symbol cards.

3 – 5 = ?
COUNTERS
Students take a number of counters and place them on a plate. Give students five counters and ask them to take away three
They remove four and record the operation in algorithmic form counters. Discuss what is different this time so that they have no
using numeral and symbol cards. trouble taking three from five. The term “commutative property”
should not be used but comparisons should be drawn with addition
1 3
where the order of the numbers does not affect the answer.
1 3 – 4 = 9 – 4 Ask students to write nonsense stories and nonsense poems
involving impossible take aways.
9

RESOURCES
Numeral and symbol cards, 1c coins, Unifix, beads, pegs, stones, leaves, counters, plates, ice-cream containers, pegboards, egg cartons,
small toys, dice.

225
SUBTRACTION 6
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Recall of basic subtraction facts is useful in everyday life. The student is able to
• recall basic subtraction facts to 20
• demonstrate understanding of the relationship between subtraction and
CONTENT addition.
Subtraction facts to 20.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• This unit focuses on memorisation and should be Different, difference, what’s the Ask students to
developed concurrently with Subtraction Units 5 and difference, more, how many
7–11. • discuss subtraction problems using
more, remove, take away,
appropriate language
• Regular practice of basic facts is essential to maintain minus, took out, covered up, is,
recall and this unit or similar kinds of activities leaves, left, what’s left, how • restate a subtraction fact in the form
should continue throughout the Primary years. many are left, is equal to, of an addition
• It is essential that students understand subtraction equals, how much change. • solve subtraction problems to 20
before practice of basic facts takes place. “Sixteen minus seven is nine.” without reference to concrete
• Allow students time to discover patterns and “Sixteen take away seven is materials or a calculator.
relationships between subtraction and addition equal to nine.”
number facts. “Seven less than sixteen is
• Some strategies to aid memorisation are presented in nine.” EVALUATION
this unit (and in Addition Unit 5 as well). Encourage “Sixteen less seven is nine.”
students to share, develop and discuss their own “Sixteen is nine greater than • Did I encourage students to discuss
strategies. Also encourage discussion of reasons for seven.” their strategies for recall of basic
needing to memorise basic facts. “Sixteen is nine more than facts?
• Students should still be using symbol and numeral cards seven.” • Did I invite parents to assist with
and both horizontal and vertical recording formats. “Seven from sixteen equals groups and resources?
• The use of a calculator is appropriate at this stage. nine.”
The relationship between the calculator keys, the “Seven subtracted from sixteen
numeral and symbol cards and concrete materials leaves nine.”
needs to be developed carefully by exploration, “The difference between seven
explanation and discussion. The calculator can be and sixteen is nine.”
used by students to demonstrate understanding of the
operation as well as to check answers.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
NUMBER LINE
RECALL STRATEGIES
Students draw number lines and draw trips that relate to given
These strategies can be introduced while solving problems. subtraction statements, eg 15 – 8 = 7 may be shown as a trip
Counting starting at 15 and proceeding eight places to the left, finishing at 7.

Students use the “counting on” method of subtraction and also

counting back. 0 5 10 15
Zero
NUMBER WEB
Students need to have reinforced the facts that subtraction of zero
does not affect the original number and any number take away Students fill in the spider web with the correct answers.
itself leaves zero.
Doubles
8 16
Link multiplication by two with addition of a number with itself
and hence subtractions like 12 – 6 = 6. 17
20 – 13
Doubles Plus One 14 10
Extend the Doubles strategy to include odd numbers, eg
13 – 6 = 6 + 1.
Subtraction Pairs
Encourage students to find pairs of subtraction facts, eg TARGET DICE
13 – 5 = 8 and 13 – 8 = 5.
The teacher provides each group with a target number, eg 23. Two
Take Away Ten dice are used, each showing numerals 4 to 9. (A spinner suitably
Using concrete materials, students will see the pattern that emerges marked could be substituted.) Each student in the group rolls the
when 10 is subtracted from any number between 10 and 20. dice and chooses either to add or subtract the numbers shown and
records the answer. After four turns, the player with a total closest
Take Away Nine to the target is the winner.
Students practise the method of subtracting 10 and adding 1.

RESOURCES
Counters, dominoes, cardboard, calculators, numeral and symbol cards, game tokens, dice.

226
SUBTRACTION 7
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Subtraction may be represented by concrete materials. The student is able to
• model and discuss problems involving subtraction using concrete
materials
CONTENT • record using symbol and numeral cards.
Subtraction involving two-digit numbers.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

Students will need to understand trading and have been Take away, minus, subtract, Ask students to
introduced to rounding off before attempting this unit. remain, remainder, group,
• determine the correct operation for a
See Numeration Units 9 and 10 for trading activities. bundle, ten, tens, ones, units,
given word problem
remove, left, leaves, equals,
• Students should be taken through the following
longs, shorts, trade. • demonstrate subtraction which
sequence:
involves trading using Base 10
- taking away groups of ten, eg 50–20 “Fifty take away thirty is
material
- taking away without trading, eg 49–28 twenty.”
- taking away with trading, eg 56–29. “I am going to take away so I • show subtraction sentences using
will use the minus key.” numeral and symbol cards
• Subtraction activities should have as their basis real
“I can trade a long for ten • explain their actions when performing
world problems that are made up by either the teacher
shorts. Now I can take the nine a subtraction which involves trading.
or students.
away.”
• Students should use a variety of concrete materials to
develop their understanding of subtraction.
EVALUATION
• Students should have experience with discrete
materials such as popsticks before they use structured • Are students using a variety of
material such as Base 10 material. Base 10 material is recording methods?
more abstract and trading activities may cause • Did students using a variety of
difficulties for students. recording methods?
• Students should continue to record their actions using • Did students suggest suitable
symbol and numeral cards but write number sentences problems to solve?
using formal notation if confident.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
TAKING AWAY GROUPS OF TEN
Set problems which involve subtraction of multiples of ten, eg
“There were fifty students in the playground and thirty went to the
library. How many remained in the playground?” Ask students to
model this using discrete material
SUBTRACTION WITHOUT TRADING
Pose problems that involve subtraction without trading, eg “If
there are thirty-five paint brushes and twelve are removed how
many remain?”
Ask students to model this using discrete concrete materials, then
Base 10 materials, then using numeral and symbol cards and
finally by writing a number sentence.

SUBTRACTION WITH TRADING

Pose problems which involve subtraction with trading, eg “There
are seventy-three books in our class library. Twenty-nine are on the
shelves so how many are on loan?”
and then model it again using Base 10 material.
Ask students to model this using discrete concrete materials, then
Base 10 materials, then using numeral and symbol cards and
finally by writing a number sentence.

PROBLEMS
Once students have had experience with subtraction which
involves trading students should be asked to pose the problems. At
Ask students to record their actions using numeral and symbol this stage no two-digit numbers chosen by students should cause
cards and then write the algorithm. any difficulties.
5 0 – 3 0 = 2 0 5 0 Record the student problems and ask students to illustrate the
– 3 0 solutions for display.

2 0 MONEY LINKS
50 Pose problems based on money and ask students to solve them
50 – 30 = 20 –30 using play money and concrete materials.
20

RESOURCES
Base 10 material, Unifix, popsticks, elastic bands, calculators, ice-cream containers.

227
SUBTRACTION 8
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Subtraction can be represented by concrete materials. The student is able to
• demonstrate and describe the comparison method of subtraction for two-
digit numbers using concrete materials
CONTENT • record using numeral and symbol cards.
Subtraction of two-digit numbers involving comparison.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• No formal written work is necessary. Students may Many, more, how many more, Ask students to
wish, however, to continue to record informally using plus something, plus some
• represent a comparison problem and
a variety of recording methods including symbol and more, plus how many more,
its solution using concrete materials
numeral cards, drawings and stories. Those students add, subtract, minus, different,
who are ready should not be discouraged from formal difference, not as many, bigger, • record a concrete representation using
recording. greater, smaller, less than, numeral and symbol cards
what’s the difference between, • explain in their own words how the
• Students should use a variety of concrete materials,
find the difference between. concrete materials relate to the given
beginning with discrete materials such as popsticks
and progressing to the more abstract, structured “Fifteen and ten more makes problem.
material such as Base 10 material. twenty-five.”
“To find the difference between
• The “counting on” method of subtraction is
Ed’s group and my group I’ll EVALUATION
sometimes called “the shopkeepers’ method”, “adding
have to take twenty-four from
on”, “missing addend” or “complementary addition”. • Did all students have adequate use of
thirty-eight. I’m going to check
• Encourage class, group and pair discussions and my answer on the calculator.” the concrete materials?
sharing of problems as well as strategies for solving • Did students use a variety of
Discuss with students the
them. recording methods?
various word patterns which
• Encourage students to suggest a range of strategies for indicate subtractions.
solving problems and to discuss the merits of various
strategies in terms of practicality and efficiency.
• Link with Numeration Units 9 and 10, involving
trading.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
“MORE THAN” METHOD
WITH OR WITHOUT TRADING
Give students typical “counting on” type problems, eg “Lesha has
sold thirty tickets in a guessing competition. People who sell fifty
tickets receive a prize. How many more tickets must she sell to get
a prize?”
Ask students to model the problem using bundles of popsticks or
similar discrete materials.
Ask students to model the problem using Base 10 materials.
Ask students to express the problem in a number sentence using
numeral and symbol cards. Formal recording may be attempted by
some students.
DIFFERENCE METHOD WITHOUT TRADING
Set students typical difference problems, eg “If Ed has thirty-eight
tickets and Gavin has twenty-four, how many more does Ed
have?”
Ask students to model the problem using discrete concrete
material such as Centicubes. Use a different colour for each group
being compared. Ask students to compare the two groups by
matching one-to-one and then counting the extras in the larger
group.
The modelling should then be repeated using Base 10 material and
the actions expressed in a number sentence using numeral and
symbol cards.
DIFFERENCE METHOD WITH TRADING
Pose typical difference method problems which involve trading, eg
“Year Three ordered fifty-five sandwiches from the canteen today
but Year Four ordered only thirty-nine. Which year ordered more
and how many more did they order?”
Modelling this problem using discrete materials such as popsticks
could be followed by modelling with bundled popsticks. To
perform the subtraction, one of the bundles of ten has to be
disbanded.
Repeat the modelling using Base 10 material. To perform the
subtraction, one of the longs will have to be traded for ten shorts.
Ask students to write an explanation of the trading operation and
how the modelling related to the original problem.
Ask students to set out number sentences using numeral cards.
Ensure that both vertical and horizontal forms are shown.
5 5 – 3 9 = 1 6 5 5
– 3 9
1 6
MEASUREMENT LINKS
Suggest problems that involve finding the difference in mass of the
teacher and a student, the difference in length of two objects, etc.

RESOURCES
Base 10 material, Unifix, Centicubes, popsticks, elastic bands, calculators, symbol and numeral cards.

228
SUBTRACTION 9
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Subtraction and addition are inverse operations. The student is able to
• recognise and discuss patterns and relationships when single-digit
numbers are added to or subtracted from two-digit numbers
CONTENT • model these patterns and relationships using concrete materials and
Addition and subtraction of single-digit numbers from algorithms.
two-digit numbers.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• In this unit students will extend the basic facts and Take away, subtract, minus, Ask students to
recognise the patterns that exist in subtraction of a from, less, add, plus, equals, is
• compare a pattern, eg
group of ones, eg equal to, ones, units, tens, place,
pattern. 13 – 4 =9
basic fact 13 – 7 = 6
23 – 4 = 19
“Look! When I take eight from
extensions 23 – 7 = 16 33 – 4 =
any number ending in three, I
33 – 7 = 26 –4 = 39
always get five in the units
43 – 7 = 36, etc.
place.” • state a subtraction number sentence
• Quick responses should be maintained through oral “When I add ten to any number, corresponding to a given addition
activities and number fact games. Students should the number in the units place number sentence and vice versa.
understand, however, the processes involved in doesn’t change.”
addition and subtraction before memorising number
facts. EVALUATION
• When playing games students may wish to use a • Did the students work cooperatively
calculator to check subtraction facts. in small groups?
• The hundreds chart is more abstract than other types • Did both boys and girls have
of materials such as interlocking cubes, popsticks or opportunities to be group leaders?
Base 10 material. Students can explore number
patterns using the chart together with the other
materials.
• See Unit 6 for an outline of suggested strategies to aid
memorisation of basic facts.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
HOUSIE
LINKED NUMBER SENTENCES Issue housie cards to students. The teacher draws the numbers
Ask students to write as many number sentences as they can from a bag but instead of simply calling “legs eleven” or “clickety-
linking the numbers three, four and seven. Repeat for larger clicks”, the teacher calls a subtraction or addition problem. If
numbers. appropriate for the particular students, multiplication or division
questions would be suitable. The first student to have a card with
HUNDRED CHART ACTIVITIES all numbers covered and checked is the winner.
Use a large teacher made or commercially produced hundreds The game could be played on a hundreds chart, in which case all
chart to aid discussion of patterns. Ask students to choose a students would be covering the same numbers. This could be
number property and place coloured counters on all the numbers overcome by having students choose several rows and columns to
on the chart that have that property, eg shade. Only those numbers not shaded would have to be called and
– all the single-digit numbers covered.
– the numbers ending in five.
Ask students to place counters on specific numbers, eg STOPWATCH TABLES
– the number two less than 73 Give students tables to complete in a short time, say one minute,
– the numbers that are two less than a number ending in five. timed by a stopwatch. This could be run as a competition with a
Ask students to pick any one-digit number and then place a group or with individual students trying to break their own records.
counter on the number which is five more. Then add another five A typical table is shown below.
and place a counter, and so on. Ask students to observe and
comment on the pattern. 7 17 57 37 87 97 77 67
Repeat the previous activity adding four each time. Repeat adding –4
other numbers. Students could receive a stencil of a hundreds chart
in each case so that they could colour in the patterns to allow easy
comparison. TRAVEL DISTANCES
Repeat the previous activity by asking students to choose a number As a typical real problem give students signposts and ask them to
between 90 and 100. This time the students subtract the same find the distances between the towns.
number each time, placing a counter on the result and noting the Blaxland 25
pattern that develops. Discuss with students whether it made any Lawson 6
difference to the final pattern when the number was subtracted
rather than added.

RESOURCES
Counters, hundreds charts, housie cards, stopwatch.

229
SUBTRACTION 10
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Subtraction can be expressed using a number sentence or The student is able to
algorithm. • subtract two-digit numbers from two-digit numbers without trading
• record subtraction operations in symbolic form.
CONTENT
Writing the subtraction algorithm.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Students will need to understand place value before Difference, what’s the Ask students to
commencing this unit. difference, how many more,
• translate word problems involving
• The use of concrete materials should be continued. how many less, take away,
subtraction into concrete modelling
minus, subtract, is, leaves, left,
• Students should be encouraged to estimate answers and hence give a solution
before attempting to solve the problems in concrete or what’s left, how many left, is
equal to, equals, how much • check a subtraction answer using
symbolic forms. Asking students to explain how they
obtained their estimates is a good check on their level change. addition
of understanding of the problem. “Two longs and eight shorts can • make up oral and written problems
• Wherever possible, the algorithm should be generated be the people who were on the involving subtraction.
from a real world problem. bus at first.”
• The procedure for translating a problem to a written “Twelve people got off so I
algorithm can include reading or listening to the need to take away one long and EVALUATION
problem, determining appropriate operations, writing two shorts.”
the algorithm and reading the algorithm in a form that “That leaves one long and six • Did the problems relate to the
relates the solution back to the problem. Each step shorts so there were sixteen students’ interests and experience?
represents a potential stumbling block for the student. people left on the bus.” • Did I encourage students to use
• Encourage the students to check subtractions by calculators to check answers?
adding and by using a calculator.
• Until students feel confident in writing the formal
algorithm themselves they may need to use symbol
and numeral cards or dictate to a friend or the teacher.
• The use of grid paper is recommended for the setting
out of algorithms.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
SUBTRACTION OF TENS AND UNITS (NO TRADING)
SUBTRACTION OF MULTIPLES OF TEN Have students state a problem verbally, then using concrete
Have students state a problem verbally, then using concrete materials and finally in symbolic form, eg “There were thirty-
materials and finally in symbolic form, eg “There were forty seven cars in the car park. When the shops closed, twenty-four
students in a hall. Twenty left. How many remained in the hall?” were driven away. How many remained?”
Verbal Concrete Symbolic Verbal Concrete Symbolic
“Forty students Tens Ones Tens Ones “Thirty-seven cars Tens Ones Tens Ones
– I’ll use four 4 0 – I’ll use three 3 7
longs to show longs and seven
them.” shorts to show
them.”

“Twenty students Tens Ones Tens Ones “Twenty-four cars Tens Ones Tens Ones
leave so I have to 4 0 left so I have to 3 7
take away two – 2 0 take away two – 2 4
longs.” longs and four
shorts.”

“That leaves two Tens Ones Tens Ones “That leaves one Tens Ones Tens Ones
longs so twenty 4 0 long and three 3 7
students – 2 0 shorts so thirteen – 2 4
remain.” 2 0 cars remain.” 1 3

RESOURCES
Grid paper, popsticks, interlocking cubes, Base 10 material calculators, place value charts.

230
SUBTRACTION 11
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Subtractions can be expressed in both concrete and The student is able to
symbolic form. • subtract from a two-digit number with trading
• record these subtractions in symbolic form.
CONTENT
Subtraction of tens and ones with trading.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Students will need to understand place value and the Difference, what’s the Ask students to
process of trading using concrete materials before difference, how many more,
attempting the activities in this unit. • model and write the algorithm for a
how many less, take away,
given problem
• All operations should be linked to oral or written real subtract, minus, leaves, left,
world problems. Encourage students to think of what’s left, how many left, is • model and write the algorithm for a
problems that are significant to them, eg the cost of equal to, equals, how much problem of their own
food in the canteen.
change. • give suitable numbers to complete a
• Recording should come only after students can
“Out of sixty-eight people in the problem such as “Diana had
demonstrate the operation using concrete materials.
hall, twenty-nine are adults.” books. She gave to the library.
• Structured concrete materials such as Base 10 How many did she have left?”
“I can’t take nine from eight so
material should be used after students are confident
with less abstract materials such as popsticks. I need to trade.”
“Fifty-four can be traded for
• One of the common problems with the vertical form
four longs and fourteen shorts.” EVALUATION
of the algorithm is that students tend to take the
smaller number from the larger in each column. The • Did I ensure that there was sufficient
use of concrete materials will help to emphasise that
concrete material for each student to
the bottom numeral in each column is to be subtracted
from the top numeral. use during group work?

• The use of grid paper is recommended for recording • Did discussion between students take
the algorithm. When setting out algorithms on grid place?
paper a space should be left at the top for rewriting
the numeral after trading.
• Students should be encouraged to estimate an answer
before carrying out the operation.
• Encourage students to check subtraction with addition
and with a calculator.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES SUBTRACTION SQUARES

FLAT BUSTER Have students complete subtraction squares and similar grids.

Each student in the group starts with a flat, except for one student – 45 30 49 35 78 9
who is appointed banker. Each player in turn rolls two dice and 16
subtracts that number of shorts. Where necessary the banker helps 5
9
in the trading process. The first player to have no material left is 4
the winner. 7
25
TRADING
30
Using Base 10 material, students find different ways of
representing the same number, eg 45. Subtraction squares can be created using computer spreadsheet
programs.

SIGN POSTS
OR OR
Have students write their own problems and solve
them using the information on the sign post. 97 Wyong
Give students a page of advertisements from a 82 Gosford
newspaper. Ask them to make up and solve
CROSS NUMBERS their own problems. 23 Pymble
Give students cross numbers and have them make up their own.
MISTAKES
1 2 3
ACROSS DOWN Present students with the following types of algorithms.
4 1. 25 – 11 1. 21 – 5 26 20 40 40
2. 56 – 28 3. 99 – 10 –8 –4 -6 -37
5
5. 46 – 13 4. 50 – 7 22 20 20 13
6 7 6. 59 – 0 5. 41 – 2 Discuss with students the kinds of errors that could have led to
7. 67 – 47 6. 56 – 6 these incorrect answers, eg forgetting to trade, taking the smaller
8
8. 74 – 59 7. 50 – 25 number from the larger.

RESOURCES
Grid paper, popsticks, interlocking cubes, Base 10 material, calculators, computer spreadsheet software, place value charts.

231
SUBTRACTION 12
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Subtraction of whole numbers can be expressed using The student is able to
concrete materials and in symbolic form. • subtract numbers of up to three digits using concrete materials
• subtract numbers of up to three digits using “counting on” and
CONTENT “comparison” methods
• subtract from three-digit numbers without exchanging using concrete
Subtraction to 999.
materials and recording the operation in the form of an algorithm.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Students will need to understand trading and have Take away, subtract, minus, how Ask students to
been introduced to “rounding off” before attempting many left, how many remain,
• subtract a whole number of hundreds
this unit. need to trade, the difference
from a given number
between.
• The total number of objects should not exceed 999.
• subtract a three-digit number from a
“Two hundred and thirty-one
• Base 10 materials are the most suitable to use because three-digit number where trading is
people are going to the concert.
of the large numbers involved. Bundles of popsticks not necessary
One hundred and eighty have
or interlocking cubes could be used, however.
collected their tickets. Twenty • estimate a reasonable answer to a
• To begin with, no formal written work is necessary more makes two hundred and given subtraction.
but students may record informally if they wish. The then another thirty-one makes Note whether the student chooses
idea of this unit is to develop the concept of fifty-one. So fifty-one still have subtraction when it is the appropriate
subtraction through language structures. to collect tickets.” operation for solving a problem.
• Students should understand “take away” before “This book has two hundred
attempting situations involving comparison and and fifty-six pages and this one
counting on. A complete concept of subtraction has three hundred pages. This EVALUATION
involves the understanding of all three aspects. book has forty-four pages
more.” • Was there sufficient Base 10 material
• Students should be encouraged to estimate the answer for modelling large numbers?
before performing the subtraction. Checks should be “How does the answer compare
done using a calculator and by performing the with my estimate?” • Did I record the insights and learning
associated addition. difficulties that I noticed during the
lessons?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
THE DEVELOPMENTAL SEQUENCE
SUBTRACTING GROUPS OF ONE HUNDRED Problems should be set so that the following sequence of seven
Set problems which involve subtraction of hundreds only. Ask stages is followed. No trading is involved.
students to estimate the answer and then model the problem using STAGE 1. Both numbers have three digits.
Base 10 material. Ensure that students relate their answers from STAGE 2. The smaller number has two digits.
concrete materials back to the problem. Ask students to compare STAGE 3. The smaller number has one digit.
the answer with the original number and state the difference. STAGE 4 The smaller number has a zero in the units place.
STAGE 5. The smaller number has a zero in the hundreds
ACTIVITIES REVISITED column.
Dice games such as “Flat Buster” which were played in earlier STAGE 6. The smaller number has zeros in both the tens and
units should now be extended or modified to suit three-digit units columns.
numbers. STAGE 7. Both numbers have the same digit in the units
column.
COUNTING ON
MISSING DIGIT
Give students problems and ask them to model a “counting on”
solution, eg “Two hundred and thirty-one people are to attend a Give students incomplete algorithms to complete, eg
concert. One hundred and eighty have collected tickets. How many 4 6
more still have to collect tickets?” Students first model to number – 1 2
one hundred and eighty using Base 10 material. Building the 3 3 3
number up to two hundred involves adding two more longs.
Building on to two hundred and thirty-one involves adding three MEASUREMENT LINKS
more longs and a short. Students now trade longs for a flat and Wherever possible, link subtraction with real problems which arise
note the answer. from differences in lengths, heights, areas and time.
Encourage students to write their solutions in words. 777 534
CALCULATORS
Have students check answers using a calculator. 666 465
Set subtraction webs for students to 834 –
complete and have them check their 546 789
answers by using a calculator.
284 797

RESOURCES
Base 10 material, interlocking cubes, popsticks, grid paper, place value sheets, calculators.

232
SUBTRACTION 13
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Subtraction of whole numbers can be represented in The student is able to
concrete and symbolic forms. • subtract from three-digit numbers where trading is required using
concrete materials
CONTENT • record subtractions with trading in an algorithm.
Subtraction of hundreds, tens and units with trading.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• The use of a calculator should be encouraged where it Minus, subtract, less than, Ask students to
is apparent that it is an efficient tool to use. difference between, how many
• given the horizontal form of the
more, how many less, trade,
• At this stage it is most important for students to algorithm
exchange, swap, rename.
choose the appropriate operation as the calculator can
• given the vertical form of the
perform the mechanics of the operation but cannot “I can exchange one flat for ten
algorithm.
decide which operation is the right one. longs.”
“I can’t take away four longs
• The subtraction algorithm should be presented in both
from two longs so I’ll trade a
horizontal and vertical forms. EVALUATION
flat so that I end up with twelve
• The use of grid paper is recommended to help longs. Now I can take the four • Did I record my observations of
students set out algorithms correctly and neatly. longs from the twelve longs and classroom occurrences?
• Below is a sequence of subtraction problems. get eight longs.”
• Was my selection of problems
Students do not necessarily learn to solve subtraction appropriate for my students?
problems in this order, as each student has an
individual learning style. It is included for
information and recording purposes.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES STAGE 7. Three-digit number subtract a three-digit number, with

a zero in the answer, eg
A DEVELOPMENTAL SEQUENCE 864
STAGE 1. Three-digit number subtract a two-digit number, – 456
exchanging tens for ones, eg STAGE 8. Three-digit number subtract a three-digit number, and
268 no hundreds in the answer, eg
– 39 469
STAGE 2. Three-digit number subtract a two-digit number, – 374
exchanging hundreds for tens, eg STAGE 9. Three-digit number subtract a three-digit number, one
837 zero in the top line, eg
– 94 340 905
OR
STAGE 3. Three-digit number subtract a two-digit number, – 248 – 692
exchanging tens for ones and hundreds for tens, eg STAGE 10. Whole number of hundreds subtract a three-digit
311 number, eg
– 27 800
STAGE 4. Three-digit number subtract a three-digit number, – 432
exchanging tens for ones, eg These types of problems should be attempted by students with
385 access to concrete materials, particularly Base 10 material.
– 126
STAGE 5. Three-digit number subtract a three-digit number,
DICE GAMES
exchanging hundreds for tens, eg Players roll three dice, one of which is marked 0– 5, the second of
245 which is marked 1–6 and the third one is marked 4 –9. Each player
– 162 begins with 999 and arranges the numerals that appear to form a
number which they subtract from 999. Their total is progressively
STAGE 6. Three digit number subtract a three digit number, reduced and the winner after three rounds is the player whose total
exchanging tens for ones and hundreds for tens, eg is closest to zero. (Negative values are not allowed.)
732
– 346 ACTIVITIES REVISITED
Continue or extend activities mentioned in previous units.

RESOURCES
Base 10 material, dice, calculators, 5 mm grid paper, 1 cm grid paper, place value charts.

233
SUBTRACTION 14
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Subtraction of whole numbers can be represented in both The student is able to
concrete and symbolic forms. • subtract from four-digit numbers with exchanging using concrete
materials
CONTENT • record subtractions involving four-digit numbers is an algorithm.
Subtraction to 9 999.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Students should be taken through the following
sequence.
1. Taking away of groups of 1 000, eg 6 000 – 4 000
and later 5 245 - 2000.
2. Taking away numbers without trading,
eg 8 762 – 5 341
3. Taking away with trading, eg 5 648 – 1 289
• Problems should arise from real life and be made up
by students or the teacher.
• Students should understand taking away thoroughly
before attempting problems involving comparison or
counting on. A complete concept of subtraction
involves understanding of all three forms.
• A space should be left to the right of the digit in the
thousands place when writing a four-digit number.
Take away, subtract, minus, how
many left, how many remain,
need to trade, exchange, swap,
blocks, flats, longs, shorts, plus
something, plus some more,
smaller, greater, difference.
“I modelled four thousand two
hundred using two flats and
four blocks.”
“To take three thousand nine
hundred from four thousand two
hundred, I traded one of the
blocks in four thousand two
hundred for ten flats. That gave
twelve flats so I took nine flats
away. Then I took three blocks
from the three blocks so all that
was left were three flats. The
answer must be three hundred.”
Ask students to
• subtract whole thousands only
• subtract whole hundreds only from a
four-digit number
• subtract one four-digit number from
another where no trading is involved
• subtract from a four-digit number
where trading is involved
• model four-digit subtraction problems
using concrete material.
EVALUATION
• Did I find realistic problems which
interested the students?
• Were students invited to provide
suitable problems?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES BLOCK BUSTER

SUBTRACTION WITH TRADING
Set students real-world problems which involve subtraction with
trading, eg “Greg won $2 732 of which he spent $1 464. How
much did he have left?” Students model the problem using Base
10 material and write the problem out as an algorithm.
Each student starts with 1 000, represented by a Base 10 block. In
turn, each player rolls three dice and multiplies the numbers
shown. This product is subtracted from 1 000 by trading the block
for other material supplied by a banker. After a given number of
rounds, the player with the most still left is the winner.
Variations could involve making the player with the least after a
given number of rounds the winner, playing with more dice,
having dice with large numbers or using a spinner with three-digit
numbers on its face.

COUNTING ON
Set students problems which involve counting on, eg “A family is
travelling on a long journey of 4 865 km. After they have travelled
3 270 km, how far do they still have to go?”
Have students check their answers with a calculator and write the
solution in the form of a algorithm.
Exchange one flat for ten longs and one long for ten shorts.
COMPARISON
Set students problems which involve the comparison of two
numbers or quantities, eg “A car manufacturer sold 2 345 cars in
July but only 1 768 cars in August. Compare the numbers sold in
Answer each month.” The numbers involved can be drawn from prepared
computer databases.

ACTIVITIES REVISITED
So 2 732
– 1 464 Continue and extend activities from previous units. Link with
1 268 Measurement activities, eg comparing volumes of containers.

RESOURCES
Base 10 material, interlocking cubes, popsticks, numeral and symbol cards, prepared computer databases, grid paper.

234
SUBTRACTION 15
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Subtractions can be represented in both concrete and The student is able to
symbolic forms. • subtract four-digit numbers and beyond with or without trading using
concrete materials and a written algorithm.
CONTENT
Subtraction involving four-digit numbers and beyond.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Concrete materials should still be used to aid Minus, subtract, less, difference, Ask students to
students’ understanding, if necessary. how many more, how many
• complete subtractions using concrete
less.
• Calculators should be used to check answers. Students materials
should be encouraged to make estimates before Ensure that students have
• complete subtractions where
performing the calculation. understood place names from
modelling using concrete materials is
the Numeration units before
• The use of grid paper will help students when difficult.
introducing numbers with more
recording the algorithm.
than four digits.
• In numbers with four digits or more there should be
“There were thirty-five EVALUATION
space to the right of the thousands digit.
thousand two hundred and
• The modelling of numbers with more than four digits seventy-six people at the • Did the five-digit numbers used in
is difficult with Base 10 materials. This should show football yesterday. Today there problems have any meaning for the
students the importance of moving to an algorithmic are thirty-four thousand nine students?
solution. hundred and fifty-seven. That • Were students motivated to attempt
• Of the several subtraction algorithms, the means there were more than subtractions involving large numbers?
“decomposition” method best matches manipulation three hundred more yesterday.”
“The number before six • Did I value the students’ own
of concrete materials. For large numbers where more strategies for solving problems?
than one trading operation is required this method can thousand five hundred is six
become untidy. The “equal addends” method, thousand four hundred and
sometimes incorrectly called “borrow and pay back”, ninety-nine.”
is neater but is more difficult to understand.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
COMPARISON AND ADDING ON
DECOMPOSITION
As a link with Social Studies, have students compare the
Ask students to suggest problems and encourage them to attempt populations of Australian cities and other cities of the world.
solutions by pen and paper methods, checking answers using a
As a link with the Measurement strand, have students compare
calculator. The following example shows a suitable layout for the
distances between major cities, the distances from Earth to other
“decomposition” method.
planets or the masses of large ships.
31
2 456
–1 385
THE ABACUS
1 071 As an alternative to concrete materials, the abacus can neatly
model subtraction problems, paralleling the “add ten, add ten” or
EQUAL ADDENDS “equal addends” method.

For students who have a very good understanding of subtraction,
the “equal addends” algorithm may be introduced as an alternative,
particularly where very large numbers are involved. The method is
difficult to justify to students. There is little value in teaching the
method as a trick when calculators are readily available. There are
several possible layouts of the method, of which the following is
only one and not necessarily the best. The expression “borrow and
pay back” should not be used. “Add ten, add ten” is preferable.
1 1 1 1
38 612
– 1219 181913
8 719
Note that there are several versions of the abacus, some of which
have a “five” row that can complicate explanations. A simple
abacus should be used initially and the more advanced models
considered later.
ACTIVITIES REVISITED
Many activities from previous units can be continued or extended
to involve five-digit numbers.
CHECKING STRATEGIES
Discuss with students suitable methods for checking both the
accuracy and plausibility of answers, eg the use of a calculator,
associated additions, commonsense answers.

RESOURCES
Calculators, Base 10 material, place value charts, interlocking cubes.

235
 MULTIPLICATION
SUMMARY OF OBJECTIVES
MULTIPLICATION 1
• model and describe equal groups or rows of objects
• label the number of objects in a group or row
• label the number of groups in a row or collection
MULTIPLICATION 2
• model and describe equal groups or rows and find their totals
• label groups to show how many there are altogether
MULTIPLICATION 3
• read and interpret the multiplication sign in number sentences
• use the multiplication sign to make labels for equal groups
MULTIPLICATION 4
• recall multiplication facts involving groups of 2 and 4
• read and interpret the vertical form of the multiplication
algorithm
MULTIPLICATION 5
• memorise multiplication number facts involving 10, 5, 1 and 0
MULTIPLICATION 6
• recall multiplication number facts involving 3, 6 and 9
MULTIPLICATION 7
• recall multiplication facts involving 8 and 7
236
MULTIPLICATION 8
• understand the terms “factor” and “multiple”
• use multiplication for “ratio” problems
• understand and use square numbers
MULTIPLICATION 9
• estimate and calculate multiplication problems using concrete
materials
MULTIPLICATION 10
• understand the link between concrete and symbolic forms of
multiplication
• multiply using extended algorithms
MULTIPLICATION 11
• estimate and calculate the product of one-digit x two-digit and
one-digit x three-digit numbers
• multiply two and three-digit numbers by one-digit numbers
using the contracted form of the algorithm
MULTIPLICATION 12
• make reasonable estimates of two-digit x two-digit problems
and two-digit x three-digit problems
• multiply two-digits x two digits using an extended algorithm
MULTIPLICATION 1
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Multiplication involves the combination of equal groups. The student is able to
• model and describe equal groups or rows of objects
• label the number of objects in a group or row
CONTENT • label the number of groups in a row or collection.
Modelling equal groups of objects.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Before commencing work on this sub-strand students Two groups of three, four rows Ask students to
will need to have developed the understandings of two, equal groups, same size,
• describe equal groups or rows in the
outlined in the Numeration sub-strand, Units 1–6. match, label, more than, fewer
classroom or playground
than.
• Introduce the term “rows” in the context of activities.
• make three groups of the same size
The idea of rows will be developed in later units when “There are two groups of three
(number) and label them
students explore arrays. trees.”
“Each group has three trees.” • make the size and number of groups
• Encourage students to write their own labels to
“I made four groups of blocks. or rows match a given label.
describe the size and number of groups.
There are three in each group.”
• Totalling the number of objects in groups may be 4 groups of 5
“These groups are the same
done incidentally by students but the emphasis here is size.”
on understanding the modelling of groups of the same “They’re equal.”
size and describing them. “You made shorter rows of EVALUATION
• Although some activities with pictorial materials can buttons than me.”
“I made two rows of six and • Were the resources and space used
be used the emphasis is still on work with concrete effectively?
materials. you made two rows of four.”
“I need to make a label that • Did all students participate actively in
• The term “lots of ” can be confusing to students says, ëtwo groups of six’.” small group and partner work?
because of its everyday use, eg lots of fish in the sea, “Here’s three rows of five
and thus should be avoided. This can be particularly chairs.”
difficult for non-English speaking background “I have to make three groups of
students. four to match this label.”

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES LABELLING

SAME SIZE GROUPS
Show students two groups of mixed objects that have the same
number of objects in each group. Ask students to describe the
groups and comment on any likeness between them.
Students can work in pairs and make a given number of groups.
Ask students to make three equal groups of any number of things.
Students describe the groups they have made to each other, eg “I
made three groups of four pegs.” Show students how the groups
can be labelled using numeral and word cards.

Students working in pairs can make various numbers of equal
groups and ask their partners to describe them.
SAME NUMBER OF GROUPS
Ask students to make four groups of two objects. It may help some
students to have four pieces of paper or a large sheet marked with
four squares.
Then ask students to replace the four groups of two with four
groups of another size. Students then describe the new groups, eg
“I made four groups of five buttons.”
• Repeat for various numbers of groups. Include one group and
groups of one object.
Students can then do this activity in pairs.
• Students might also enjoy making pictures of equal groups by
either cutting and pasting from magazines or by painting.
3 groups of 4
Ask the students who made the smallest group. Introduce the idea
of one group if students have not already made this. Have word
cards for one group, eg 1 group of 2, as well as for more than one
group. Students can also make any number of groups that are
made up of a given number of objects. For example, ask students
to make any number of groups of three objects.
ROWS
Repeat the activities with the groups arranged in rows. Show the
students one row of a small number of objects and ask them to
describe this group. If students do not use the term rows, introduce
this.
Students add more rows and describe these.
2 rows of 3
Ask students to label the rows.

RESOURCES
Blocks, leaves, sticks, pegs, buttons, numeral cards, word cards, paper squares.

237
MULTIPLICATION 2
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Objects can be counted in equal groups of rows to find
The student is able to
out how many there are altogether.
• model and describe equal groups or rows and find their totals
• label groups to show how many there are altogether.
CONTENT
Repeated addition to find the total number of objects in
groups or rows.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Students will be using the idea of repeated addition to Altogether, total, totals, how Ask students to
find the total number of objects in groups or rows. many, is equal to, equals,
• make some groups that are the same
Before commencing this unit, work in the Addition groups of, rows, zero.
size and describe them, eg “I made
sub-strand, Unit 5 should be done.
“Two groups of ten equals three groups of four. That’s four plus
• There is no emphasis on memorisation of number twenty.” four plus four.”
facts at this stage, but rather on the concept of equal
“It comes to forty-eight.” • give the total amount and match a
groups being added to give a total.
label to the groups
“Three rows of four or four
• Find realistic situations in which to use zero and
rows of three is twelve.” 4 + 4 + 4 = 1 2
groups of zero, eg no cakes, no hats, zero sticks, zero
dinosaurs. “I’ve got four groups of two. • find or draw pictures that show
That’s two and two more is
• Activities which link concrete objects and pictorial – two groups of five objects
four, five, six, seven. Eight
representations should be used. Pictorial – three groups of one object
altogether.”
representations and situations in which objects cannot • give totals and label the groups they
be moved around by students can also be used. “There are four of us and none make.
of us has any lollies. Four
groups of zero makes zero.” 2 groups of 5 is 1 0

“Aim has made seven groups of

two. That’s fourteen altogether.”
EVALUATION
• Were the students interested and
challenged by the activities?
• Was I able to cater for individual
differences?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
HOW MANY
Make groups and rows of objects and ask students to describe
these, eg “Three groups of four objects.”
• Students working in pairs make and describe groups and rows
for each other.
• Ask students to find the total number of objects in the groups
and rows.
• Students can repeat the activity using boundary cards.
4 groups of 1 3 groups of 0
• •
• •
PLAYGROUND
Students find equal groups in the school or playground and find
the totals, eg “There are three rows of five seats. That’s five plus
five plus five, fifteen altogether.”
CRAFT
Students make and display pictures of rows or groups by arranging
and pasting objects like sticks or leaves onto art paper. Students
can also paint, draw or print rows of objects. Pictures cut out from
magazines can also be glued onto paper in rows and displayed.
Students can make labels for these pictures, stating the number of
rows and the total number of objects pictured.
BEADS
Students can make strings of beads using two colours and find the
total number of beads by counting in groups.
ARRAYS
Students make arrays by arranging their rows of objects to make
rectangular patterns. Have the students make arrays and label them
to show the number of rows and the total number of objects. When
students are doing this confidently, ask them to turn the arrays
through ninety degrees and re-label them.
2 groups of 4
4 rows of 2
PROBLEMS
Use problems that arise, or that students suggest, to find the total
number of objects in equal groups or rows. Students might suggest
problems like these.
• “My four dogs were given three dog biscuits each. How many
dog biscuits is that altogether?”
• “The three hens at home laid five eggs each this week. How
many is that altogether?”
DOTS AND ROWS
Give students a sheet of dot paper and ask them to circle a small
number of equal rows or groups of dots, eg five rows of six dots.
Students can write captions for the groups.

RESOURCES
Boundary cards, label cards, numeral cards, pictures, blocks, beads, string, work cards, dot paper, magazines.

238
MULTIPLICATION 3
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
A number sentence can be used to represent The student is able to
multiplication. • read and interpret the multiplication sign in number sentences
• use the multiplication sign to make labels for equal groups.
CONTENT
The multiplication sign.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• The idea of multiplication being repeated addition can
be developed as one of the strategies for finding the
total number of objects. Students may have other
strategies for finding totals.
• Students should continue to have access to cards
saying “groups of” and “rows of” after the
multiplication sign (x) has been introduced.
• The term “number sentence” can be introduced by the
teacher to refer to numerical expressions containing
“x” and “=”. The students will have used number
sentences in their addition and subtraction work.
• Students need plenty of opportunities to make up
stories about equal groups of objects and to solve real
life problems using multiplication, eg “If we all pay
$2, how much will we have for the excursion?”
• Students should be encouraged to use calculators at
this stage. The multiplication key can be referred to as
the “groups of” sign.
Altogether, total, totals, makes,
is, rows of, groups of, bundles,
number sentence.
“My dice throw gave me three
groups of four.”
“I made four rows of six pegs.
That’s twenty-four pegs.”
“That’s five lots of four.”
“I have four groups of three and
one left over.”
“I pressed the groups of button
and got the right answer.”
“Four groups of five is equal to
twenty.”
Ask students to
• solve a problem using concrete
material and make a number sentence
using numeral and symbol cards
• read a number sentence and model
some groups or rows to match it
• make up a story to explain a number
sentence.
EVALUATION
• Was there sufficient time given to the
activities?
• Did I use a variety of evaluation
techniques?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES FUNNY PICTURES

Students make cards that can be used for multiplication activities
THE MULTIPLICATION SIGN
by pasting on pictures of equal groups.
After students have made a number of equal groups and labelled
Students could make these pictures look funny by cutting and
these with word and numeral cards, explain that the word cards
pasting parts of them, eg five faces with three eyes each. Some of
“groups of” or “rows of” can be replaced by the multiplication
the pictures can be used for more than one question. Using a
sign “x”.
picture of five people, students could ask
– how many people?
4 groups of 4 = 1 6 – how many arms?
– how many toes?
4 x 4 = 1 6 Students might like to make pictures that tell a story, eg “A wizard
put a spell on three frogs, turning each frog into four frogs.”
Have the students make other models of equal groups and label Students can write about their pictures and make number sentences
them using the multiplication symbol card. Ask the students to for each of them.
make labels for equal groups of objects they see in the classroom
and display these. REPEATED ADDITION
Put small round stickers on each face of a die marked with the
Two stacks of ten books. 2 x 10 = 20
numerals 1–6. Give this die and a regular die to students and ask
them to roll both dice. Students determine the size of the groups
GROUP GAME they are to model from what is shown on the dice. For example, a
Students stand in an open space and when a number is called out student throws a 3 and a four dots.
they form groups of that many people. Have students count the 3 •• ••
groups and note any leftovers. The number of groups made can be
recorded with numeral and symbol cards. These numbers can be shown as follows.

4 x 7 = 2 8 We made four groups 4 + 4 + 4 = 1 2 1 2 = 4 + 4 + 4

of seven people.
3 x 4 = 1 2 1 2 = 3 x 4

RESOURCES
Numeral and symbol cards, work cards, counters, blocks, dice, leaves, sticks.

239
MULTIPLICATION 4
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Number facts can be useful in everyday life. The student is able to
• recall multiplication facts involving groups of 2 and 4
• read and interpret the vertical form of the multiplication algorithm.
CONTENT
Number facts — x 2, x 4.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• The tables of 2 and 4 are dealt with first because they Table of twos, table of fours, Ask students to
are small, single digit numbers that are related. The row, column, across, up, down,
• solve a problem involving
tables of 10, 5, 1 and 0 are dealt with next. Then 3, 6 grid, array, altogether, equals,
multiplication number facts of two
and 9 and finally the tables of 7 and 8. totals, makes.
and four, eg four seeds planted in four
• Teachers may decide to vary this sequence, “We found the number pattern pots, and note how students solve this
developing tables for 10, 5 and 1 first, then for groups of two. It goes two,
• make labels for multiplication
introducing the vertical form and finally the tables for four, six, eight, ten, twelve,
problems using numeral and symbol
2, 4 and 0. fourteen, sixteen, eighteen,
cards, both in the horizontal and
twenty. It’s like counting by
• The term “table of twos” is used to imply the build up vertical forms.
twos.”
of groups of two.
“When Kaisu coloured them on
• The vertical or algorithmic form should be read “up”
the hundred chart some columns EVALUATION
eg four groups of five, four fives, four rows of five.
were coloured and some
4 x 5 = 2 0 5 weren’t” • Did I model a variety of strategies for
solving problems, eg manipulating
x 4 “On the chart, the fours pattern concrete material, drawing pictures,
looks funny but all the numbers mental calculations?
2 0
in the fours pattern are in the
The multiplication sign is placed on the left hand side twos pattern as well.”
of the vertical algorithm.
• Have students make array models which when rotated
or regrouped, easily demonstrate that 2 x 5 = 5 x 2.
• Activities from this unit can be repeated for the
following units.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES THE HUNDRED CHART

THE TABLE OF TWOS 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Students can construct a model of the table of twos using 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
interlocking blocks.
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
If two colours are used, the model
will be easier to interpret. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60

61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70

71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
1x2=2

2x2=4

3x2=6

4x2=8

81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100

Numeral and symbol cards can be used to label the model. Repeat Students can shade the table of twos on a one hundred chart.
for the table of fours and later the other tables. Some computer Repeat for the table of fours. After students have done this for both
software can be used to help students to learn number facts. tables separately they can combine the two and four tables to show
the relationship between them.
VERTICAL FORM
Ask students to model three groups of four either BOUNDARY CARDS 4 groups of
4 2
by using groups or an array. Have the students Students work in pairs. One student
make a label for these groups and show them the x 3 makes some equal groups on a
vertical form of setting out this algorithm. Read boundary card and the other student 2
the vertical form to the students, emphasising labels the groups in the vertical form x 4
that the algorithm is read upwards. using symbol and numeral cards. 8

RESOURCES
Numeral and symbol cards, hundred chart, array cards, boundary cards, coins, dice, Base 10 material, computer games.

240
MULTIPLICATION 5
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Number facts are useful in everyday life. The student is able to
• memorise multiplication number facts involving 10, 5, 1 and 0.

CONTENT
Number facts — x 10, x 5, x 1, x 0.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Many of the activities in Units 4, 6 and 7 can be used
to help students remember number facts involving 10,
5, 1 and 0.
• Students’ ability and confidence to perform mental
calculations will vary. All students should have
encouragement to practise these skills.
• Students will be practising number facts with a
variety of games and activities. These should include
manipulating concrete materials, drawing and writing,
mental calculations and using a calculator.
• Students will come to realise that
– multiplication of any number by one leaves the
number unchanged
– the product of any number and zero is zero.
• Students learning English as a second language will
need opportunities to practise language involved in
following and giving instructions, participating in
games and activities and applying the multiplication
operation.
Table of tens, fives, ones, Ask students to
pattern, row, column, across,
• describe the picture of a group of
grid, array, zero, none, nought,
objects and make the appropriate
altogether, equals, counting by
number sentence
fives, tens, ones.
• make appropriate number sentences
“The graph for tens goes up in
to work out the total amounts shown
big steps.”
by various coins, eg 4 ten cent coins,
“On the hundred chart the ten
6 five cent coins, 7 two cent coins
pattern only takes up the last
and 1 one cent coin.
column.”
“The numbers (in this pattern)
all end in zero.”
EVALUATION
“The fives pattern makes two
columns on the chart.” • Was I able to cater for individual
“All the numbers end in five or differences?
zero.” • Did I use a variety of problems for
“The graph for ones goes up in students to relate number facts to real
steps and the graph for tens has situations?
steps that are even bigger.”
“Seven coats with five buttons
on each one. That’s thirty-five
buttons.”

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES MULTIPLICATION GRID

ACTIVITIES REVISITED X 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
The sample activities outlined in Unit 4 can be repeated for the 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
tables of 10, 5, 1 and 0 being studied to this unit. 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
FOLD DOWNS 2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
front back Make fold downs as shown 3
10 x 9 here for each table students are
10 x 10 4 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
10 x 8 learning. As students unfold
********** 10 x 7 these, the number of dots or 5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
********** 10 x 6 stars shown gives the answer to 6
********** the multiplication fact being
10 x 5 looked at. 7
********** 10 x 4 8
********** 10 x 3
********** 9
10 x 2
********** 10 x 1
10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
********** 10 x 0
********** Give students a blank multiplication grid and ask them to fill in the
tables as they learn them. Computer spreadsheet programs can be
**********
used to make multiplication grids.
ONE AND ZERO
Students can investigate the results of multiplying numbers by one COIN PYRAMID
and zero by making these groups with concrete materials. Students Ask students to put five cent coins, or plastic replicas of these, in a
can also try multiplying numbers by zero and one using a triangular pattern to make a coin “pyramid”.
calculator.
Students can match each line of the pattern with numeral and
Discuss the findings with students and any rule or generalisation symbol cards to build the table of fives. Repeat for other tables.
for multiplying by one or zero.

RESOURCES
Base 10 materials, numeral and symbol cards, calculators, hundred charts, multiplication grids, dice, blocks, counters, boundary cards,
collage cards and money, computer spreadsheet software.

241
MULTIPLICATION 6
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Number facts can be useful in everyday life. The student is able to
• recall multiplication umber facts involving 3, 6 and 9.

CONTENT
Number facts — x 3, x 9, x 6.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• The table of nines is studied before the table of sixes
because of the patterns generated by the nines table
and the fact that 9 = 10 – 1. (See “Patterns” activity.)
• Students can draw on their knowledge of other
number facts to help work out the answer to these
multiplications, eg “Seven groups of nine is the same
as seven groups of ten take away seven.”
• Relationships such as 5 x 9 = 9 x 5 should be stressed
by showing students the multiplication facts already
studied and having them find which multiplication
facts involving nine they already know from previous
tables. Number facts already mastered can be useful
in developing new tables.
• As students become more confident with
multiplication number facts, the language used to
express these may become briefer. Seven groups of
three (or seven rows or three) becomes “seven threes”.
Groups of (or rows of) is implied in these expressions.
Four times three, multiply, four Ask students to
threes, equals, groups, rows,
• invent problems using multiplication
arrays, grid, makes, multiplied
number facts for 3 x, 6 x and 9 x
by.
tables
“All the graphs look like steps.”
• fill in a blank multiplication table.
“The graph for six is twice as
big as the graph for three. Three X 3 9
times nine is the same as nine
times three.” 0
1
“I add nine and nine and nine to
get the answer.”
“Sometimes I can just
remember things and sometimes Note the strategies students use to
complete the table.
I work things out by counting in
my head. Sometimes my brain
is faster but at other times a
calculator is faster.” EVALUATION
The term “lots of” can be • Did I model a variety of strategies to
confusing to students because of solve multiplication problems?
its everyday use, eg lots of fish
• Did I allow for individual
in the sea, and thus should be
differences?
avoided.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES PATTERNS

ACTIVITIES REVISITED It will help students to learn and remember number facts if they
look for patterns in the answers in most tables. This works well for
Many of the sample activities in the previous two units can be the table of nines. Ask students to list the table of nines and find a
repeated for the tables of threes, nines and sixes. The pattern in the answers.
multiplication grid should be continued and pattern work with the 1x9=9
Students will discover that the digits in the 2 x 9 = 18
hundred chart will also be very useful.
ones column count down and the digits in the 3 x 9 = 27
tens column count up. Students should also 4 x 9 = 36
DICE GAMES 5 x 9 = 45
X 1 2 3 4 5 6 find that the digits in the answers add up to
Ask students to fill in a 6 by 6 6 x 9 = 54
1 nine.
multiplication grid. The only fact 7 x 9 = 63
they will not have studied is 6 x 6. 8 x 9 = 72
2
Students can work out the answer Students should look for other ways to express this pattern, eg
3
to this using concrete materials. adding 10 to the next answer and taking away one. Students can
4 further explore this idea of adding 10 and taking away one for the
Students take turns to roll three table of nines. Students might create number sentences to express
dice. Students can choose two of 5 these ideas.
the dice and colour in the 6 1 x 9 = 10 – 1 = 9 9 + 10 – 1 = 18
multiplication number fact made.
2 x 9 = 20 – 2 = 18 18 + 10 – 1 = 27
Students can decide how the game is won, eg the first to colour a
whole row of number facts. Students can then find ways to say these patterns to help recall the
number facts, eg “Six nines is the same as six tens take away six.”
Another dice game students might enjoy is Dice 100. Students take In small groups or pairs, students can ask each other these number
turns in rolling two dice and multiplying the resulting numbers. The facts and use the patterns above or another strategy they have
answers to these are added and the first player to score 100 wins. found to help quick recall.

COLLAGE
Have students make collage pictures and problems to match these,
eg a collage of three people with three arms each. These could be
part of a big book and the number facts involved can be shown
with numeral and symbol cards.
CALCULATORS
Allow students to use calculators with a constant function to
explore number patterns. Working in pairs, students can predict
how many times they need to press the addition key and a digit
key to get to a given product.

RESOURCES
Blocks, grid paper, calculators, hundred charts, multiplication grids, numeral and symbol cards, dice.

242
MULTIPLICATION 7
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Recall of multiplication facts can be useful in daily life. The student is able to
• recall multiplication facts involving 8 and 7.

CONTENT
Number facts — x 8, x 7.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• As the table for sevens is unrelated to the other Groups of, times, arrays, Ask students to
number patterns, it is dealt with after the table of multiply, rows, totals, equals,
• complete puzzles like the ones below.
eights, which can be related to the patterns for two makes, patterns, grids, by.
and four.
“The pattern for eights is twice
The table of sevens is perhaps the hardest pattern for
as big as the pattern for fours. If 5
students to learn. Encourage students to use the tables 9 2
you double the fours pattern x7
they already know to help recall the table of sevens,
you get the eights pattern.” 4 3 1
eg 5 x 7 = 7 x 5.
“All the numbers in the eights
• Students in any class will be at varying stages of their
pattern are even.”
understanding of multiplication and their ability to
recall number facts. Activities that cater for these “It’s hard to describe a pattern
differences should be considered. For example, when in the answers to the table of 5
9 2
playing dice games students could have calculators sevens. On the hundred chart it x8
available so that all the students can participate. goes one square down and three 4 3 1
Repeatedly seeing the correct answer to simple to the left or two squares down
number facts will aid recall. Calculators will assist in and one to the right.”
this. “Seven eights are fifty-six.
• Games and activities used in previous units may be Eight sevens make fifty-six.” EVALUATION
adapted for use with the tables for seven and eight.
• Did I encourage student language
• Practice of recall of simple number facts should through careful questioning?
continue throughout the primary school years.
• Did the students work cooperatively
in small groups?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES THE TABLE OF SEVENS

ACTIVITIES REVISITED 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

The sample activities outlined in the previous three units can be 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

repeated for the tables of eights and sevens. Students can build
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
models of the tables, explore number patterns and add to their
multiplication grids. 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

WIN AND LOSE 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50

Give students a number of cardboard rectangles. Students can 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
make a games board by arranging these as a path and writing
messages such as start, finish, win and lose. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70

71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
win win lose win
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
win lose win 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
S F lose
Students can also shade the counting by sevens on a one hundred
Students can decide on the rules. For example, players are given chart and describe the pattern.
100 tokens. Each player rolls two dice and moves along the • Students can predict the next three numbers to be shaded on
number of spaces indicated. When a player lands on a win or lose the chart and then check these with a calculator.
sign, the dice are rolled again the numbers multiplied. The answer • The shading of the number pattern can be completed for the
whole chart. Some students might like to extend this searching
to this is the number of tokens won or lost. When a player reaches
for a number pattern.
the finish, the tokens are counted and the player with the most
Computer spreadsheet programs can be used for making
tokens wins.
multiplication grids.
Students can vary the game by inventing new rules.
STORY CARDS
Give students a number fact and ask them to make up a story to
match it. This can be told orally, drawn or written down on a card.

RESOURCES
Blocks, grid paper, hundred charts, multiplication grids, calculators, dice, work cards, computer spreadsheet software.

243
MULTIPLICATION 8
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Relationships exist between two or more numbers, The student is able to
especially factors, multiples, ratios and square numbers. • understand the terms “factor” and “multiple”
• use multiplication for “ratio” problems
CONTENT • understand and use square numbers.
Factors, multiples, ratios and square numbers.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Any member of a product is a factor. In the number A factor of, multiple of, twice Ask students to
sentence 2 x 3 = 6, two and three are factors of six. as many, twice as much, three
• make as many different rectangles as
times, grid, arrange, product.
• A multiple is the product of any two (or more) they can using 36 squares and list the
factors, eg six is a multiple of one, two, three and six. “We found out that twenty-four factors of 36
is a multiple of eight. It is also a
• This unit contains more activities to consolidate • find two numbers that are multiples
multiple of three, four, six,
students’ understanding and recall of simple of two and three.
twelve, two ….”
multiplication facts.
“Eight is a factor of twenty-
• The terms “factors” and “multiples” are introduced
four.” EVALUATION
using concrete materials.
“Twenty-four can have other • Did the students have the prerequisite
• Up to this point, students have been involved in the
factors like six, three and four.” knowledge and understandings for the
simplest form of multiplication, that is, “rate”
multiplication, eg “If four students earn $3 each, how “Twice as many means two activity to be meaningful?
much money do they have altogether?” The rate of times as many or double.” • Were the activities practical enough?
pay is $3 per child. Ratio type multiplication
“Six squared means six by six.”
problems involve language such as “twice as many
as” or “six times as many as”. The students do not “Three times three is three
need to hear the terms “rate” and “ratio” in this squared.”
context. “It took me twice as long to
• Students will be introduced to the concept of “square walk around the school as to
numbers”. These should be represented as simple run.”
multiplication, eg 5 x 5 or written in words, eg five “I have twice as many as Ami.”
squared.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES MULTIPLES

Introduce the term “multiple” to students, relating it to their
FACTORS understanding of factors, eg if seven is a factor of 28 then 28 is a
Ask students, in pairs, to make rectangles using 24 cubes and multiple of seven. Ask the students to find other multiples of
record dimensions of the rectangles in terms of a multiplication seven, eg 14, 21, 35. Have the student choose a number under ten
number sentence. and list five multiples.
When students understand multiples, introduce the idea of
common multiples, ie a multiple that is shared by two or more
numbers. Ask students to list multiples of three and five and find
ones that they both have. Students might enjoy investigating
3 x 8 = 24 multiples of larger numbers using a calculator.

Students can share their findings and decide if they have found all
the possibilities. Students might like to list the rectangles made in
order to check this. Explain to the students that they have found all
the factors of 24. Have the students do this for other numbers and
record the results under the heading “Factors of …”.
SQUARE NUMBERS
Ask students to make square numbers using Base 10 flats or
similar shapes. Students investigate how many flats (or squares)
they need to make a square, 1 unit x 1 unit, 2 units x 2 units,
3 units x 3 units, etc.
PROBLEMS
Encourage students to investigate problems involving ratios.
Discuss terms like “twice as many”, “three times”, etc.
• Using a recipe that has enough ingredients for four people, how
many more times do you need to make this for the class?
• Ann wants to jog twice as far next week. She jogged 10 km
this week. How far does she have to run next week?
INVESTIGATIONS
Students might have built a tower. Ask them if it is possible to
build a tower twice, three times or four times as tall. Use other
opportunities that arise to have students use ratios during play or
investigations.

Explain to students that these numbers are called square numbers.
Students can colour these numbers on a multiplication grid and
comment on the pattern.
MYSTERY NUMBERS
Ask students to invent and solve mystery number problems.
My factors include 2, 3, 4 and 6. What numbers could I be?
Some computer adventure games involve students using factors
and multiples.

RESOURCES
Cardboard squares approximately 4 cm x 4 cm, grid paper, various blocks, beans, buttons, leaves, gumnuts, work cards, maps, computer
adventure games.

244
MULTIPLICATION 9
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Operations on whole numbers can be represented with The student is able to
concrete materials. • estimate and calculate multiplication problems using concrete materials.

CONTENT
Informal multiplication – 1 digit x 2 digit, 1 digit x 3
digit.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• The concept of trading has been introduced already in Trade, tens, ones, units, twice as • Give students a problem involving the
Addition and Subtraction. While the activities in this many, approximately, how multiplication of a two-digit number
unit suggest easier calculations initially, and those many, times, altogether. by a one-digit number. Note how
without trading, the use of concrete materials instead students solve this using concrete
“It’s twenty-nine kilometres
of symbols means that it is not necessary to grade the materials and ask them to record the
each way. That’s about sixty
problems finely. Students can simply look at the results in the form of an algorithm.
kilometres there and back.”
blocks and decide whether trading is necessary or not. Repeat for three-digit numbers by
Estimation needs to be encouraged on an ongoing “Each carton has thirty-two.” one-digit numbers.
basis. “Three twos are six plus three
• Ask students to explain an algorithm
times thirty is ninety, that’s
• Students can use place value charts to organise the where the answer is shown.
ninety-six.”
Base 10 material and reinforce, for later algorithm
H T U
work, the idea of beginning with the ones column “I have to write that in the ones
3 5
when trading. column and trade ten shorts for
x 3
a long.”
• At this stage the symbolic algorithm is only a record 1 0 5
of a calculation and not as yet a device for calculation “That means it’s three lots of
in itself. forty-six altogether.”
• Teachers should select problems they feel are relevant EVALUATION
to their students. • Was there enough time spent on the
• As well as Base 10 material, students should also be activities for students to develop their
encouraged to draw diagrams for problems or, where understandings?
appropriate, act them out. • Did the problems relate to the
students’ interests and skills?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
THREE-DIGIT NUMBERS
BASE 10 Students can find the solution to problems involving three-digit
Students can work out problems such as the following using Base numbers multiplied by one-digit numbers.
10 material on a place value chart.
Students model the problem with Base 10 material and record their
• Four boxes of apples and three boxes of oranges are delivered answer in the form of an algorithm.
to school every week. If there are 48 pieces of fruit in each
• Some students found they could fit about 127 beans in a
box, how many is that altogether?
standard cup measure (250 mL). About how many beans do
• The school bus makes four trips of 36 kilometres a day to pick you think would fit in a litre container?
up students and the same number of trips to return students to
their homes. How far does the bus have to travel each day?
• Each weekday the Kalif family buys a copy of every paper
Charmaine sells, three morning papers and two afternoon
papers. As well, on the weekends the Kalif family buys three
papers on Saturday and three on Sunday. How many papers do
the Kalif family buy in a month?
Working in small groups, students can find solutions to these
problems and report to the class on their work. Encourage students H T U
to find ways of recording their actions and model a setting out of 1 2 7
the algorithm for them. Students can change the numbers in the x 4
problems and collect information on similar situations that actually 5 0 8
happen in their school or community.

EGGS
Ask students to solve a multiplication problem 1 2
using concrete material and write the numerical
x 3
expression for this in the form of the algorithm,
eg “How may eggs in three dozen?” 3 6

RESOURCES
Base 10 material, place value boards, recipes, maps, paper squares, popsticks.

245
MULTIPLICATION 10
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Operations on whole numbers can be represented by The student is able to
concrete materials, number sentences or algorithms. • understand the link between concrete and symbolic forms of
multiplication
CONTENT • multiply using extended algorithms.
Introduction to formal multiplication – 1 digit x 2 digits,
1 digit x 3 digits, “partnering” multiplication.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Two types of formal multiplication will be treated in Choices, possibilities, hundreds, Ask students to
this unit, the concrete linking form and the extended tens, units, ones.
• solve a multiplication problem using
form. Initially, both forms use concrete material.
“I multiplied the ones first, then Base 10 material and show this using
Following are the two forms, using the example 5 x 43.
the hundreds.” the concrete linking form of the
algorithm
“Thirty-three times six is the
Concrete Linking Form
same as thirty times six add • explain worked examples of the
40 3 15 three times six.” extended algorithm.
x5 x5 ➔ + 200 “That will be a bit more than 17 256
one thousand eight hundred. On x9 x5
200 15 215
my calculator I got five 63 30
thousand one hundred and
+ 90 250
Extended Form twenty. That’s too much. I’ll try
153 1000
43 again.”
1280
x5 “Three shirts and two pairs of
pants. That’s six choices of • use the extended algorithm to solve
15 outfits.” multiplication problems.
200
EVALUATION
215
• Did all the groups work efficiently?
• Did I allow for individual
differences?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES PROBLEM SOLVING

CONCRETE LINKING FORM Give students problems that involve finding the number of
possibilities or choices, eg Terry has three different coloured
Use this form of the algorithm for students to make the link T-shirts and two different coloured pairs of shorts. How many
between Base 10 material and the algorithm. Give students outfits can be choose from? Students decide on the colours and
problems like this one and have them show it with Base 10 methods of working out the combinations.
material on a place value chart.
• Derek’s family have to pay $157 rent per week. They pay rent
every four weeks. How much do they pay each time?
After students have set out the Base 10 material to represent the
problem, have them show the multiplication in each column of the
place value chart using numeral and symbol cards. Discuss with students the number of possibilities for each item and
1 0 0 5 0 7 the total number of choices, eg two, three and six. Students can
x 4 x 4 x 4 discuss how these numbers can be related, ie by multiplication.
4 0 0 2 0 0 2 8 CANTEEN
THE EXTENDED FORM There are a number of ways “partnering” multiplication problems
can be represented in order to show the number of possibilities.
After students are confident in using the concrete linking form of Give students a problem like the one below and have them work in
the algorithm, introduce the extended form. Ask students to solve small groups to decide a way to work out the number of
problems like the following. combinations.
3 6 5
• About how many days has a two year old child been • At school, Shirley could order brown or white bread and
x 2
alive? Encourage discussion on the interpretation of choose between tomato, peanut butter, vegemite, cheese or
this question, eg “Is it on the child’s birthday?” 1 0
salami fillings. Extend the problem by adding a choice between
Students show this using Base 10 material and 1 2 0 butter or margarine.
relate it to the algorithm. 6 0 0 WB
Students can share their answers. If
7 3 0 B M
students have not used tree diagrams
model this for them. PSCTV PSCTV

RESOURCES
Base 10 material, place value charts, numeral and symbol cards, centimetre grid paper, dice.

246
MULTIPLICATION 11
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Operations are useful for solving problems. The student is able to
• estimate and calculate the product of one-digit x two-digit and one-digit
x three-digit numbers
CONTENT
• multiply two and three-digit numbers by one-digit numbers using the
Formal multiplication – the contracted algorithm.
contracted form of the algorithm.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Students who have little difficulty with multiplication Estimate, explain, ones, tens, Ask students to
algorithms may choose not to use concrete material. hundreds, thousands, trade.
• solve various multiplication
Concrete material should always be available to
“There are twenty-eight in the algorithms, such as the ones listed
students and used if needed. Care needs to be taken
ones column; that means I can below
that students are not given the impression that it is a
write down eight under the ones 42 18 112 207 532
bad thing to use concrete material.
and write a little two in the tens x2 x5 x8 x3 x4
• Some students may prefer the extended form of the column to show I’ve traded
• show students a worked example and
algorithm (which is in fact closer to methods of across. Seven times two tens is
ask them to explain it
mental calculations) to the contracted form. They fourteen tens plus two more is
need not be forced into the new method if they are not sixteen tens. I’ll write six in the • find errors deliberately made in
ready for it. All the exercises and problems in this unit tens column to show that I’ve worked examples and ask them to
may be done just as well using the extended traded one hundred across. correct these.
algorithm. Seven groups of one hundred is
seven hundred plus one hundred
• Problems may arise when students are investigating
is eight hundred. The answer is EVALUATION
areas of interest that involve multiplication of
eight hundred and sixty-eight.
numbers with three or more digits. These calculations • Did peer tutoring take place?
That seems right.”
need not be avoided and can be done by whichever
method the student is best able to solve the problem. “The answer must be larger • Did students work cooperatively in
than seven hundred and smaller small groups?
than nine hundred and ten.”

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES PROBLEMS

CONTRACTED ALGORITHM Ask students to find ways of solving and recording their
calculations for problems such as the ones listed here.
Give students problems such as the ones below. Have them show
these using Base 10 material and write the extended form of the • There are 28 students per class and four classes per grade in a
algorithm. primary school. How many students are there altogether in the
school?
• Seven students want to find out the length of 500 two cent If there are only 26 students in Year 4 classes, how many
coins. One student suggests if they each bring 74 coins that students is that altogether?
would be about 500 coins. Students check to see if this is a If there were only three kindergarten classes and three Year 1
good guess. classes, how many students would there be?
• Year 6 is helping Year 3 with a 1 2 7 If there were six classes per grade and one class in each grade
measuring task. Year 3 find if six x 6 has 27 students, how many students would there be?
body lengths can fit across the 4 2 • Marge is an orchardist. She sends nine boxes of peaches to a
room. Year 6 students, interested 1 2 0 shop in Goulburn. In each box there are six trays of 24
in how far this is, measure the peaches. How many is that altogether?
6 0 0
student, who is about 127 cm tall. Marge sent the same number of boxes to Bargo, Breadalbane,
7 6 2
Marulan, Collector, Bungonia and Tarago. How many peaches
is that?
Have students investigate how the algorithm can be contracted.
Students can use concrete materials and calculators to help do this. Extend the range of problems so that students have to see that they
They can verify the answer by do not always have enough information to solve them.
1 2 7
completing the extended form x1 4 6 • Marge sent the rest of her peaches to Sydney. How many did
of the algorithm. she send to country towns?
7 6 2

These problems can be extended by altering the numbers in the MEASUREMENT

problems. For example, how many 153 cm body lengths could fit Students will find various ways to apply multiplication to their
across the room? Could seven body lengths of 108 cm fit across measurement activities. Ask students to measure their feet and find
the room? something that is 11 of their feet long. Students might then work
out this measurement in millimetres.

RESOURCES
Base 10 material, place value charts, calculators, dice, tape measures.

247
MULTIPLICATION 12
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Estimation is an important skill for judging the The student is able to
reasonableness of answers. • make reasonable estimates of two-digit x two-digit problems and two-
digit x three-digit problems
CONTENT • multiply two-digits x two digits using an extended algorithm.
Formal multiplication
— two-digits x two-digits and beyond.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• In multiplying larger numbers, the major emphasis is Number patterns, ones, tens, Ask students to
on making good estimates so that students can judge hundreds, thousands, ten
• explain a worked example of an
the reasonableness of answers. thousand, multiply, estimate,
algorithm
guess, check.
• Students will be expected to estimate three-digit x
• estimate the answers to
two-digit problems, eg “That will be somewhere near “My guess is that thirty-eight
multiplications such as the following
twenty times nine hundred or eighteen thousand.” times sixty-two would give an
and check these using a calculator 26
answer between two thousand
• It is not necessary for all students to reach the stage of x 93, 42 x 78, 99 x 99
four hundred and two thousand
activities involving two-digit x three-digit algorithms.
eight hundred.” • solve two-digit x two-digit
• Students can use computer spreadsheet programs to multiplications using the extended
“When I set out eighteen groups
present multiplication number patterns. form of the algorithm.
of forty-two using the Base 10
• Some computer adventure games involve students in blocks I can see the answer will
large multiplication computations. be very big.”
EVALUATION
“It’s too big a number to use
Base 10. I can do it with pencil • Did students feel comfortable using
and paper or on my calculator.” concrete materials when needed?

“Forty times thirty-eight is like • Did peer tutoring take place?

four times thirty-eight with an
extra nought.”
“I can multiply by one hundred.
That’s easy.”

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES MULTIPLES OF 10

Ask students to multiply some two-digit numbers by ten and
EXTENDING MULTIPLICATION FACTS discuss their findings. Ask students to form a rule for doing this.
Facility with extended multiplication facts will assist students in Have students then try multiplying the same two-digit numbers by
estimation skills and the ability to answer and check larger 20, 30 … 50.
multiplication algorithms.
EXTENDED ALGORITHM
Give students tables like the ones set out below and ask them to
fill these in and discuss the number patterns. Using a two-digit by two-digit multiplication, eg 32 x 14, have
2 x 8 = 16 20 x 8 = students solve this with Base 10 material. Ask students to record
this as two algorithms.
2 x 80 = 160 20 x 80 =
32 32
2 x 800 = 1600 20 x 800 =
x 10 plus x4
Students can make up their own number patterns and model them 320 128
with Base 10 material. When students are confident and quick in
answering these try more difficult number patterns like the ones Show students how these can be combined to make the extended
below. algorithm. 32
10 x 40 = 20 x 40 = 70 x 40 = x 14
128
10 x 500 = 20 x 500 = 70 x 500 =
320
448
CALCULATOR INVESTIGATIONS
Students can use a calculator to check their estimation skills. Ask THREE-DIGIT NUMBERS
students questions like the ones listed here. Some students may be ready to try more complex pen and paper
• Can you multiply 2 two-digit numbers to make a number calculations. Show them an example of this and review a worked example.
between 2 000 and 2 400?
PROBLEMS
• Will 85 x 95 be between 7 600 and 8 000? Guess first and then
check. Give students problems involving two and three-digit numbers.
There are 63 students attending a school camp. It cost $47
• Can you roughly guess the answer to 39 x 61?
per student. How much money will be collected?
Hint – 39 is nearly 40 (40 x 60 = 2400).
If only 39 people pay, how much money is that altogether?
Try these, 28 x 87 (30 x 80), 51 x 73 (50 x 70), 13 x 62 (10 x
60) and 13 x 62 (10 x 60).

RESOURCES
Base 10 material, place value charts, calculators, dice, computer spreadsheet software and adventure games.

248
 DIVISION
SUMMARY OF OBJECTIVES

DIVISION 1 DIVISION 8
• share a group of objects equally • model, say, read and write a number sentence using a division
• differentiate between an equal share and an unequal share sign where the number being divided does not exceed 100

DIVISION 2 DIVISION 9
• use repeated subtraction to divide a group of objects • recall the basic division facts up to 100

DIVISION 3 DIVISION 10
———
• share a group of up to 100 objects into equal groups with or • recognise and name the division symbol )
without remainders • divide a two-digit number by a single-digit number with or
without trading
• divide a two-digit number by 10 with or without trading
DIVISION 4
• use repeated subtraction to divide a group of up to 100 objects
with or without remainders
DIVISION 11
• divide a number with three or more digits by a single-digit
divisor with or without trading
DIVISION 5 • divide a number with three or more digits by 10 with or
without trading
• share a group of up to 1 000 objects with or without
remainders
DIVISION 12
DIVISION 6 • use a calculator to complete division by a divisor with two or
more digits
• use repeated subtraction to divide a group of up to 1 000
• interpret answers from a calculator in the context of a
objects
problem

DIVISION 7
• recognise, name and use the division symbol (÷)
• relate multiplication and division number sentences
• read a division number sentence

249
DIVISION 1
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Division involves equal sharing. The student is able to
• share a group of objects equally
• differentiate between an equal share and an unequal share.
CONTENT
Sharing materials or a group of objects equally.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Students will need to have completed Units 1–5 in Share, share between, share Ask students to
Numeration before commencing Division. among, share one at a time, give
• share out a group of objects fairly
• There are two forms of division: out, match, fair, fair share, share
SHARING, eg “If twelve marbles are shared among where the total number is known
fairly.
three students, how many does each get?” • state whether objects have been
GROUPING, eg “If I have twelve marbles and each “I shared my pencils between
shared fairly
child is to get four, how many children will get my friends and they got two
marbles?” each.” • share out a group of objects where
• Sharing is the form of division that students will have “Everyone got the same so it the total number of objects is not
experienced. It is most important to build on concepts was a fair share.” known.
that students have gained already from learning at
home. The grouping form of division will be treated
in later units.
EVALUATION
• Division by either grouping or sharing can be
introduced without the students knowing the total • Was there sufficient time to complete
number of objects. For example, fruit can be shared or the activities?
playing cards dealt out.
• Did the activities challenge the
• After students have shared objects equally, the process students?
can be reversed to begin to develop the link between
division and multiplication. This can be done by
students first sharing a group of objects and then
putting back together all the shares to form one group.
• Young students need to acquire the concept that fair
sharing means all shares are equal.
• All sharing activities should involve students in
manipulating concrete materials.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES CONTINUOUS MATERIALS

AN EVEN NUMBER OF OBJECTS
The teacher gives a student an even number of objects and asks the
student to share the objects with a friend so that each has the same
number. The teacher asks the student to explain how the objects
were shared and how the two checked that they had the same
number of objects.
Repeat the activity using different types of concrete materials and
varying the number of objects in each problem.
Use incidental activities that arise in other curriculum areas, eg
sharing craft materials, cutting a birthday cake, sharing sweets and
food, forming teams for games.
FAIR SHARE
Share out some objects unequally amongst a group of students and
ask them to comment on the fairness of the sharing.
Give a pair of students an odd number of objects and ask them to
share them, suggesting ways of dealing with leftovers.
Extend to sharing amongst a group where there are left-overs.
Repeat using different materials and ask students to discuss ways
of disposing of leftovers fairly. Include materials which can be cut
up.
The concepts of equal sharing can be stressed when considering
units in the Measurement strand, eg
• ask students to share out a bottle of water so that there is the
same amount in each of a number of glasses
• ask students to cut a piece of paper ribbon so that two people
get the same length
• consider the fair allocation of time for students to be in the
play area
• ask students to divide a pile of sand into equal amounts.
REAL LIFE
Use examples of sharing that interest students and are part of their
everyday lives, eg
• sharing 16 sandwiches at a party among four people
• sharing eight marbles between two sisters
• sharing ten football cards among three friends.
Discuss the concept of a fair share and what to do with the
leftovers.

RESOURCES
Stones, pencils, straws, chalk, shells, washers, screws, nails, blocks, counters, marbles, coins, cards, stickers, Lego bricks, popsticks,
Multilink, Unifix, Centicubes.

250
DIVISION 2
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Division by grouping can be viewed as repeated The student is able to
subtraction. • use repeated subtraction to divide a group of objects.

CONTENT
Division as repeated subtraction.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Subtraction 1 is a prerequisite for this unit. Take away, two at a time, how Ask students to
• There are two forms of division: many left, left over, spare,
• group a number of objects into a
SHARING, eg “If twelve marbles are shared among same, equal, same number,
given number of equal amounts
three students, how many does each get?” equal parts.
GROUPING, eg “If I have twelve marbles and each • count the number of shares of a given
“We took two pencils each.”
child is to get four, how many children will get size that can be made from a given
“I took three away at a time.”
marbles?” large number of objects.
“Each part has the same
• The difference between the sharing and grouping number.”
forms of division is in the physical actions and “All the parts are equal.”
language which accompany them. EVALUATION
Problems should therefore have a real life basis. • Did the students work cooperatively
• Teachers will need to reinforce the idea of a fair share in groups?
being shares of equal amounts.
• Were enough concrete materials
• A division problem involving repeated subtraction can available for each group to have the
be checked using repeated addition, eg 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 opportunity to explore different
+ 2 is five groups of two. Hence multiplication and situations?
division are linked in that 5 x 2 = 10 and 10 ÷ 5 = 2,
for instance. • Were students given an opportunity to
explain their actions to other
students?

• The number of objects in the original group should be

kept small to start with as should the group to be
taken away.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES GROUPING

COINS
The teacher indicates a pile of 1c coins and asks the class if they
think there are enough for everyone to get 3c each. Ask students to
suggest ways of finding out. Giving everybody 1c and then giving
everybody another 1c and so on emphasises sharing. Allowing
each student in turn to take 3c shows division as repeated
subtraction. Counting the coins and dividing by the number in the
class is an algorithmic method based on grouping.
The teacher makes a tower of eight interlocking cubes and tells the
class that as many students as possible are to receive two cubes
each. How many students will that be? Students make suggestions
and then act out the problem. The first student breaks off two
cubes and passes what is left of the tower to another student, and
so on until no cubes remain. Students record the result using cards,
eg
8 cubes make 4 groups of 2 cubes

Have students record the problem in words, eg “We each took 3c
away and there were eight coins left over. The pile must have had
24 groups of 3c and another 8c.”
BRING AND BRAG
Whenever students bring collections to school for News, an
opportunity exists for demonstrating division as repeated
subtraction, eg a student who brings a bag of marbles could be
asked if there are enough for everyone in the group to get four
each.
CARD GAMES
The common method for dealing cards is for each player to be
dealt one card in each round, so five rounds gives each player five
cards. For instance, a method which shows repeated subtraction
involves dealing five cards at a time. Where the whole pack is to
be dealt, this method could lead to the last player not receiving
enough cards and a discussion could ensue on dealing systems.
Repeat the activity starting with the same number of cubes but
taking off a different number of cubes each time.
Repeat the activity with a different number of cubes. Ask students
to suggest what size groups and how many of them could be made
from the tower. Include towers which lead to left-overs, eg 15
cubes in groups of four.
MEASUREMENT LINK
• Ask students how many pieces of string of a certain length
could be cut from a long length. This should be done without
formal measurement. For instance, start with one metre of
string and cut lengths of one span until no string is left.
• Ask students to fill glasses from a bottle of water and comment
on the amount left over.
• Ask students how many lumps of plasticine of the same given
size could be made from a bigger lump.

RESOURCES
Stones, pencils, straws, chalk, shells, washers, screws, nails, bolts, blocks, counters, marbles, coins, rope, popsticks, Base 10 material,
Unifix, Multilink.

251
DIVISION 3
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Division involves equal sharing of objects. The student is able to
• share a group of up to 100 objects into equal groups with or without
remainders.
CONTENT
Sharing up to 100 objects.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Students should understand trading to 100 before
attempting this unit (see Numeration Units 9 and 10).
• Students should use pictures and structured materials
such as Base 10 material to represent objects in
problems. Students should progress from a concrete
stage using unstructured materials through more
structured concrete materials to a pictorial stage
before approaching symbolic representation.
• Once students have developed the idea of sharing to
perform a division problem it is important for them to
know how many things are to be shared. The
unknown is the number in each share.
• After students have shared objects equally the process
can be reversed to show the link between
multiplication and division.
• Division problems should be set in the real world.
• Students should be encouraged to estimate how much
is in each share before counting.
• Students should be given problems involving no
remainder before looking at problems with
remainders.
• Continue to show more efficient ways of sharing by
encouraging students to share out more than one
object at a time where possible.
Share, share between, share
among, share one at a time,
share more than one at a time,
give out, match, fair, fair share,
share fairly, trade, trade back,
bundles.
“I will give each person four
cents and see how much is left
over. Then I’ll give everyone
two cents and count the number
of cents in each share.”
“There are four groups of five
apples and one left over.”
Ask students to
• share a number of objects (less than
100) among, say, eight groups and
note the strategies used
• suggest methods of obtaining equal
shares and disposing of leftovers.
EVALUATION
• Did the students have the prerequisite
knowledge, skills, understanding and
vocabulary for the activities to be
meaningful?
• Was there enough concrete material
available?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
REMAINDERS
PICTURES
Students use concrete materials to model divisions which have a
Students collect pictures to make cards for problem solving. Using remainder, eg “Share 67 seeds among four students.” First, use
the picture cards they demonstrate the relationship between seeds to show a sharing based on one at a time. Then share two at
multiplication and division. a time and then three and so on, with students noting that the
sharing is much quicker when more are shared at a time.
Second, model the problem using structured concrete material such
as Base 10 material.

Ask students to suggest further possible sharings.

Sharing the longs first leaves two left over and these are traded for
BASE 10 MATERIAL shorts. Twenty-seven shorts allow each student six and there are
three left over.
Students use Base 10 material to represent objects in a problem,
eg “Share 100 apples among five softball teams.” Students use
one flat to represent 100 and trade this for ten longs which may
then be shared.
Extend the method to sharing 100 apples among twenty groups,
thus requiring trading of longs for shorts.
Remind students to link the concrete materials answer back to the
original question.
Suggest that students present their own problems for modelling. Students should be given opportunities, individually and in small
groups, to complete divisions with a variety of materials. Students
should always relate concrete representations back to the original
problem.

RESOURCES
Pictures (of animals, cars, etc), Base 10 materials, Unifix, Centicubes, Multilink, popsticks, straws, pencils, washers, bolts, shells, screws,
nails, toothpicks, seeds.

252
DIVISION 4
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Division can involve the grouping of objects. The student is able to
• use repeated subtraction to divide a group of up to 100 objects with or
without remainders.
CONTENT
Division by repeated subtraction up to 100.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Activities should involve a variety of concrete How many groups, fair share, Ask students to
materials. Formal recording by students is not bundles, more, left over,
necessary at this stage. Students should be encouraged • divide a group by taking groups of
remaining, trade, parts.
to record their findings in a variety of ways, eg the same number away, using
drawing, stories. “There are eight groups of ten concrete materials
• Students should use the actual objects, pictures of the in eighty.”
• explain what equal sharing means
objects or structured material to help solve division “Hector made one hundred
problems. lamingtons. We needed to put • explain what a remainder is
• Whenever possible, teachers should try to have them in boxes of twelve. We • make up a problem to fit a given
students working in small groups in which students ended up with four left over so answer, eg “six jars of twelve nails
can develop their understanding about grouping we ate them.” and three left over”.
through manipulating materials and discussing their “I got twelve and so did Yanti.
actions. We got equal shares.”
• After students have divided by grouping, the process “Each truck took six cars and
can be reversed to show the link between addition and there were three cars left over.” EVALUATION
division. • Did the activities challenge the
• Students should be given opportunities to work on students?
problems involving no remainders before those with
remainders. • Are student groups due to be
• Students should be encouraged to estimate how many rearranged?
groups of a certain amount can be made from a whole
group.
• When sharing large numbers of objects, students
should be encouraged to find short cuts.
• The understandings in this unit develop over time and
the activities need to be revisited frequently.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES BASE 10 MATERIAL

REAL OBJECTS Set problems involving larger numbers where Base 10 material is
easier to count and manipulate than discrete objects, eg “Show
Give students problems which require grouping, eg “How many how to put 90 milk bottles in crates that hold 12 bottles each.”
jars of 15 nails could I make from a bag of 75 nails?” Students
count out the nails to solve the problem, noting that no nails are Students show ninety using longs.
left over.
Once students have mastered grouping problems with no
remainders they should be presented with problems which lead to
a remainder and be encouraged to set problems of their own.
Solutions should involve the manipulation of the actual objects
before more abstract material such as Base 10 material is used. Students make groups of twelve. This involves changing one of the
longs for ten shorts.
PICTURES
Give students problems and have them estimate answers. Students
then use pictures of the objects to find solutions. Have students put
their groups back together to stress the link between division and
addition, eg make a variety of picture cards for students to arrange
when solving grouping problems. These might involve dogs, cars, Then they will have to exchange a second long for ten shorts.
fish, geometric shapes. Students should write solutions in words
rather than in an algorithm.

The final grouping shows seven crates full and

six bottles left over. Hence, students should see
that seven crates would be required.

RESOURCES
Base 10 material, washers, bolts, nails, screws, pencils, stones, straws, counters, Lego bricks, Unifix, Centicubes.

253
DIVISION 5
MAIN IDEA
Division can involve equal sharing of objects.
CONTENT
Sharing up to 1 000 objects.
TEACHER NOTES
• Students should understand trading to 1 000 (see
Numeration 12) before attempting this unit.
• Activities will mostly be completed with Base 10
material as this is the most suitable material to use
with large numbers.
• At this stage most students will still be manipulating
concrete materials.
• Wherever possible students should be given
opportunities to develop their own knowledge about
sharing through working in small groups with
concrete materials and discussing their actions.
• After students have shared objects equally the process
should be reversed to show the link between
multiplication and division.
• Students should be encouraged to estimate how much
or how many will be in each share.
• Students should have the opportunity to work with
problems where there are no remainders before
looking at problems with remainders.
• Continue to develop the idea that students should be
sharing as many objects at a time as possible, ie
sharing only one object at a time is too slow.
• Encourage students to record the results of their work.
Students’ own methods of recording should be valued.
Recording methods will indicate the students’ level of
understanding.
SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
TOOTHPICKS
Give students a pack of 200 toothpicks and ask them to share the
toothpicks equally amongst the people in the group. Students
estimate then count the number each person has. Students should
come to the conclusion that 200 is only an approximation of the
number in the packet by adding the numbers of toothpicks each
person in the group has.
Discuss with students the difficulties in counting out and sharing
the toothpicks. Then students repeat the process using Base 10
material and ask them to comment on the process.
200
Four groups of fifty.
RESOURCES
Base 10 materials, toothpicks, counters, books, popsticks, headless matches, bolts, washers, screws.
OBJECTIVES
The student is able to
• share a group of up to 1 000 objects with or without remainders.
LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT
Share, share between, share Ask students to
among, share one at a time,
• share a group of up to 1 000 objects
share more than one at a time,
between two or more people and
give out, match, fair, fair share,
record their results in their own way.
share fairly, trade.
• demonstrate or explain that sharing
“I’ll give each person four cents
has been fair.
and see how much is left.”
“I can share the trucks ten at a
time.”
“I can’t share out any more and EVALUATION
still have equal groups.” • Were the students encouraged to
“I’ll give you each a flat first.” estimate before manipulating concrete
materials?
• Did I encourage a variety of strategies
for solving division problems?
LINK WITH MULTIPLICATION
After sharing activities ask students to put their groups back
together to show the link between division and multiplication, eg
“Four groups of fifty toothpicks makes two hundred toothpicks.”
Students may devise other ways of recording.
TELEPHONE BOOKS
Give students problems where the objects themselves would be too
clumsy to manipulate, eg “Three hundred telephone books are to
be delivered by five people. How many should each person deliver
to share the work fairly?”
Ask students to model the problem using Base 10 material and
link their answers back to the original question.
REMAINDERS
Once students have a sound understanding of division without
remainders they should be given realistic problems where
remainders occur.
“Share 500 straws among eight people.”
“Share $7 between three people.”
“Share 750 mL of drink among seven people.”
254
DIVISION 6
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Division can involve the grouping of objects. The student is able to
• use repeated subtraction to divide a group of up to 1 000 objects.

CONTENT
Division by repeated subtraction up to 1 000.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• The sharing form of division up to 1 000 is dealt with How many groups, fair share, Ask students to
in Division 5. This should be completed before this trade, exchange, swap, leftover,
• divide a group of up to 1 000 by
unit is commenced. remaining, equal to.
taking groups of the same number
• Activities should be completed with Base 10 material “I need to make as many groups away using concrete materials
as this is most suitable with larger numbers. of forty-eight as I can/”
• explain that when a group is divided
“I will have to trade some longs
• Students may record informally, eg equally its parts must all be equal in
for shorts and some flats for
number
800 ➔ 80 each ➔ 10 people longs so I can make equal
groups.” • explain what happens when they try
• After students have divided by grouping the process “We will take eighty leaflets to divide 300 into groups of 40.
can be reversed to show the link between division and each.”
addition (see “Bread” activity). “We earned eighty cents each.”
“When we put the blocks back EVALUATION
• Students should work on problems with no
remainders before looking at problems with together we had the same • Did students have a sound
remainders. number we started with.” understanding of the Base 10
material?
• Students should be encouraged to estimate how many
groups of a certain amount can be made from a whole • Was there opportunity for discussion?
group. • Can students relate the material to the
• When students are dividing using repeated subtraction real problem?
there is still a need to develop the idea of taking • Were students able to use Base 10
groups of the same number away. material to solve problems involving
large numbers?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES REAL LIFE PROBLEMS

BREAD
Set students problems which lead to a solution which does not
have a remainder, eg
“A baker has 340 loaves of bread to put into baskets which each
hold 20 loaves. How many baskets will be needed?”
Students model the problem using Base 10 materials.
Encourage students to suggest problems that relate to their
interests. Set problems based on real-life situations, eg “Leaflet
distributors can deliver 125 leaflets per day. How many distributors
will be needed to deliver 900 leaflets in one day?” Students may
suggest ways of modelling such a problem using Base 10 material.

900
340

Students take away

two longs, leaving Take away 125 by removing a flat, two longs and five shorts.
320.
Trading will be necessary.

Students take away

another two longs,
leaving 300. 900 – 125 = 775

Students continue this process until no material remains. Ask

students to report how many baskets were required and if any
bread was left over. Ensure that the solution is correctly related to
the problem. Students continue this process until another 125 cannot be taken
away. Students record how many subtractions took place and relate
Link division with addition by having students add
their answer to the problem. Ask students to suggest how they
20 + 20 + 20 + ................. + 20 and note that the total is 340.
might deal with the remainder.

RESOURCES
Base 10 materials.

255
DIVISION 7
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Division can be expressed as a number sentence. The student is able to
• recognise, name and use the division symbol (÷)
• relate multiplication and division number sentences
CONTENT • read a division number sentence.
Recognition and use of the division symbol ÷.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• The use of the division symbol should be developed Share between, how many, Ask students to
through both sharing and grouping type problems. groups of, fair share, equal,
• use a variety of concrete aids to
• Students should work with small numbers at this equal groups, number cards,
introductory stage and use a variety of concrete represent and solve problems, eg
symbol cards.
materials in order to establish the division concepts as “Fifteen pencils put into groups of
broadly as possible. “Eight shared between two five, how many groups?”
• Students should be working with problems that have gives four each.”
• represent problems in the form of
no remainders before doing those with remainders. “How many groups of five in
number sentences using symbol and
• Students should come to realise that division ten?”
numeral cards
“undoes” multiplication and multiplication “undoes” “Three times what is fifteen?”
division, eg “Five add five add five is • make a division problem related to a
fifteen.” given multiplication problem, eg
5 x 2 = 10 5 = 10 ÷ 2
“I think there’ll be six groups of “Four jars of four nails makes sixteen
10 ÷ 2 = 5 10 = 5 x 2
three in eighteen.” nails altogether.”
• Students should use symbols and numeral cards.
“I can read this number
Students will already be using the equals sign (=) in
addition and subtraction number sentences. sentence.”
• The student should have an understanding of what Students should be encouraged EVALUATION
each part of the number sentence means. to express the division process • Were the students able to use the
For example, in 15 ÷ 3 = 5 in their own language before concrete materials appropriately?
15 is the size of the original group. relating it to the number
When sharing, sentences. • How can understandings, knowledge
3 is the number of shares, and skills be consolidated, extended
5 is the number in the share. and enriched?
In grouping or repeated subtraction
3 is the number in the groups
5 is the number of groups.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
Students record the solution in terms of repeated subtraction.
GROUPING
12 – 4 – 4 – 4 = 0
Students should be introduced to using the division symbol to
represent the grouping form of division in number sentences. Set Then they record the solution using the division symbol.
students a problem and have them model it in terms of repeated
subtraction, eg “How many groups of five books can be made from 12 ÷ 4 = 3
a set of ten books?”
The solution is repeated subtraction form can be shown by CALCULATOR
numeral and symbol cards. Students investigate the relationship between pairs of number
10 – 5 – 5 = 0 sentences using a calculator, eg
5x3= and 15 ÷ 3 =
Show students the following number sentence.
10 ÷ 5 = 2 COUNTERS
Read as “Ten divided up into groups of five gives two groups.” The teacher shows students two cards with related number
sentences, eg
Repeat using different problems and different materials.
9x2= 18 ÷ 2 =
MONEY Students represent each sentence using counters.
Students are given problems involving the division of money, eg
“Share $12 equally among four people” and “For how many
people can I buy dance tickets if I have $15 and each ticket costs
$3?” Ask students to complete the number sentences and explain how
Students determine the answers by working with play money or the cards are related.
counters. They could be asked to express the operation as a
number sentence using numeral and symbol cards. PARTNER ACTIVITIES
Ask students to consider the result of recombining all the shares. Using numeral and symbol cards one student makes a
Express as a number sentence. multiplication number sentence and the partner makes a related
division number sentence.

RESOURCES
Numeral cards, symbol cards, pencils, rulers, stones, popsticks, washers, biscuits, Unifix, Centicubes, Multilink, Base 10 material.

256
DIVISION 8
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Division can be expressed as a number sentence. The student is able to
• model, say, read and write a number sentence using a division sign where
the number being divided does not exceed 100.
CONTENT
Number sentences with a division sign.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• The use of the division symbol should be developed
through both the sharing and the grouping types of
problems.
• Students should have experience with number
sentences without remainders before attempting
problems with remainders.
• Number sentences should be derived from real life
problems.
• A variety of concrete materials should be used to
develop number facts. The number line can be used
after experiences with concrete materials.
• The remainder in the answer of the written division
number sentence should be written as shown in the
following example.
Share, group, divide, divided by, Ask students to
division, how many, remainder,
• model division problems using a
remaining, equals.
variety of concrete materials
“Thirty-five shared between five
• read and say division number
is equal to seven.”
sentences
“Thirty-five divided by five is
equal to seven.” • write solutions in number sentences.
“Forty-nine divided by six is
equal to eight with one
remaining.” EVALUATION
“I used the division button on
the calculator.” • Were the activities sufficiently
interesting for the students?
• Did I make the best use of space in
the classroom?

33 ÷ 8 = 4 r 1
• Students should have been using the language of
sharing and grouping. They may now be ready for
more formal language using such terms as “divide”,
“divided by” and “division”. They should hear these
terms being used in context.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES REMAINDERS

DIVIDED Set students problems which lead to an answer with a remainder,

Give students division problems which do not lead to a remainder,
eg “Show how sixty-three plants could be shared among seven
people.”
Students model the problem using concrete materials.
eg “Fifty eggs are to be packed into half-dozen lots (ie sixes).
How many cartons will be required?”
Students model the problem using plastic eggs or concrete
materials.

Students could write their solutions on cards, eg

Ask students to express the division in their own words. Students
then make a number sentence using numeral and symbol cards. Eight cartons would be filled and
63 ÷ 7 = 9
there would be two eggs left over.
Ask students to read the number sentence as “sixty-three divided
Ask students to make a number sentence using numeral and
by seven equals nine”.
symbol cards, eg
Ask students to check the answer by entering the problem into a
50 ÷ 6 = 8 r2
calculator.
Some computer adventure games involve students in solving Ask students to read the number sentence as “Fifty divided by six
division problems. gives eight with remainder two”.

RESOURCES
Base 10 materials, counters, Unifix, Centicubes, Multilink, popsticks, beans, seeds, nails, an abacus, calculators, dice, computer adventure
games.

257
DIVISION 9
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Recall of division number facts is useful in everyday life. The student is able to
• recall the basic division facts up to 100.

CONTENT
Basic division facts up to 100.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

Division number facts need to be practised regularly, in a Tables, number facts, shares, Ask students to answer questions such as
variety of ways, in order that students’ responses become groups of, divisor, divide,
“Is 12 divided by three equal to five?”
automatic. divided, division, how many,
remainder, equals. “Is 25 divided by five equal to five?”
• Mental activities are an excellent way of practising
the facts. Students should understand what is meant, “I can work it out faster than “Can four be taken from 28 six times?”
for example, by 42 ÷ 7 = 6 before being expected to the calculator.” “Can nine be taken from 72 eight times?”
memorise it. “It’s like counting backwards by
twos.” Observe how students solve the problem,
• The work in this unit should be linked to eg mental calculation, manipulating
“I remember the multiplication
multiplication wherever possible, eg 63 ÷ 9 = 7 and 7 concrete material, pencil and paper
and reverse it.”
x 9 = 63. calculations.
“There’s a pattern in the answer
Stress that division is the inverse of multiplication and
to the table.”
vice versa. Link with Multiplication Units 4–8.
“Eighty divided by ten is eight.”
• Division facts may be checked by students on a 10 x “There are four groups of eight EVALUATION
10 multiplication square. This further develops the in thirty-two.”
link between the two operations. • Were students ready for these
activities?
• A suggested order for learning division facts is for
divisors of 2 and 4, then 5, 10, and 1, then 3, 6, and 9 • Did I present division facts in a
and finally 7 and 8. variety of ways?

• Each activity in this unit can be modified to suit the

particular table students are learning and repeated for
other tables.
• Activities in this unit can be used throughout the
primary school years.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES DICE GAMES

TABLE OF FOUR Have students play board games with two dice, eg “Snakes and
Ladders”. At each turn the student throws the two dice and divides
Ask students to build a series of block patterns showing the one number into the other if that gives a whole number answer.
multiples of 4, ie The answer gives the number of steps for the move. If neither
4÷4=1 number will divide into the other then the player cannot move.

8÷4=2 DIVISION CROSS NUMBER

12 ÷ 4 = 3 1 2 3 4 5 Across Down
1. 18 ÷ 9 1. 3 x 7
etc. 6
2. 4 x 9 3. 60 ÷ 1
7 8 9 4. 5 x 7 4. 8 x 4
TRACKS
6. 100 ÷ 10 8. 10 x 10
Give students a starting number and ask them to perform a series 10 11 12 7. 54 ÷ 9 9. 8 x 9
of operations leading finally to an answer. This may be done using 13 10. 8 x 8 11. 5 x 8
a stencil initially but could be done orally with students who are 12. 80 ÷ 8 12.188 ÷ 8
ready for exercising skills in mental arithmetic. 14 15 16 13. 100 x 1 15. 4 x 4
17 14. 64 ÷ 8 16. 50 ÷ 1
+6
17. 9 ÷ 9
Answer? There are computer programs available that enable users to make
2 –5 ÷3
+4 +1 x4 crosswords.

EXPLORING NUMBERS
÷5
Give students various numbers and ask them to find all their
÷3 ÷4 +6 factors, ie numbers that divide into it without remainder. Ask
students to count the number of factors and record the numbers
x5
–1 given the factors and the number of factors. Ask students to
x4 comment on any patterns they notice. Include prime numbers and
square numbers as well as other composites.

RESOURCES
Number wheels, number puzzles, dice, draughts board, 10 x 10 grid, Lego bricks, Unifix, Multilink, counters, beads, calculators,
computer crossword making software, tiles.

258
DIVISION 10
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Division involves sharing of objects or grouping of
The student is able to
objects. ——
• recognise and name the division symbol )
• divide a two-digit number by a single-digit number with or without
CONTENT trading
Division of a two-digit number by a single-digit number——or by • divide a two-digit number by 10 with or without trading.
10 with or without trading. Use of the division symbol ) .

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Students should have a sound understanding of Divided by, division, is equal to, Ask students to
trading before attempting this unit. share, divide.
• solve problems presented in words
• Ensure that students have covered the necessary units “Eight divided by four is equal and note whether they choose
in the Subtraction and Multiplication sub-strands. to two.” division as the correct operation
• Students should continue to use concrete materials to Whether the problem is • write a number sentence using
——
further develop their understanding of the concepts of recorded in the form 8 ÷ 4 ) and ÷ for a problem presented
——
division. or 4 ) 8 , it should be read as in words
“Eight divided by four”.
• Examples should be graded carefully. Note the stages • find the answers to division questions
Students are sometimes
suggested below. involving two-digit dividends and
——— confused by the latter form
single-digit divisors.
• The symbols ÷ and ) should be seen as since it is not read from left to
alternatives for representing the same problem. right.
• Although the words “divisor” and “dividend” are used
EVALUATION
in these notes, it is not necessary for students to use
these terms. • Were opportunities given for students
to use the language of sharing or
grouping?
• Were students able to translate the
solution expressed using concrete
materials back to the original
problem?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
THE WRITTEN ALGORITHM
INTRODUCING THE SYMBOLS
Work an example of the written algorithm to show students a
Show students problems written in each of the two main model for efficient setting-out and the appropriate language. The
2 following layout is suitable but should not be taken to the
——
algorithms, eg 6 ÷ 3 = 2 and 3 ) 6 , and ask them to explain what prescriptive. The accompanying language relates the operations in
each number stands for, eg the 6 is the total number of objects, the
the algorithm to the manipulation of concrete materials.
3 is the number we are dividing by and 2 is the answer. At this
stage it will always be the case that the divisor is less than the “Share 67 between four. First the 6 tens are
dividend but this may not be the case in the future when fractional 16 r 3 shared. Each person gets 1 ten. Trade the
——— —
answers appear. 3 ) 67 remaining 2 tens for units. We now have 27 units
4 tens to share among four. Each person gets six so that
The following sequence of steps should provide a graded approach
27 uses up 24. That leaves a remainder of three.” It
to the division algorithm for two-digit dividends.
is important that the teacher does not use phrases
Single-digit divisor 24 such as “goes into” and “carry”. Such phrases
1. 48 ÷ 8 = 6 8. 42 ÷ 9 = 4 r 6 3 are meaningless, encourage rote learning only
and do not relate to concrete materials.
2. 49 ÷ 8 = 6 r 1 9. 61 ÷ 6 = 10 r 1
3. 48 ÷ 4 = 12
INTERPRETING THE CALCULATOR DISPLAY
4. 45 ÷ 3 = 15 Dividing by 10
5. 47 ÷ 4 = 16 r 3 1. 40 ÷ 10 In order to check answers using a calculator, students will need to
6. 67 ÷ 4 = 16 r 3 2. 45 ÷ 10 be able to interpret answers expressed in decimal form. For
7. 70 ÷ 6 = 11 r 4 example, ask students to find the answer to 25 ÷ 8. The answer
from the algorithm will be 3 r 1 but the calculator answer is 3.125,
FIND THE MISSING DIGITS so students will not know if the algorithm has yielded the correct
answer. One method is to use multiplication. Suggest to students
Ask students to complete algorithms, eg that if 3 r 1 is correct then 3 x 8 ÷ 1 should be 25.
2 3 r2
———
4)

RESOURCES
Base 10 material, calculators, grid paper.

259
DIVISION 11
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Division involves equal sharing of groups where the The student is able to
problem is to find the number of each group. • divide a number with three or more digits by a single-digit divisor with
or without trading
CONTENT • divide a number with three or more digits by 10 with or without trading.
Division of numbers with three or more digits by single-
digit divisors or by 10 with or without trading.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Students should work on problems involving three-
digit dividends before attempting to extend the
algorithm to four or more digits.
• Concrete materials should be available for students to
reinforce the development of the algorithm.
• Ensure that students have had adequate experience
with the appropriate units in Subtraction and
Multiplication before beginning these activities.
• Set examples using each of the division symbols, ie ÷
——
and ) .
• Although the words “dividend” and “divisor” are in
the Sample Activities students are not expected to use
these terms.
• A space should be left between the thousands and
hundreds places in numerals with four or more digits.
• Calculators should be used by students for checking
answers.
• The method used in setting out the division algorithm
in Unit 10 could also be used in this unit.
Divide by, divide, division, is
equal to, share, remainder,
remaining.
“Four hundred and thirty-seven
divided by eight is fifty-four
and five remaining.”
Ask students to
• complete division problems where a
number with three or more digits is
divided by a single-digit number
• divide a number with three or more
digits by 10
• check the answer to a division
involving a remainder using a
calculator.
EVALUATION
• Were students able to manipulate
concrete materials in order to show
their understanding of the division
process?
• Were the problems posed for the
students based on practical
experiences?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES DIVIDING A THREE-DIGIT NUMBER

Set students a problem which involves the division of a three-digit
DEVELOPMENTAL SEQUENCE number by a single-digit number and have them present the
Problems should be graded progressing from division of a three- solution in verbal, concrete and symbolic forms, eg “If 564 sheep
digit number by a single-digit number where trading is not were put into four railway trucks how many sheep would be put in
required to division by a number with more than three digits where each truck?”
trading is required. The following possible sequence of problems
is not prescriptive. VERBAL CONCRETE SYMBOLIC
1. All digits in the dividend are multiples of the divisor, eg We put 100 in
484 ÷ 4. —1——–
—
each truck and
2. Hundreds and tens are multiples of the divisor, eg 485 ÷ 4.
4 ) 5 16 4
that leaves 164.
3. Hundreds and tens are multiples of the divisor and there is a We put forty in —1——–
—4
zero in the units place, eg 480 ÷ 4. each truck and 4 ) 5 16 4
4. The hundreds digit is a multiple of the divisor but exchanging that leaves four.
—1——–
—41
is required in the tens place, eg 492 ÷ 4. That’s one more 4 ) 5 16 4
5. Trading in the hundreds place, no remainder, eg 564 ÷ 4. in each truck.
6. Trading in the hundreds and tens places, no remainder, eg The total in
652 ÷ 4. each truck is
7. Trading involved and a remainder, eg 653 ÷ 4. 141.
8. The hundreds digit less than the divisor, no remainder, eg
352 ÷ 4.
9. The hundreds digit less than the divisor, remainder, eg 353 ÷ 4.
10. The hundreds digit less than the divisor, trading and a
DIVIDENDS WITH FOUR OR MORE DIGITS
remainder, eg 335 ÷ 4.
11. The hundreds digit is a multiple of the divisor, zero in the tens Use opportunities to link Mathematics with other curriculum areas
place, eg 404 ÷ 4. such as Social Studies. Problems based on the students’ world
12. Zero in tens and/or units place, with or without remainder, eg create most interest, eg “What is the age in years of someone who
460 ÷ 4; 700 ÷ 4; 380 ÷ 4; 370 ÷ 4. has lived 1 234 weeks?”
Division by ten should begin without remainders. Dividends with
more than three digits follow a similar sequence.

RESOURCES
Base 10 materials, popsticks, grid paper, calculators.

260
DIVISION 12
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Division is useful in problem solving. The student is able to
• use a calculator to complete division by a divisor with two or more digits
• interpret answers from a calculator in the context of a problem.
CONTENT
Division by a divisor with two or more digits using a
calculator.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Teachers should not assume that students will be able
to perform divisions on a calculator. Particular
attention should be paid to the order in which the
numbers are entered.
• Students should learn when it is appropriate to use a
calculator and when the calculator is less efficient
than other methods, eg 630 ÷ 70.
• Students should estimate the answer before using the
calculator and assess any calculator answer to
determine whether it is appropriate in the context of
the problem.
• Students will need to investigate how remainders are
represented on a calculator and how to convert a
decimal answer into a mixed numeral.
• Division by a number with more than two digits is a
minor extension which is likely to arise from
problems based in the real world. Real problems may
lead to division by decimals or large numbers which
may be best handled on a calculator.
Division, divided by, divide.
“The calculator says three point
one two five but I don’t think
three points one two five cakes
is a good answer.”
“The calculator answer is nine
point one six six six kilometres
but for the distance between
towns nine kilometres is
accurate enough.”
Note that the digits on a
calculator display are not the
same as students are taught to
write. The decimal point is
shown on the line and no space
is left between the thousands
and hundreds places.
Ask students to
• solve a problem involving a division
by a number with two digits or more
with the aid of a calculator.
• interpret the remainder shown in
decimal form on a calculator
• interpret a calculator answer in the
context of a given problem.
EVALUATION
• Did students have sufficient prior
experience with calculators before
attempting this unit?
• Were there enough calculators
available for student use?
• Were students choosing not to use a
calculator when other more efficient
methods were known to them?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES SHARING DISCRETE OBJECTS

ESTIMATION Set problems which involve sharing of indivisible units, eg “How

Give students problems and ask them to give an estimate of upper
and lower bounds for the correct answer. Students then check the
estimates by entering the division into a calculator.
Give students a range of possible answers to a division problem
and ask them to choose the best estimate, eg
———–
— 62.5. Since only whole people are involved, students will need to
52 ) 2 496 a) 40 b) 50 c) 60 d) 500.
APPROXIMATION
Give students answers and the context of a problem and ask them
to suggest a suitable “rounded off” answer with an appropriate
degree of accuracy, eg 9.1666 km for the distance between towns,
12.3125 m for the length of a hall, 7.25 sandwiches from a sharing
problem.
many buses are required to transport 3 000 people if each bus can
carry 63 passengers?” The calculator gives the answer as
47.61904762 so students need to realise that 48 buses will be
needed.
The problem of how many people would travel in each of the
buses implies 3 000 ÷ 48, which leads to a calculator answer of
discuss possible arrangements, noting that there are many
possibilities, including having 63 people on 24 of the buses and 62
on the other 24. Another arrangement would be 63 on 40 of the
buses and 60 on the other 8 buses. The task of finding all the
possible arrangements is a worthwhile problem for talented
students.
REAL PROBLEMS

EFFICIENT USE OF A CALCULATOR
Give students a test to be completed in one minute. Half of the
class uses a calculator but must enter all steps. The other students
do not use calculators. The test consists of such items as 20 ÷ 20:
4567 – 0; half of 5 000; so that the answer can be written down
immediately after a little thought but having to enter the numbers
into a calculator is slow and tedious. The expected result is for
those students without calculators to finish about twenty questions
in half a minute while those with calculators have finished half
that number.
With the aid of a calculator no division problem should be too
difficult because of the numbers involved. Errors can arise because
the numbers are entered in the wrong order. Set problems where
the divisor appears not to be the smaller number, eg “Share 2L of
drink among 20 people.”
Ask students to suggest problems, not necessarily division
problems, and set problems which are based on events in the
students’ lives, eg “A cricketer scores 1 791 runs in 23 innings.
Find the average.” Students should estimate and use the contracted
form of the algorithm.

RESOURCES
Basic primary school calculators.

261
 FRACTIONS AND DECIMALS
SUMMARY OF OBJECTIVES

FRACTIONS AND DECIMALS 1 FRACTIONS AND DECIMALS 9

• discuss and describe equal parts • demonstrate equivalence using hundredths and tenths
• divide and object or group of objects into equal parts • compare and order tenths with concrete materials

FRACTIONS AND DECIMALS 2 FRACTIONS AND DECIMALS 10

• relate one part or parts of a group to the whole • record tenths using the decimal form
• model whole numbers, tenths and hundredths

FRACTIONS AND DECIMALS 3

• manipulate concrete materials to show a part of a whole
FRACTIONS AND DECIMALS 11
a
• name a part of a group and the parts remaining • write fractions in the form b
• recognise instances of percentage notation in the environment
• write numbers as percentages
FRACTIONS AND DECIMALS 4
• name parts of a group using 100 objects
• name part of a whole using the term hundredths
FRACTIONS AND DECIMALS 12
• compare, order and count tenths and hundredths
• distinguish significant and non-significant zeros
FRACTIONS AND DECIMALS 5
• model hundredths using concrete materials
• name part of a group using the term hundredths
FRACTIONS AND DECIMALS 13
• add tenths and hundredths in the decimal from
• subtract tenths and hundredths in the decimal form
FRACTIONS AND DECIMALS 6
• compare and order hundredths
• count in hundredths, forwards and backwards
FRACTIONS AND DECIMALS 14
• multiply tenths and hundredths by whole numbers up to 10
• divide tenths and hundredths by whole numbers up to 10
FRACTIONS AND DECIMALS 7
• record hundredths using the decimal form
• record decimal fractions as hundredths

FRACTIONS AND DECIMALS 8

• use the term tenths during modelling activities
• express fractions in tenths as hundredths
• express fractions in hundredths in tenths where possible

262
FRACTIONS AND DECIMALS 1
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Fraction concepts are part of our everyday world. The student is able to
• describe equal parts
• divide an object or group of objects into equal parts.
CONTENT
Part/whole relationships.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• In this sub-strand decimal fractions are introduced More, same, equal, equal parts, • Ask students to
first. Metric measures and decimal currency have different, less, fewer, half,
– share eight paint brushes into
reduced the use of common fraction notation. group, none left, halves,
equal groups
Consequently, students rarely see or use common quarters, fourths, whole.
fraction notation. – cut a piece of bread into halves
“I’ll have the biggest piece.”
and quarters.
• Students may have had incidental experiences with
“Your didn’t cut it in half.”
fractions before any formal teaching of the concept • Listen for students” use of the
takes place. Teachers may be able to assess students’ “Kim’s got more than me.” language of halves quarters to
understandings by listening to their language during describe every day situations, eg
“They’re the same.”
activities. Although students may use fraction terms in “Half my drink is gone.”
their oral language, no assumptions can be made that “We cut the apple in half.”
students have a current understanding of any fraction
term, eg “I’ll have the biggest half.” EVALUATION
• Students need to have a number of prerequisite skills • Were students able to work
before formal teaching of the fraction concept takes cooperatively in small groups?
place. These include
• Did I cater enough for individual
– language considerations (eg more, same)
differences?
– manipulation of concrete materials
– the idea of a fair share
– the ability to match one to one
– comparing, selecting, explaining.
• Students should have experiences in finding equal
parts of a whole object as well as a collection of
objects.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES COLOURING OR PAINTING

INCIDENTAL ACTIVITIES Students are asked to colour in or paint

– part of a real object
Students should be involved in activities which will introduce them
– part of a regular shape
to fraction terms, eg
– part of a piece of paper.
– eating half a sandwich
Ask the students to describe the parts.
– cutting half an orange
– sharing half a packet of sweets. CLASSIFYING GROUPS
Discuss whether there can be a bigger or smaller half. Describe Students collect objects and are asked to classify them. For
situations in terms of halves and quarters, eg half the kittens are example, “group these buttons according to their colours.”
black, cut the cake into quarters, share the toys equally among
your friends.

CUTTING AND FOLDING
Groups of two and four students share a slice of bread so that each
person gets the same amount and none left over.
The teacher demonstrates cutting a piece of fruit into two or four
pieces.
“Half the buttons are black and half the buttons are red.” Some
computer programs involve students in dividing a group of objects
into smaller groups.
PATTERN BLOCKS

ask the students to count the pieces.
Ask questions such as these
– “How are the pieces alike?”
– “What are the names given to the pieces?”
The students might enjoy cutting paper shapes into a number of
pieces. Discuss with the students whether the pieces are the same
or different.
Students use four identical Pattern blocks or tiles to make a shape,
picture or pattern.
Ask the students to make a new picture or pattern and discuss the
number of blocks in the pattern.
Students might begin to explore the relationship between the
various blocks.
Students might discover that two of the triangles make a diamond
shape.

RESOURCES
Pattern blocks, pencils, paper, paint, cardboard, blocks, Lego, bricks, Polydrons, fruit, cakes, bread, counters, buttons, popsticks,
computer problem solving software.

263
FRACTIONS AND DECIMALS 2
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
A group can be divided into a number of equal parts. The student is able to
• relate one part or parts of a group to the whole.

CONTENT
Fractions, equal parts.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Teachers should emphasise one part of a group first, Group, whole, part, out of, total • Ask students to
eg “There are five buttons. One of the five is red.” of, halves, quarters, equal,
– consider a group of objects
Extend the idea to more than one part of the group, eg same.
“Four out of five are yellow.” – describe the total number in the
“I’ve seven buttons in my
group
• It is essential that students concentrate on the total group.”
number in the group and relate the specific number to – describe the number in a part of
“Two out of seven are plastic.”
the whole group. the group
“Seven of the ten stamps are
– relate the number in a part of the
made in Australia.”
group to the whole group.
“One of the five blocks is
This represents 3 out of 8. • Listen for when students describe
wooden.”
everyday situations in terms of parts
A common error is to interpret this as three out of
“One of the seven chairs is red.” of a whole group.
five.
“Four of the five students have For example, three out of eight
• Experiences of regions, lengths and parts of a
black hair.” windows are broken.
collection of objects are necessary when students are
developing the concept of fractions. “This is one part of the circle.”
• Teachers should take advantage of everyday situations EVALUATION
to emphasise fraction concepts, All recording is done without
eg Three out of eight students are boys. • Were students given enough time and
using fraction symbols,
Five out of 12 blocks are blue. opportunities to describe parts of a
3
ie 3 out of 8, not 8. group?
• Did I encourage discussion between
students?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES FRUIT

SORTING
Ask students to describe collections of various objects, buttons,
seeds, leaves, nails, pegs, etc. The students might say, “There are
five buttons. One out of the five is large. Four of the five are
small.”
Ask the students to count the total number of pieces of fruit they
have at school. Students can then find how many of the total are
apples, bananas, cherries etc. Using the results, students could
make a graph or display chart.

CONTAINERS
Use an egg carton and ask the students how many spaces have
eggs in them, eg three out of 12 spaces. repeat for other containers
such as biscuit packets, bottle crates, paint brush holders, etc.
PAPER CUT OUTS
Ask the students to cut a piece of paper into four equal parts. the
OUR CLASS students can then describe each of the parts in relation to the
Use the students’ interest and attributes to help develop fraction whole. Repeat with other paper shapes.
concepts.
THROW AND CATCH GAME
Students may enjoy investigating questions such as
Students throw and catch a ball a set number of times. They
• “How many of the total number of students in our class describe how many of the total they caught. Ask students to predict
– are at school? how many throws they will probably catch on the next lot of
– have blond hair? throws.
– are left handed?
– like a particular sport?” CALENDAR
Discuss with the students how many of the total number of people
in the class have birthdays in a particular month. Students could
record the weather on a calendar and look at how many of the total
number of days were rainy, sunny, etc, how many of the total
number of months start with the letter J, how many of the total
number of months have passed this year.

RESOURCES
Pencils, paper, buttons, pegs, stones, nails, bottle tops, coloured paper, Lego bricks, Unifix, Centicubes, pattern blocks, skipping rope,
stopwatch, fruit, musical instruments, beads, balls.

264
FRACTIONS AND DECIMALS 3
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
A group can be divided into parts and the parts related to The student is able to
whole. • manipulate concrete materials to show a part of a whole
• name a part of a group and the parts remaining.
CONTENT
Fractions as parts of a whole.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Before commencing work in this unit, students should Part, part of, parts of, none, Ask students to
have developed number concepts to one hundred. (See share, other part, whole, left,
• describe a collection of objects, eg 20
the Numeration sub–strand.) left over, remaining, third,
pieces of coloured chalk
thirds.
• Students should be given many opportunities to
• describe a part of the group and the
discuss the composition of groups and to use “I have moved three of the
part remaining, eg “Six out of 20
strategies such as trial and error. twelve.”
pieces are blue.”
• Teachers need to emphasise the fact that all of the “I have nine of the twelve left
• label the groups they have made.
parts of a group make the whole. over.”
• Encourage students to record their results by “Three of the stones are black,
illustrating and writing. Labels can be made to that’s three out of ten.” EVALUATION
illustrate parts of a whole group. No formal recording
“None of the eighteen pegs is • Have anecdotal records been used as
is necessary at this stage.
orange.” a method of assessment?
• Students should be encouraged to state the unit in
“Twelve out of the twelve are • Have parents been invited to work
which they are working, eg five out of nine
red.” with small groups?
paddle–pop sticks.
• The terms half and quarter have been introduced
because these words are used widely. The students
will also hear the terms third and thirds. These terms
should be modelled in the appropriate context.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES WORKCARDS

CLASS AND SCHOOL The teacher prepares workcards showing the fraction to be made.

Ask the students to count the number of students in the class. Ask
then how they could sort the whole class into various parts. The
students might decide to count the number of class members who
have brown hair. Ask the students to name this part of the group,
eg “Eight people of the twenty–eight have brown hair.” Students
count and name the part remaining, eg “Twenty people of the
twenty–eight don’t have brown hair.” Repeat for other attributes
and different groups of students.
A VARIETY OF MATERIALS
Students use a mixed set of objects, pencils, paper, nails, Lego,
Unifix, Multilink, etc to sort into various parts. Ask the students to
name the part of the group they make and the part remaining.
For example, a student might find all the red objects, eg “Nine of
the twenty things are red and eleven of the twenty are not red.”
6 out of 18
Students count the number of objects indicated and decide how to
show the part of the group stated on the workcard, eg six of the 18
pegs are plastic.
Ask the students to describe the parts of the group including the
part remaining, ie 12 of the 18 pegs are not plastic. Students write
a sentence on the back of the workcard to show the part of the
group remaining.
12 out of 18
Repeat with a variety of workcards and materials. Students may
enjoy trying to make the same part of the group in a variety of
ways, eg six out of 18 are red, six out of 18 are wooden, etc.
PATTERN BLOCKS
Students can investigate the relationships between the sizes of
various pattern blocks, eg three green triangles cover one red
block, one green block is one third the size of the red block.

How many of these ................... cover this?

RESOURCES
Popsticks, Centicubes, Unifix, pattern blocks, Lego bricks, Multilink, counters, stones, sticks, bottle tops, nails, workcards.

265
FRACTIONS AND DECIMALS 4
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
The term hundredths can be used to name fractions. The student is able to
• name parts of a group using 100 objects
• name part of a whole using the term hundredths.
CONTENT
Introducing the term hundredths.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• This sequence develops hundredths first instead of Out of a hundred, of the • Give students a group of 100 objects
tenths. This is consistent with ideas being developed hundred, out of one hundred, and ask them to show
in measurement and money. hundredths, whole group, part – 9 out of 100, 9 hundredths
of the group. – 17 out of 100, 17 hundredths
• With an understanding of trading students will be able
– 71 out of 100, 71 hundredths.
to discover the relationship of hundredths to tenths. “There is one hundred in this
group.” • Separate part of a group of 100
• Students are to use groups of up to and including 100
objects and ask students to describe
objects. “Part of the group is red.”
the parts of the group, eg 12 out of
• The terms “hundredths” will need careful introduction “Sixty out of one hundred are 100, 12 hundredths and 88 out of 100
in the context of activities, eg “I have seven out of a red.” or 88 hundredths.
hundred, that’s seven hundredths.”
“That’s sixty hundredths.” Put the group of 100 objects back
• Recording is in the form “four hundredths” rather together and ask students to name the
“Eleven out of one hundred
than in symbols. whole group.
sticks are broken. That’s eleven
• Fraction concepts need to be developed over a period hundredths.”
of time. Activities in this unit may need to be revisited
on a number of occasions. EVALUATION
• Were student able to work
cooperatively in small groups?
• Did I ask open ended questions,
eg “How do you know?”

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES CONSTRUCTING

Students are asked to construct a length of 100 interlocking blocks
MATCHSTICKS using only two colours. Students describe the fraction of the whole
Students count out 100 matchsticks. model that is one particular colour, eg 32 hundredths are green.
Ask the students what part of the whole remains. Have students
The strategy of grouping by tens or fives could be used. construct a row of 100 Centicubes using only two colours and
Students move part of the group and name this part, eg 17 out of align it against a metre rule. Ask students what the part of the
100 and 83 out of 100. metre line is in each colour.

The teacher models the language of hundredths for these groups, ie
17 hundredths and 83 hundredths. Repeat the activity using a
variety of materials, eg coins, paper shapes, Unifix, Multilink, etc.
WORKCARDS
Make workcards using the term “hundredths” on one side and the
more familiar expression “out of” on the other side.
PEGBOARDS
Ask students to show hundredths in a variety of ways using a 10
by 10 pegboard. Students describe the part of the pegboard they
cover with a particular colour of pegs.
Construct a fraction on the pegboard in a variety of ways, in rows,
in columns or scattered. Ask the students what part each of these
represents.

12 out of 100 12 hundredths GRID PAPER

front back Students shade in a part of 10 cm by 10 cm grid paper and
describe the shaded part in terms of hundredths, eg “I shaded
Students model the fractions indicated on the cards using materials forty-four hundredths of my grid.”
of their own choosing.
Have students shade the same fraction of the grid in different
ways.
MONEY GRAB
A student placed 100 one cent coins in a bag. Another student
grabs as many coins as possible in one handful. Students count the
coins and describe the group in terms of hundredths, eg “I grabbed
twenty–two hundredths of a dollar.”

RESOURCES
Lego bricks, Centicubes, Unifix, Multilink, Digimax, pegboards, bundles of 10 popsticks, straws, screws, washers, counters, matchsticks,
metre rule, grids.

266
FRACTIONS AND DECIMALS 5
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Fractions can be modelled using concrete materials. The student is able to
• model hundredths using concrete materials
• name part of a group using the term hundredths.
CONTENT
Modelling hundredths.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Before commencing work with Base 10 material Out of a hundred, four • Give students a group of Base 10 flats
students need plenty of experience in building, hundredths, fourteen and shorts. Ask them to show two
counting and naming parts of a group using 100 hundredths, forty hundredths, different arrangements
separate objects, eg Centicubes and a metre rule. forty–one hundredths, etc.
– 6 hundredths
• This unit consolidates the skills and concepts “I put fourteen shorts on top of
– 13 hundredths
developed in the previous unit. Base 10 materials are a flat, that’s fourteen
used to model hundredths. hundredths.” – 30 hundredths.
The Base 10 “flat” represents “one whole”. “I covered thirty–one • Ask students to describe various
hundredths.” models of hundredths made with
• Different ways of modelling a given fraction should
Base 10 or other materials.
be encouraged, eg to model four hundredths place “Seven hundredths are red and
four shorts on top of a flat. ninety–three hundredths are
green.”
• Cardboard grids and other structured material such as EVALUATION
Digimax, Unifix, Multilink or Centicubes can be used “There are one hundred
in addition to Base 10 material or when Base 10 hundredths in one whole.” • Did the students have the prerequisite
material is unavailable. skills and knowledge before
“Thirty centimetres is thirty attempting the activities?
• Special emphasis needs to be given to those numbers hundredths of a metre.”
that can be confused, eg • Were students encouraged to talk
13, 30 and 31 hundredths about their models?
14, 40 and 41 hundredths.
Concrete experiences are needed to reduce the
confusion between the teens and later numbers.
• Recording is continued in words and not symbols.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
GRID PAPER
MODELLING HUNDREDTHS Students model various hundredths and record the results on grid
Using Base 10 material students represent 100 hundredths. The flat paper. Students label their drawings, eg 14 hundredths.
is used to represent one whole. Students cover the flat with shorts
to make one whole. Each short represents one hundredth or one
part of 100. Discuss the fraction that is formed with each group of
shorts. Repeat the activity using Centicubes and a metre rule.

WORKCARDS
Give students a workcard indicating a fraction.
12 NAMING EACH PART OF THE WHOLE
hundredths
Students cover the flat with shorts to show a given number of
Students structure the number of hundredths shown on the card by hundredths. Students name the fraction the flat covered and the
placing shorts on top of a flat or by placing Centicubes along a fraction remaining.
metre rule. Different ways of structuring the same fraction should
be explored as students discuss their actions.

EVERYDAY SITUATIONS
Students model situations like these using Base 10 materials.
• Eight out of one hundred people in our school are from Greece.
• Twenty–nine hundredths of the matches in the box were used.
How many hundredths were not used?
“I covered twenty hundredths.
The other part is eighty hundredths.
That’s one hundred hundredths altogether.”
Students can record these fraction on grid paper and write a
sentence to describe the parts of the whole flat.

RESOURCES
Base 10 materials, Digimax, Unifix, Centicubes, Multilink, metre rule, grid paper.

267
FRACTIONS AND DECIMALS 6
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Fractions can be compared and ordered. The student is able to
• compare and order hundredths
• count in hundredths, forwards and backwards.
CONTENT
Comparing and ordering hundredths.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Students who are familiar with Base 10 material can Out of a hundred, hundredths. Ask students to
represent hundredths with longs and shorts instead of
“I have twenty shorts, that’s • demonstrate 13 hundredths,
shorts only, eg 73 hundredths may be represented by
twenty hundredths.” 37 hundredths and 67 hundredths
either seven longs and three shorts or 73 shorts.
using Base 10 materials
“Two longs is the same as
• Continue to encourage students to record their models
twenty shorts.” • order these fractions in decreasing
of hundredths on grid paper.
and increasing order
“Two longs is twenty
• Students should be encouraged to estimate the number
hundredths.” • label the models
of hundredths before counting them.
“Thirteen hundredths is the • count forwards and backwards from
• If there is insufficient Base 10 material, cardboard
smallest.” any given hundredth.
replicas of shorts, flats and longs can be made.
“Thirty hundredths is the
biggest.”
EVALUATION
“Twenty–three hundredths is in
the middle.” • Was I able to cater for individual
differences?
• Were the problems used relevant to
the students’ interests?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
LONGS AND SHORTS
Ask the students to represent various hundredths using Base 10
materials. Students demonstrate these hundredths by placing shorts
on top of a flat. The students can make different patterns using the
shorts to show the same number of hundredths in a variety of
ways.
Encourage students to swap groups of 10 shorts for a long.
Students investigate the arrangement of the blocks when this is
done.
GUESS ME GAME
A student makes a model of any number of hundredths using Base
10 material without showing the model. The other students
question the first student to guess the number of hundredths in the
model.
The students could ask
“Is it an odd or even number of hundredths?”
“Is it more than fifty hundredths?”
Only yes/no answers are allowed. Decide on the number of
questions to be asked before each game.

COUNTING
Ask students to count forwards or backwards from a given
hundredth. Students might like to try counting hundredths in
patterns, eg by twos, fives or tens.

Repeat the activity using Centicubes and a metre rule.
ORDERING
Students model three different hundredths using Base 10 material.
Have students guess the number of hundredths on each flat and
order these in increasing size. Students can then check their
estimates by counting.
MODELLING
Students are asked to model and name the hundredth that is
• one more than 69 hundredths
• one less than 80 hundredths
• ten more than a given number of hundredths
• ten less than a given number of hundredths.
Students can record their hundredths on 10 by 10 grid squares.

RESOURCES
Base 10 materials, Centicubes, metre rule, 10 by 10 grid squares.

268
FRACTIONS AND DECIMALS 7
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
The Hindu–Arabis numeration system allows for
The student is able to
recording fractions in the decimal form.
• record hundredths using the decimal form
• record decimal fractions as hundredths.
CONTENT
Introducing the decimal form of recording fractions.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• In Unit 5 students have built models of hundredths Sixty–seven hundredths, zero Ask students to
using concrete materials and recorded using labels point six seven, naught point six
• record hundredths in the decimal
such as “37 hundredths”. This unit focuses on seven, one and twenty–two
form, eg 0.56, 1.22
recording hundredths in the decimal form, eg 0.37, hundredths, one point two two.
where the decimal point separates the fraction part of • record lengths and money in the
“I have sixteen hundredths.”
the number from the whole number. The zero is used decimal form, eg 1.55 metres, $0.47
“Another way of writing sixteen
as a place holder and should be shown when there are • read decimal fractions as hundredths
hundredths is naught point one
no whole numbers in the ones place.
six.” • recognise zero point one six, (0.16) as
• At this stage no mention is made that the first position sixteen hundredths.
“The fraction part of the
to the right of the decimal point indicates tenths. The
number is on the right hand
notion of tenths is treated later.
side.”
• Once the decimal form of writing is introduced, it can EVALUATION
“The decimal point keeps them
be related to instances of recording amounts of money
apart.” • Did the students have the prerequisite
and lengths, eg 25 cm out of 100 cm is 0.25 m, 37
cents out of 100 cents ($1) is $0.37. “The desks are one metre and skills?
fifty–five centimetres apart. • Did the activities relate to the
• Whole numbers to the left of the decimal point can be
That’s one point five five students’ interests?
introduced, eg 1 metre and 55 centimetres can be
metres.”
written as 1.55 metres. The one refers to the whole
number of metres and the 55 to the part of the metre. Teachers should note that when
writing decimal fractions, the
ones place is always shown,
either by zero or a whole
number. Naught and zero are
acceptable alternatives.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
CALCULATOR
DECIMAL POINT
Ask students to try to show a number on the calculator with the
Ask students to gather examples of the use of the decimal point at decimal point on the left hand side. Students might enjoy trying to
school, at home and in the environment. Students could make a change this number so the decimal point is on the right hand side.
display of the signs and other examples of decimal points they
have found. This could lead to a discussion on which of the signs ONE AND HUNDREDTHS
is really decimal, eg “We close at 3:30 pm.”
Students can model whole numbers and hundredths using Base 10
material and draw these on grid paper.
MAKING HUNDREDTHS
Students model hundredths using Base 10 material and record the DOLLARS AND CENTS
models on grid paper. The students label their drawings stating the
Students can model various amounts of money using 100 one cent
number of hundredths. Show the students how to write these in the
coins. Ask students to record these amounts of money. Discuss
decimal form. Students can try adding the decimal form of
with the students the various ways these amounts can be written
recording to their drawings.
including the decimal form.

DECIMAL CARDS METRES AND CENTIMETRES

Students make a set of cards showing hundredths written in words Students measure a length of 100 centimetres on a large sheet of
on one side and in the decimal form on the other. Working in pairs, paper. They can then measure part of the length of the paper and
one student shows a card and the other student reads the decimal record this in decimal form.
fractions. Students might then enjoy recording their height in words and in
decimal form on cards. These cards can be used to make a class
0.23 23 hundredths book about various length measurements the students make. After
a time the students need not write out the measurements in words.
front back

RESOURCES
Base 10 material, grid paper, workcards, metre rules, one cent coins.

269
FRACTIONS AND DECIMALS 8
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Fractions can be named using the term tenths. The student is able to
• use the term tenths during modelling activities
• express fractions in tenths as hundredths
CONTENT • express fractions in hundredths in tenths where possible.
Decimal fractions – the concept of tenths.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• In this unit the concept of tenths is developed through Long, short, flat, trade, tenths, Ask students to
trading activities with hundredths using Base 10 hundredths.
• show equivalences of tenths and
material. Orange and white rods can be used to
“I have twenty hundredths, hundredths using concrete materials,
supplement Base 10 material.
that’s two tenths.” including money and Base 10
• In Unit 5, students will have represented hundredths materials
“Sixty–seven hundredths is the
with longs and shorts as well as shorts only. The
same as six tenths and seven • model various fractions and describe
activities in this unit focus on this approach and
hundredths.” them in terms of tenths and
introduce the term tenths.
hundredths.
“Fifty hundredths equals five
• The place value chart is used in this unit to record
tenths.”
tenths and hundredths and build on students’
knowledge about place value of whole numbers. “I have thirty–four one cent
EVALUATION
coins, that’s three tens and four
ones, thirty–four hundredths of • Were there enough space, time and
a dollar.” resources to complete planned
activities?
“Nine longs and ten shorts
makes one whole.” • Did both boys and girls have an
opportunity to be group leaders?

There is no formal recording in

this unit.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
TENTHS OF A DOLLAR
Students are asked to count various groups of one cent coins.
Students state how many hundredths of a dollar in each group. Ask
the students if they can make the same number of hundredths
using fewer coins.
Encourage students to swap groups of ten one cent coins for ten
cent coins.
Ask the students how many “tenths” of a dollar they have in each
group.
COVER THE FLAT
Ask students how many Base 10 shorts are needed to cover a flat.
Students will know that if the flat is considered one whole then the
shorts are each one hundredth.
Having discussed this, ask the students to cover the flat with longs
and ask what part of the flat each long represents. Students may
also explore the relationship between the long and the short.
Students can then model various fractions using shorts only and
then trade groups of ten shorts for a long. Students should name
the fractions they make.
Encourage the language of tenths and hundredths as students use
the materials.
Repeat the activity focusing on the part of the flat not covered.
PLACE VALUE CHART
Students can make various fractions, eg 20 hundredths, on a place
value chart using Base 10 materials.
The students can then trade each group of ten hundredths for a
tenth by swapping ten shorts for a long. Have the students give the
fraction another name using the term tenths, eg two tenths.
TRADING GAMES
Students play these games in small groups or in pairs.
Students will need Base 10 material, two dice and a place value
chart which can be used as a playing board.
WIN THE ONE
Two students take turns at rolling the dice and collecting the
number of shorts (hundredths) indicated. Every lot of ten shorts
won is swapped for a long (a tenth). The first player to collect ten
longs and trade them for a flat (one whole) is the winner.
LOSE THE ONE
In this game the students each start with a flat on their place value
board and roll the dice in turn. Students take away the number of
hundredths indicated by trading the flat for ten longs and the longs
for the number of hundredths (shorts) needed to be taken away.
The first player to lose all the material is the winner.
These games can also be played by replacing the Base 10 material
with one cent, ten cent and one dollar coins.

RESOURCES
Base 10 material, orange and white rods, place value charts, coins, dice.

270
FRACTIONS AND DECIMALS 9
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Fractions can be named using the term tenths. The student is able to
• demonstrate equivalence using hundredths and tenths
• compare and order tenths with concrete materials.
CONTENT
Decimal fractions – the concept of tenths.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Activities from Unit 8 are continued in this unit with Tenths, hundredths. Ask students to
a further focus on the notion of tenths. Recording of
“I shaded twenty–five • construct models of hundredths and
tenths in words is introduced.
hundredths, that’s two tenths represent them on grid paper
3 longs out of ten longs and five hundredths.”
• label the models of fractions using
OR “Thirty hundredths is three the term tenths
tenths.”
3 out of ten • compare and order tenths
“Fifty hundredths is five tenths,
OR • trade one cent coins for ten cent coins
that’s one half.”
in structuring fractions of a dollar.
3 tenths
“Four tenths is the same as forty
hundredths.”
EVALUATION
• When using grid paper to demonstrate fractions the
• Were all the students involved in
unshaded as well as the shaded areas should be
modelling with concrete materials?
highlighted to reinforce the idea of a whole.
• The idea of equivalence of hundredths and tenths
should be developed gradually using concrete
materials. Activities should be continued over a period
of time to consolidate the concepts.
• The idea of tenths can be related to activities from the
Measurement sub–strand. Ideas like a tenth of a
metre, a tenth of a litre can be explored.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES TEN TENTHS

MONEY Students will need to understand that there are ten tenths in one
whole and that this is equivalent to 100 hundredths. Students can
Students structure various amounts of money with one cent coins make models of fractions using Base 10 material. Ask students to
and then show the same amount with ten cent and one cent coins. name the uncovered as well as the covered parts of Base 10
1c 1c 1c 1c 1c 1c 1c 1c 1c 1c models of fractions. Encourage students to name the fractions
1c 1c 1c 1c 1c 1c 1c 1c 1c 1c using the terms tenths and hundredths. Students can shade
1c 1c 1c 1c 1c 1c 1c 1c 1c 1c
drawings of the Base 10 models of fractions and write captions
naming the shaded and unshaded parts.
10c 10c 10c 30 hundredths of a dollar
3 tenths of a dollar
ESTIMATES
Students can record the results pictorially and write a caption for Working in pairs students can play a game where one partner
their drawing. models a fraction and has the other partner guess how many tenths
and hundredths are shown by the model. The students count the
GRIDS fraction and then swap roles. Students may enjoy making rules to
Students construct models and then represent hundredths by decide a winner of the game.
colouring squares on grid paper. Students can find the equivalent
number of tenths for the models and record these on grid paper as COVER THE SQUARE
well.
Students make a 10 cm by 10 cm square. Using Base 10 shorts or
white rods students cover various fractions of the square, eg 20 shorts
covers 20 hundredths. Have the students state the fraction using the
term tenths, eg two tenths. Repeat for other fractions and encourage
the students to estimate the part of the square that is not covered.

COMPARE AND ORDER

Using Base 10 material students are asked to model and name the
tenth that is one tenth more than five tenths, between four tenths
20 hundredths are shaded two tenths are shaded and six tenths, one tenth less than one tenth, etc.

RESOURCES
Base 10 material, 10 cm by 10 cm grids, orange and white rods.

271
FRACTIONS AND DECIMALS 10
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
The Hindu–Arabic numeration system allows for The student is able to
recording fractions in the decimal form. • record tenths using the decimal form
• model whole numbers, tenths and hundredths.
CONTENT
Decimal fractions – place value.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Recording of tenths is introduced by means of a place
value chart. Remind students that whole numbers are
written to the left of the decimal point and fractions to
the right.
• Recording of less than ten hundredths will need
careful treatment. Reference should be made to
concrete materials and the place value chart to
reinforce the idea of zero as a place holder.
ones tenths hundredths
0 • 0 8
8 hundredths
Ones, tenths, hundredths, place Ask students to
value, decimal point, one point
• model tenths and hundredths
two, zero point zero three.
• write the name of the fraction
“That’s sixty–seven hundredths
modelled in the decimal form
or six tenths and seven
hundredths.” • model whole numbers, tenths and
hundredths and record these in
“There are no tenths so I’ll put
numerical form.
zero in the tenths column.”
“I coloured three tenths of the
square, so I’ll write zero point EVALUATION
three zero.”
• Did the students have the prerequisite
“The whole number is on the knowledge and skills?
left of the point and the fraction
is on the right.” • Were the activities practical enough?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
MODELLING
Give students a variety of decimal fractions, eg three and
seventeen hundredths, seven tenths, one and one tenth. Have them
demonstrate these with concrete material and write the fractions in
numerals.
MEASUREMENTS
Students can now record length measurements in the decimal
form. Students may have measured the classroom and found its
length to be 8 metres 96 centimetres. This can be recorded as 8.96
metres. Students could make a chart of various measurements
shown as both metres and centimetres and in the decimal form.

PLACE VALUE CHARTS CALCULATORS

Students use a place value chart and Base 10 material to structure Ask students to add 0.01 repeatedly using a calculator and
representations of various hundredths. comment on the place value of each digit after adding one
Demonstrate recording of the fractions in the decimal form and hundredth ten times. This can be repeated adding 0.1 each time.
have students do this. Students could also label the representations
in words and numerals. DIGIT CARD GAME
ONES TENTHS HUNDREDTHS MATERIALS
Four sets of numeral cards, 0–9.
Place value chart, one per player.
HOW TO PLAY
This game is for two to four players. Before each game begins
0 • 3 7 players decide if the biggest or smallest number wins. Each player
in turn draws a numeral card and places it on their place value
Students will need many opportunities over time to develop their chart in any column.
understandings. Use a wide variety of fractions including whole
numbers and fractions less than ten hundredths, eg 1.14, 0.09. ONES TENTHS HUNDREDTHS
When students encounter fractions with tenths only, eg three and
nine tenths, introduce recording without zero in the last column. 0 • 9 2
Similar activities can then be done using an abacus, remembering
that this is a more abstract level of material.

RESOURCES
Base 10 material, numeral cards, place value charts, calculators, abacuses, grid paper.

272
FRACTIONS AND DECIMALS 11
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Fractions may be recorded in the form , as decimal
The student is able to a
fractions and as percentages.
• write fractions in the form b
• recognise instances of percentage notation in the environment
CONTENT • write numbers as percentages.
Common fractions using the notation a/b and the
percentage sign.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• In previous units, emphasis has been given to the
language of fractions in the context of student
activities. Recording occurred using decimal notation
rather than in the form of a/b. This reflects the
importance of decimals in today’s society.
• Recording percentages (out of one hundred) is also
introduced as a form of fractional notation in this unit.
Students should be encouraged to find instances of the
percentage sign in their environment.
• The equivalence of the various forms of recording
should be highlighted during activities, eg 63 out of
100, 63 hundredths, 63 per cent, 63 %.
• When students write common fractions the line
should be horizontal.
Fraction, per cent, percentage,
discount, interest.
“There are twenty–three people
in our class. Three are away
today. I can write that as three
over twenty–three.”
“It’s forty out of one hundred.”
“That’s forty hundredths or four
tenths. It’s the same as forty per
cent.”
“I can write that as a
percentage.”
• Observe when students use the
notation a/b in surveys, reports and
other investigations they undertake.
• Ask students to cite instances of
percentages in their environment.
• Have students construct models of
hundredths and name them in as
many ways as they can, eg seventy
out of one hundred, seventy
hundredths, 70 per cent, 70 %, 7
tenths.
EVALUATION
• Did the activities relate to students’
experiences and interests?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
REPRESENTATIONS
REAL LIFE
Students work in pairs using Base 10 material to create
Students collect signs, pictures or photographs of fractions and representations of various hundredths and give these as many
percentages used in the environment. names as possible.
SALE EARN 10%
1 48 hundredths
3 OFF INTEREST
48 out of one hundred
These can be used for a class discussion and to make a display. 48/100
4 tenths and eight hundredths
SURVEYS 0.48
48 %
Ask the students to collect information about everyday situations
and record the information using a/b notation. Students can survey
how many of the total number in class play a certain sport, watch a
particular TV show, have a pet, etc.
Ask students to name the part of the flat that is not covered.
This information could be displayed in the classroom. Several of these representations can be recorded by the students,
using grid paper, and labelled appropriately.
OUR CLASS
16 2 MAKE THE PER CENT
33 walk to school 33 like homework
Using grid paper students shade squares to represent various
33
33 have TV percentages, eg 41 per cent, 78 %, etc. In each case, ask students
what percentage is unshaded.
Surveys could be made about the whole school, cars in the car
park, pages in a newspaper, etc. Students could use a computer
database program to record the information that they collect.

RESOURCES
Base 10 material, grid paper, newspapers, magazines, photographs, computer database software, signs.

273
FRACTIONS AND DECIMALS 12
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Fractions can be ordered. The student is able to
• compare, order and count tenths and hundredths
• distinguish significant and non–significant zeros.
CONTENT
Decimal fractions – ordering and recording.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• The ordering of hundredths and tenths should take
place with concrete materials as a reference.
• Continue the use of trading games to help students
with comparing and ordering hundredths.
• The question of zero as significant or not significant
will probably arise often during activities. Teachers
will need to highlight the significance of zero as a
place holder in examples such as 0.9 and 0.08.
Reference will need to be made to the use of zero in
writing fractions such as 70 hundredths (0.70) and
seven tenths (0.7).
• The term significant has special meaning when used
in this context. While it may help students to
understand the concept if this term is carefully
introduced, it is not expected that students will use the
term.
Decimal point, zero, significant,
not significant, biggest,
smallest.
“Zero point two is bigger than
zero point one one because two
tenths of the flat looks bigger
than one tenth and one
hundredth.”
“Sixty centimetres, that’s sixty
hundredths of a metre or six
tenths.”
“I can write sixty centimetres as
zero point six metres.”
Ask students to
• order three representations of
fractions from smallest to largest
• order three decimal numbers from
smallest to largest with reference to
concrete materials
• use decimal notation in recording
amounts of money and
measurements.
Observe how students write fractions in
the decimal form involving zero as a
place holder, eg 7 hundredths (0.07).
EVALUATION
• Did the organisation of the activities
allow students to show their ideas
using concrete materials?
• Did I use measurement and money
activities to consolidate fraction
concepts?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES THE ONE TABLE

ORDERING HUNDREDTHS AND TENTHS Students are given a blank grid and asked to write the numbers
counting by one hundredths from 0.01 to 1.00.
Write groups of three fractions in the decimal form showing tenths
and hundredths. Students represent these groups of decimal 0.01 0.05
fractions using Base 10 material and order them from biggest to
smallest. Include examples where zero is used as a place holder.
Students can check these using a computer sorting program. 0.25 0.26
0.41
MEASUREMENT
• Ask students to locate various lengths expressed in decimal
form on a metre stick, eg 0.45 m, 0.15 m, and 0.24 m. Have the
students order these lengths from shortest to longest.
• Ask students which is the longest of three lengths written in the
decimal form, eg 9.3 m, 0.11 m, 0.54 m. 0.88
• Extend the above activities to two metres by placing two metre 1.00
sticks together or using a measuring tape.
• Ask students to measure their heights. Record these in decimal Ask the students to look for number patterns in the table. Students
from and have the students order them from shortest to longest. might enjoy colouring these patterns on a duplicated sheet.

MONEY ORDER WRITE A QUESTION

Show the students three amounts of money and ask them to order
these from largest to smallest, eg $0.79, $1.01, $0.81.
Use either real coins or plastic replicas. Students can also be asked
to record the amounts in decimal form.
Students may enjoy making up their own problems like the ones
below for their peers to answer, eg
• “Write down any number between 1.2 and 1.3.”
• “Which is the bigger number, 0.45 or 0.5?”
• “Out of 1.29, 1.33 and 1.4, ring the number nearest 1.3.”

RESOURCES
Base 10 material, metre sticks, money, grid paper, computer sorting software.

274
FRACTIONS AND DECIMALS 13
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Problem solving may require the use of decimal
The student is able to
fractions.
• add tenths and hundredths in the decimal from
• subtract tenths and hundredths in the decimal form.
CONTENT
Decimal fractions – the operations of addition and
subtraction.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• In operations with decimals, strategies of mental
calculations, pencil and paper calculations and the use
of the calculator need to be highlighted. Students need
to develop the ability to apply the appropriate
strategy. For example, 0.7 + 0.8 should become a
mental rather than a calculator exercise.
• Estimation and rounding off skills are also important.
These need to be developed in the context of
activities.
• Activities in this unit should be linked to the Addition
and Subtraction sub–strands.
• Where possible relate the problem used to the
students’ experiences. Student generated problems
would be ideal and incidental learning opportunities
should be exploited. For example, students might be
discussing times recorded in a sports event by
students and how much better one performance was
than another.
Four point two kilometres, one
dollar and ninety–five cents,
metre, kilometre, estimate,
check.
“That’s about five dollars plus
three dollars.”
“I’ll add the dollar first, that’s
three dollars plus four dollars.
Now the cents. That’s
ninety–five and twenty–five,
which makes one dollar twenty.
Add the dollars, that’s eight
dollars and twenty cents.”
• Ask students to add and subtract
tenths and hundredths in the decimal
form
• Observe the strategies students select
to solve problems involving decimal
fractions, eg mental calculations,
pencil and paper or calculator
operations.
EVALUATION
• Were the problems used relevant to
the students?
• Did the students use a variety of
strategies to solve problems?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
STRATEGIES
Students could use problems generated by an event at school such
as a walkathon or a school camp. For example, “Tom walked 4.2
km, Ali walked 3.9 km and Van walked 4.7 km. How much do
they earn altogether if they are paid $2 a kilometre?”
Students might estimate the answer first and then select from a
variety of strategies to solve the problem depending on the
individual student’s level of development. These strategies include
using concrete materials, pencil and paper, a calculator or mental
calculations.
WINNING MARGIN
This type of problem will appeal to those students involved in
competitive sports where times are important. Students could
collect a series of times from sports events or from the newspaper
and compare either two performances or two athletes. For instance,
one swimmer might record a time of 2 min 10.5 sec. and another 2
min 15 sec. The winning margin could then be worked out.
LONG JUMP
Students might measure and compare distances in a long jump
competition. Students could compare their own performances over
time and calculate their improvement in terms of distance gained.
1m 2m 3m
CALCULATOR
Students will need to be familiar with entering decimal numbers
into a calculator to use this as an effective aid. Skills of rounding
off numbers to achieve a quick, approximate answer also help in
using a calculator effectively.
Students might wish to keep a running tally of the amount spent in
a supermarket when buying groceries for a school camp. The
amount of change can also be checked using the calculator.
CATALOGUES
Students can look through a catalogue and choose items that add
up to less than an agreed amount, eg $10. Students can record the
total cost of their chosen purchases and calculate the amount of
change they would receive.

RESOURCES
Base 10 material, grid paper, measuring tape, rulers, calculators, catalogues.

275
FRACTIONS AND DECIMALS 14
MAIN IDEA
Fraction concepts are part of our everyday world.
CONTENT
Decimal fractions – the operations of multiplication and
division.
TEACHER NOTES
• Teachers should discuss the best strategy to use to
solve particular problems, such as using a calculator
or pencil and paper. The best strategy for one student
may not be the best strategy for another student.
• Emphasise the idea that the order of operations with
division is crucial, ie 6 ÷ 10 is not the same as 10 ÷ 6.
• Students and teachers should devise real life
problems to develop skills of multiplying and dividing
with decimals. The use of the calculator will ease
much of the tedium and anxiety in these problems.
The calculator allows students to concentrate on the
operation required to produce the answer.
• It is necessary that decimals are seen by students as
being a possible result of a division operation,
eg 4 ÷ 10.
• Students can solve problems involving more difficult
computations using a calculator.
SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
OPERATIONS
Everyday problems need to be developed by the teacher and
students to highlight the multiplication and division aspects of
fractions and decimals.
Problems like the following could be used.
• A property contained a paddock which was 3.3 km long and 2
km wide. What is the area in square kilometres?
• A carpenter cut a 4 m length of wood into ten equal pieces.
How long is each piece?
1m 1m 1m 1m
Each piece is 0.4 m in length.
By modelling the problem or drawing a diagram students can
decide on the required operation. Pencil and paper computations or
the calculator can be used to determine the answer.
USING THE CALCULATOR
Students can begin to compare decimal and common fractions
using the calculator, eg 3/4 = 3 ÷ 4 = 0.75. Have students try a
number of examples and relate these to a model of the fractions.
Students might discover the relationship and begin to predict what
might happen on the calculator when, for example, one is divided
by two.
RESOURCES
Calculators, Base 10 material, computer spreadsheet software.
OBJECTIVES
The student is able to
• multiply tenths and hundredths by whole numbers up to 10
• divide tenths and hundredths by whole numbers up to 10.
LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT
Divide, multiply, one place to Ask students to
the right, factors, product.
• demonstrate understanding of the rule
“The factors have two places. that the calculator places the decimal
There are two places in the point so that the product has as many
answer.” places as the factors.
“I want to know how long each • predict the position of the decimal
piece of wood will be so I have point in a product according to its
to divide the six metres by factors
nine.”
• solve decimal and percentage
“We each have twenty–three problems in measurement and money
cents so I’ll multiply eight by using a calculator.
twenty–three.”
EVALUATION
• Did the students work in groups to
help each other solve problems?
• Did the students use a range of
strategies to solve problems?
DECIMAL POINT
Students can use the calculator to explore multiplying whole
numbers by decimal fractions. Have the students try a number of
multiplication problems, eg 0.2 x 8, 4.3 x 6, 4.51 x 3. Students
record the problem and the answers. Ask them to look for patterns
in the answers to do with the number of decimal places in the
product. Students will come to discover the number of decimal
places in the product is the same as the number in the factors. Ask
students to use this rule with pencil and paper calculations and
check the answers with the calculator.
MONEY
Students can investigate which purchases would be the best value
by comparing the cost of items sold in various quantities per unit
price. Ask students to collect supermarket advertisements and
compare the prices charged.
• Paper towels are sold in packets of six rolls for $3.60 or
packets of two for $1.40. Which is the better buy?
• Oranges are five for $2.20 or ten for $4.10. Which is the better
buy?
• Students could use a computer spreadsheet program when
comparing the price of various items.
MULTIPLES OF TEN
Students can investigate multiplying decimal fractions by 1, 10,
100 and 1 000 using a calculator.
Ask students to note the place of the decimal point in the answers.
Have students divide whole numbers by 1, 10, 100 and again note
the place of the decimal point in the answer.
276
 MONEY
SUMMARY OF OBJECTIVES

MONEY 1 MONEY 5
• classify and sort coins according to personal choice of • describe the notes in terms of colour and the pictures on them
attributes • classify, sort and group the notes according to face value
• use the term “coin” correctly • trade small notes for a note of greater value
• describe the coins informally • tender the correct amount of money in notes
• compare, match and order coins according to size, colour and • tender an appropriate note of greater value when the correct
design note is not available
• draw and write about the coins

MONEY 6
MONEY 2 • discuss the origins of money as a means of exchange
• name all Australian notes and coins • discuss the roles of people in retailing
• recognise any note or coin by size, shape and colour • organise simple retailing activities

MONEY 3 MONEY 7
• trade a number of low value coins for one coin of higher • state the uses of money
value • discuss saving and borrowing
• name, compare and order coins and amounts up to $2 • state ways money is earned
• share and group amounts up to $2 • describe credit systems and cashless transactions
• read and write amounts up to $2 in numerals and words
• relate whole number facts to money

MONEY 4
• tender the correct amount of money in coins for an item
• determine the total value, not exceeding $2, of several items
• give change up to $2
• relate value to price

277
MONEY 1
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Coins can be classified in a variety of ways. The student is able to
• classify and sort coins according to personal choice of attributes
• use the term “coin” correctly
CONTENT • describe the coins informally
• compare, match and order coins according to size, colour and design
Sorting and classifying coins.
• draw and write about the coins.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• This unit should incorporate many opportunities for
free play with money. These will usually take the
form of “playing shop” or “going shopping”. For
some students this will be a familiar experience and
they may have been responsible for handling money
in their daily lives. For others, such as students in
isolated areas, the experience of shopping may be rare
and therefore the amount of free play generated may
be limited.
• The students should be handling real coins at this
stage rather than plastic copies of coins. The mass and
feel of real coins may be an important aid for
differentiating between the coins.
• Relate this unit to early classification work in
Numeration Unit 1.
• Clues for comparing, matching and recognising coins
will come from size, shape, colour, designs and the
numerals on the coins.
Coin, like, alike, different, Ask students to
belong together, the same as, a
• use the terms “coin” and “coins”
group, in order, bigger, smaller,
round, edges, brown, silver, • describe the coins and their properties
gold, animal names, head, tail. • sort coins into groups of their own
choosing and describe the grouping
“This coin has a bumpy edge.”
“All these coins are brown.” • group coins according to size, shape
“This coin is biggest but it isn’t or colour
round.”
• describe the design of a coin.
“These two coins look exactly
the same.”
“This side has the Queen’s head EVALUATION
on it.”
• Were all students given opportunities
Encourage the students to use to express their feelings?
their own language to describe,
• Were open-ended questions used?
report, discuss and share with
others what they are doing.

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
EXPLORING COINS
Give each group of students a collection of coins covering all
denominations. Allow free play time and then conduct a class
discussion by asking questions such as “Who can tell me
something about this coin?”
Discuss the head and tail concept, the animals pictured, the shape,
the colour, the date and any other features suggested by students.
WHO AM I?
Students work in pairs. One student holds a coin out of sight of the
other student who asks questions in order to determine which coin
is hidden. Only yes or no answers are permitted and only three
questions are allowed.
A typical question would be “Is the coin gold?” After three
questions the student must attempt to name the coin being hidden.
Students then swap roles.

SORTING COINS WHAT’S MISSING?

Give each student a collection of coins to sort into groups of the
student’s choosing. Ask various students to report to the class on
the categories they chose and the number of coins they had in each
category.
Make a chart showing all the different ways of sorting that the
students are able to suggest.
FURTHER SORTING
Students work in pairs. One student places three coins in a line.
The other student looks at the coins and then turns around. The
first student then removes one coin. The other student turns around
and describes the coin that has been removed.
Increase the level of difficulty by increasing the number of coins.
COIN IMPRESSIONS
Students make rubbings or plasticine pressings of coins.

Give students a pile of coins and ask them to sort the coins into COIN ANIMALS
particular classes, eg silver coins and brown coins, 1c, 2c, 5c and
10c. Discuss the animals on the coins. If possible visit a zoo, wildlife
sanctuary or animal park.
MATCHING BOARD Find pictures, poems, songs and stories about the animals.
Ask students to match real coins with pictures of the coins on a
board or in a book.

RESOURCES
A large collection of real Australian coins, plasticine, pictures of animals, counters.

278
MONEY 2
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Each coin or note has a fixed face value. The student is able to
• name all Australian notes and coins
• recognise any note or coin by size, shape and colour.
CONTENT
The face values of the notes and coins.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Students may be more familiar with coins than with Cents, dollars, one cent, one Ask students to
notes. It is important that ample time is allowed for dollar, face value, worth,
• group coins according to face value
exploration of the features of the notes. watermark, metal thread (in
and name the group
notes).
• At this stage students are not expected to learn the
• place a group of coins in order of
relationships between the notes and coins. “The biggest silver coin is the
face value
fifty cent piece.”
• Ensure that students have had adequate experience of
“The two cent coin is bigger • give the names of Australian coins in
the first ten units of the Numeration sub-strand before
than the five cent coin but isn’t order of face value
commencing activities in Money which involve place
worth as much.” • give the names of Australian bank
value concepts.
“It is easy to tell the value of notes in order of face value.
the notes by their colours.”

EVALUATION
• Would more or less supervision by
the teacher assist learning?
• Was there an adequate supply of
notes and coins?
• Did the students enjoy the activities?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
WHICH NOTE?
WORD-COIN MATCHING
Show students real money and then have them play this game with
Make sets of cards for matching activities. One set of cards should play money.
show the various coins, a second set should show the coin values Students work in pairs. One student holds a bank note out of sight
and a third set should show the face values in words. of the partner, who has to ask at most three questions which may
be answered yes or no. After three questions, the partner must be
able to say which note is hidden.
2c 20c To increase the level of difficulty do not allow questions about
colour.

MATCHING BOARD
2c 20c The teacher sticks two rows of coins on a cardboard sheet. Each
row contains one coin of each denomination. Cover the cardboard
with clear plastic. Individual students study the chart and join the
matching coins using a felt pen. The plastic covering allows the
Two Twenty marks to be removed before another student uses the chart.

cents cents
50c 20c
These cards could be used for such games as Rummy, Snap and 10c $1
Concentration. 5c $2

MONEY BINGO
Students play Bingo using cards stamped with pictures of coins 20c 50c
and a spinner with eight sides, each showing a coin denomination. 5c 10c $2 $1
The usual rules of Bingo (Housie) apply. The first student with all
coin pictures covered is the winner.

RESOURCES
Coins and bank notes, play money, books and posters featuring notes and coins, numeral cards, coin stamps, counters, tins, jars, cartons,
plasticine, spinners.

279
MONEY 3
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Coins can be exchanged for other coins. The student is able to
• trade a number of low value coins for one coin of higher value
• name, compare and order coins and amounts up to $2
CONTENT • share and group amounts up to $2
• read and write amounts up to $2 in numerals and words
Trading amounts of up to $2 using coins.
• relate whole number facts to money.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• This unit should be studied concurrently with Money 4.
• As well as having experiences related to trading using
coins, students should also have experience in sorting,
classifying and counting. Classroom problems related
to the students’ experiences with money will provide
the most meaningful links between these activities
and money, eg shopping.
• Students should have had experience in trading using
Base 10 materials before commencing trading
activities involving money.
• Be sensitive to students’ different background
experiences with money, not all families save.
• Some students may be able to solve problems using
coins but may not be able to record the solutions
formally. Encourage students’ own recording methods
such as using coin pictures or rubbings. Formal
symbolic recording can be introduced once the
student can confidently express the necessary
understandings using a variety of other methods.
• Note that while students might be quite comfortable
using the terms “worth more than” and “worth less
than” it is unlikely that they will have a real
understanding of the value of money at this stage.
Coins, cents, one cent, two
cents, two dollars, trade, swap,
exchange, has the same value
as, is worth the same as, is
worth more than, is worth less
than, amount, total, share.
“I’ve got fifteen one cent pieces
so I can swap them for a ten
cent piece and five cent piece.”
“This twenty cent coin is worth
the same as two ten cent coins.”
“We tried to share forty one
cent coins equally amongst the
students in our class but some
people had more than others.”
Teachers should not say that a
10c coin is the same as ten 1c
coins. Use the phrase “has the
same value as”.
Ask students to
• name a coin equivalent in value to a
group of given coins
• select appropriate small coins to
exchange for a coin of higher value
• state the number of smaller value
coins equivalent to a coin of higher
value, eg “Five two cent coins are
equal in value to a ten cent coin”.
EVALUATION
• Was enough time allowed for groups
to complete activities?
• Did both girls and boys have
opportunities to be group leaders?
• Have parents been asked to help in
making games and working with
small groups?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
VALUE MATCHING
Each group has a collection of coins. One student draws two coins
randomly from the collection. The other students find as many
ways as possible to get the total value of the two coins using other
combinations of coins.
MATCHING STAMPS AND COINS
Students are given a collection of coins and some postage stamps
of various face values. Each student in the group takes a stamp and
finds coins which have the same total value as the stamp. Students
then discuss what other combinations of coins total the face value
of each stamp.

NUMERATION ACTIVITIES MEASUREMENT LINK

Students use coins in activities to develop understandings of
number patterns.
• Give each group thirty 1c coins. Ask students to arrange them
in rows of ten and discard those remaining (There will, of
course, be none remaining.) Discuss how many rows there are,
what each row could be swapped for and what the total amount
is. Repeat for different multiples of ten. Repeat for numbers
that are multiples of five. Repeat for other numbers.
• Put out twenty-five 1c coins. Ask students to arrange them in
rows of five. Discuss the number of rows, the total value of
each row and the total value of the coins.
• Repeat the above activities using 2c coins.
COINS EQUIVALENCE CHART
Make a chart using pictures of coins showing the number of lesser
value coins required to make $2.
Students compare the masses of coins which are made from the
same material. For example, two 1c coins may be placed in one
pan of an equal arm balance and one 2c coin placed in the other
pan. Discuss whether the mass of metal corresponds to the value
of the coins.
PRICE RECORDING
Students find prices of items, not exceeding $2 and create a chart
showing the name of the item, a picture of the item, the price in
numerals, the price in words and pictures of the coins required to
buy the item.
MAKE A DOLLAR
This is a game in which students roll two dice and collect from a
“bank” an amount in cents equal to the total of the dice, eg if the
student throws 5 and 2 they receive 7c in one cent coins.
As the game progresses they trade 1c coins for 2c coins, 5c coins
and so on. The winner of the game is the first player to have a
dollar coin.

RESOURCES
Coins, cardboard, coin stamps, dice, clear plastic, postage stamps, Base 10 material, tins, boxes, equal arm balance.

280
MONEY 4
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Money may be used as a means of purchasing goods. The student is able to
• tender the correct amount of money in coins for an item
• determine the total value, not exceeding $2, of several items
CONTENT • give change up to $2
• relate value to price.
The class shop.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• This unit should be studied concurrently with Money Worth, value, price, price-tag, Ask students to
3. buy, bought, cost, sell, sale,
• tender the correct amount for a given
sold, shop-keeper, shop
• Many other curriculum areas can be integrated into item
assistant, customer, stock,
the setting up of a class shop. These include making
goods, token, pay, cheap, • tender one coin that is enough to
items for stock in Craft or writing short novels in
expensive, total, bill, docket, cover the price of an item
Process Writing.
change, quality. • give correct change when one coin is
• The prices of items in the shop and the level of
“Your bill adds up to two tendered
operations being carried out by the students will
dollars.” • estimate the total price of several
depend on their levels of understanding. All students
“Here is your change.” items
should be given the opportunity of participating in all
activities associated with the shop over a period of “Ninety-five cents for chewing • calculate the total price of several
time. Many students are very confident and able to gum is too expensive.” items
carry out quite sophisticated operations related to
“This toy is not worth what I • comment on the value for money of
money. The same students may not be able to carry
paid for it; it broke.” familiar items for sale in the class
out these operations using pencil and paper.
shop.
• Real shops usually have cash registers to assist staff
so calculators in the class shop are quite appropriate.
• Investigation of the many strategies used by shop EVALUATION
assistants to calculate total prices and change could • Was the space in the classroom or
prove useful and interesting to students. For instance, surrounding areas used appropriately?
there are quick ways for adding prices ending in 99c.
• Were parents invited to become
Investigate the method of counting out change by
involved by supplying materials or
counting on from the price to the amount tendered.
helping in class?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
CLASS SHOPS
Many different types of shops can be replicated in the classroom.
Many of them can be stocked with items made in class, thus
creating a link between Mathematics and other curriculum areas.
Initial shopping could be conducted within the class with all
money being returned at the end, but later students could be
involved in running a stall at a fete or handling small amounts of
money in other real shopping situations. Discussion of value
should include sentimental, utility and historical value as well as
monetary value.
Each shop could have two shopkeepers. Having several shops
running simultaneously ensures that student shoppers do not have
to wait for a long time to be served. Shopkeepers’ duties include
counting the money in the till and recording the amount before
opening the shop. This must be done again at the end of trading.
As a check that the correct money is being taken, items should
have price tags which are kept by the shopkeeper. Students may
total the price tags to see if this matches the cash taken.
Some suitable shops include
• art gallery, stocked with students’ art work and craft items
• bookshop, stocked with students’ own writing or old books
• boutique, stocked with dolls’ clothes and accessories
• cake shop
• toy shop
• milk bar.
Any shop may be imitated in class using old packets.
Other activities which are involved in running shops include
• pricing of goods
• weighing
• measuring
• stacking
• packaging
• writing price tags
• dealing pleasantly with complaints
• communicating effectively with customers.
CATCH A BUS
Students arrange chairs to simulate a bus. They make tickets of
various prices and have a collection of coins in a money bag. As
“passengers” enter the bus, they offer the “driver” money to pay
for a certain value ticket and receive change. Further activities
involving travel would follow, providing a link with other
curriculum areas.
As an alternative to a bus ride, entry to a cinema could be
simulated when the class is to see some slides, a film or a video.
Each group could present themselves to a “cashier” and ask for a
certain number of adult and child tickets. The cashier would be
responsible for adding up the prices and giving change. Use of a
calculator would be essential for young students.
This type of activity could be repeated for other events such as
sport to allow all students to act at least once as money collector.

RESOURCES
Coins, purse, till, shopping bags, wrapping paper, equal arm balance, kitchen scales, items suitable as shop goods, calculators, computer
simulations of shops and small businesses.

281
MONEY 5
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
The student is able to
Larger amounts of money are represented by paper notes. • describe the notes in terms of colour and the pictures on them
• classify, sort and group the notes according to face value
• trade small notes for a note of greater value
CONTENT • tender the correct amount of money in notes
• tender an appropriate note of greater value when the correct note is not
The notes $5, $10, $20, $50, $100.
available.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Students may be more familiar with coins than with Dollar, note, value, worth, Ask students to
notes. It is important to allow them ample time for match, more, less, serial
• sort notes into groups according to
exploring the properties of the notes. number, sequence, metallic
face value
thread, counterfeit, design,
• At this stage the use of notes is restricted to whole
pattern, picture, denomination, • find the total value of notes in a
dollar amounts. Link with Unit 7 in the Fractions and
water mark, currency. random selection
Decimals substrand before introducing money
amounts involving dollars and cents. “The twenty dollar note is • find the total value of a group of $5
orange.” notes by counting in fives
• Some students may have had experience using other
currencies. This experience can be a great stimulus for “My aunty said there used to be • select the appropriate notes to total
discussion and displays. a one dollar note.” the price of a given item
“A ten dollar note is worth the • tender an appropriate amount to at
• The value of bank notes precludes the distribution of
same as two five dollar notes.” least cover the price of a given item.
real notes in class. Copying of notes is forbidden by
“Each note is a different size as
law. Play money or Monopoly money could be used
well as a different colour.”
once students have inspected real notes. A class
designed set of notes could be duplicated on coloured EVALUATION
paper.
• Would more or less teacher
supervision aid learning?

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
NOTES AS HISTORY
• Ask students to find out and report to the class about the
people who appear on the various bank notes. Link with Social
Studies. Ask students to suggest the names of people who
would be suitable for inclusion on a future $200 note.
• Ask students to find out about coins and notes from the past,
such as the $1 and $2 notes, pounds, shillings and pence.
Discuss the hobby of coin collecting and encourage students to
bring old notes and coins for Class News.
• Ask students to find out about early Australian systems of
currency and report to the class. Ask students to bring in notes
and coins from other countries.
MAKE A FIVE
Students roll two dice and multiply the numbers shown. This
number of cents is then taken by the student from a “bank” using
the smallest number of coins possible. The game continues in
rotation. The winner is the first player to reach five dollars.
This game may be altered to require players to reach a different
total.
BREAK A FIVE
Each player begins with $5. Each player rolls two dice and
multiplies the numbers shown. The result gives the number of
cents that the player must give to the “bank”. The game continues
in rotation until one player has no money left.

DESIGN A NOTE
SERIAL NUMBERS
• Ask each group of students to design a set of bank notes to be
Ask students to investigate the serial numbers on various
used in class. Conduct a class discussion to decide which ones
denominations. Can the same number appear on a $10 and a $5
are to be duplicated.
note? How many $10 notes have been produced since 1966? How
• Visit the Mint or a local bank. Discuss the reason for having many $10 notes are there in circulation at the moment?
notes rather than coins. Discuss the measures taken to avoid
counterfeit currency being produced.
PROBLEM SOLVING
• Discuss the history of the names “dollar” and “cent”, and other
Devise problems relating to the dimensions of coins and notes, eg
names (the Royal, the Roo) that were proposed.
“If I had one million dollars in $5 notes laid end to end how far
would they stretch?”

RESOURCES
Real and play money, dice.

282
MONEY 6
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Money as a means of purchasing goods and services. The student is able to
• discuss the origins of money as a means of exchange
• discuss the roles of people in retailing
CONTENT • organise simple retailing activities.
The concept of currency.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Students should visit as many different shops as Retail, wholesale, register, Ask students to
possible and use these visits to focus on a particular menu, docket, bill, invoice,
• explain the steps they would take in
task. For example, they may focus on the types of catalogue, calculate, goods,
organising a class barbecue
measuring devices used in shops. Other visits may be delivery, worth, value, price,
related to a class activity such as preparing for a price tag, buy, bought, costs, • explain why money is more
student/parent barbecue. The shopping trip should sell, sale, sold, shop, convenient than direct exchange
occur after class discussion about the items that need shopkeeper, shop assistant, • explain the roles of various people in
to be purchased, where they are cheapest and so on. customer, stock, pay, cheap, retailing.
expensive, total, measure,
• It is important that activities selected be real and
display, barter, currency, the
purposeful, involving students in planning and
names of shops in the
discussing real problems and events. EVALUATION
community, profit, loss.
• This unit provides many opportunities for involving • Were parents with experience in
“We decided that the market
parents and other community members, particularly retailing involved in working with
was the best place to buy
those who work in retailing, in working with students. students?
drinks. The prices are much
• This unit provides a means of investigating the uses of lower there.” • Were activities closely related in the
mathematical skills and processes in a real life “The new supermarket has students’ actual experiences?
industry. Students can investigate the use of graphs, checkouts that read bar codes.”
predicting and monitoring sales, calculations, ordering “There are fifty-two shops in
materials, organising deliveries, measuring quantities, town. Some sell the same things
planning displays and storing stock. and compete for customers.”
“Ming Lie’s mum orders the
vegetables each day for the
restaurant.”

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
HISTORY OF MONEY – RESEARCH ACTIVITIES
• Ask students to consider a society without currency in which
goods and services had to be directly exchanged. Ask students
to write stories, poems or plays which feature the problems that
would be encountered.
• Set research assignments on the history of currency. For
example, suggest that students find out
– when the first coins appeared
– where paper money originated
– who issued early coinage
– what materials have been used for coins
– what currency was used in colonial Australia
– what aboriginal Australians used in their tribal society
– when Australia first minted its own currency
– what system was used before decimal currency.
SHOPS IN THE COMMUNITY
Investigate the variety of shops in the local community, noting the
goods sold in each. Visit local shops to purchase items for class
activities.
ADVERTISING
Investigate menus, catalogues and price lists to compare the prices
in one shop with those in another. Ask students to explain why the
prices are very similar from one shop to another for some goods
but vary greatly in other cases. Consider how a retailer decides
what price to ask for goods and the results of overpricing and
underpricing.
PEOPLE IN SHOPS
Ask students to suggest ways of finding out more about the roles
of people in retailing. Encourage students to think about the less
obvious jobs such as ticket writing, transport, packing, etc.
VALUE AND MONEY
Ask students how they could decide whether or not goods
represented good value for money. Further questions might focus
on container sizes, buying in bulk, shopsoiled goods, waiting to
buy at the best time, generic brands, quality, service support and
guarantees. Students can use computer spreadsheet programs when
they are investigating “good value”.

CLASS PARTY PROFIT AND LOSS

Ask students to plan in groups for a class party, considering the
amount of money to be spent, the quantities needed, the shops
where the things can be purchased and the people who are to be
responsible for the buying. Compare group plans and combine to
form a class plan.
In association with running a class shop or a stall at a school fete,
ask students to consider what constitutes a reasonable profit.
Investigate the profit margins in various retail establishments.
Explain the relationship between cost, profit, loss and selling price.

RESOURCES
Menus, bills, dockets, invoices, price lists, catalogues, advertising handbills, newspapers, magazines, cash registers, adding machines,
telephones, calculators, computer spreadsheet software.

283
MONEY 7
MAIN IDEA OBJECTIVES
Investigating the role of money in society. The student is able to
• state the uses of money
• discuss saving and borrowing
CONTENT • state ways money is earned
• describe credit systems and cashless transactions.
The monetary system.

TEACHER NOTES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

• Many of the ideas covered in this unit will arise Money, cash, trade, swap, Ask students to
incidentally during classroom activities and may not exchange, earn, spend, buy,
• describe how a savings bank operates
require a long or formal treatment. Student interest charge, bank, banking, save,
and experience will be a useful guide for determining lend, borrow, free, cost, pay, • discuss employment and wages
the appropriate teaching method. coins, wage, salary, credit, • describe the way credit card systems
interest, owe. operate.
• Students’ experiences of money and the financial
status of families may vary greatly. Students should “We don’t pay cash every time
be encouraged to be sensitive to the differences or we go to the shop. Mum pays
difficulties that may become apparent during group or the account on pay day.” EVALUATION
class discussions. Avoid holding discussions which “Sometimes I’m allowed to
may lead inadvertently to disclosure of the personal spend the change.” • Were the activities practical?
financial dealings of a student’s family. “We have a bank card so we • Would more or less teacher
don’t need to carry so much intervention have aided understanding
• Attitudes to money vary enormously within the
cash.” and group processes?
community and teachers as well as students may have
“Dad has a plastic card that
conflicting values. For example, not all families place
works a machine at the bank.
importance on saving or have the ability to do so.
He can get money at night when
• Some activities link naturally with work in the bank isn’t even open.”
percentages. (See Fractions and Decimals.) “When my sister works on
• Operations with money should be consolidated. Saturday she gets paid
overtime.”
“The School Bank paid me
some interest in June.”

SAMPLE ACTIVITIES
FINANCE IN THE COMMUNITY
• Ask students to research the role of banks, building societies,
credit companies, pawn brokers and credit unions.
• Ask students to find out about the various credit cards which
are available. Ask them to suggest the features to be compared,
eg interest charges, convenience of use, credit limit.
• Investigate the cashless financial system including credit cards,
personal cheques, bank cheques, postal notes and money
orders. Ask students to compare these and select the most
appropriate for a given payment. Consider the advantages and
disadvantages of paying by cash.
EARNING MONEY
• Ask students to produce a list of ways that people have of
earning money, eg salaried work, part-time work, interest on
investments, speculations.
• Ask students to estimate what salaries various jobs in the
community attract. Compare with real average figures,
available from the Department of Statistics. Students could
create a computer database to store this information and add it
to as they gather more information.
EXCHANGE RATES
• Discuss the relationship between the world’s major currencies.
Students who have travelled overseas may be able to tell the
class about changing Australian money for another country’s
cash and vice versa. Students can use a computer spreadsheet
program to perform currency conversions.
• Keep a chart showing the value of the Australian dollar in
terms of major world currencies over a few weeks. Individual
students could be assigned to watch a particular currency in the
newspaper each day.
SHARE MARKET SPECULATION
Each student chooses the shares of a particular company and notes
the value of the shares each day as reported in the newspaper.
Discuss speculation as a reliable way of earning money.
MEDIA MONEY
Discuss the way retail prices are written, eg $2.99, $1 995. Ask
students to suggest why prices are so often fixed at such unlikely
amounts.
MONEY PROBLEMS
Ask students to consider problems based on the use of money in
everyday life, eg “how many golf balls at $2.35 each could I buy
with $20 and how much change would I get?” Such problems
could be approached through a variety of methods which could
incorporate the use of calculators.

RESOURCES
Publications from banks, the Reserve Bank and other financial institutions, pay slips, advertisements showing interest rates, computer
database and spreadsheet software, calculators.

284
 SUPPORT
STATEMENTS
PROGRAMMING
INTRODUCTION
Many factors influence teachers’ initial decisions when developing a mathematics program. By
considering a wide range of factors (as shown in the table below), provision is made for variety, balance
and sequence in the planned learning experiences. Such considerations assist in providing an overall
view of what is to be achieved and how best to achieve it.

MATHEMATICS
K–6 SYLLABUS

Mandatory Departmental School Mathematics Policy

documents

MATHEMATICS Current teacher

Community expectations
reference material
PROGRAM

Available resources:
Attitudes, needs and
human, material and
abilities of students
environmental

Teacher’s own attitudes,

knowledge and expectations
in relation to mathematics
teaching and learning

Influences on the development of a mathematics program

286
Programming is an ongoing process through which teachers are able to refine their planning strategies
and develop suitable recording techniques.
By adopting a variety of strategies and a flexible attitude, over time particular ways of recording
classroom organisation, evaluation and so on will emerge as being appropriate to the specialised
requirements of the
• strands of mathematics developed
• individual teaching styles adopted
• students for whom they are intended
• teachers’ understanding of the mathematical processes involved.

HOW DO I START?
GENERAL PLANNING
The purpose of general planning is to give direction to programs of work and to provide a foundation
upon which more detailed, specific activities can be based. Initially, teachers should make a general
assessment of the mathematical needs of individuals or groups of students. The syllabus and the school
evaluation policy should be consulted for guidance on assessment strategies. Careful observation of
students as they undertake mathematical tasks will also assist in determining the approaches to be
followed. An assessment procedure that covers a wide range of aspects of mathematical learning will
serve as a screening device for sorting students into groups and/or determining the extent of
understanding reached.
General plans may include class aims and objectives for mathematics and/or an outline of the
sub-strands which are suitable to the general student needs. The organisational structures which will
operate over the whole year, a number of terms or one term should be decided upon, eg the ways in
which students are to be grouped, access to concrete materials and other resources, participation of
parents in the classroom, as these will influence programming procedures. Such decisions should be
carefully documented as they form a framework which will guide program development. However, it
is always important to maintain flexible structures which can be altered as a result of changing student
needs.
There are many questions which teachers ask in order to make informed decisions about the
mathematical learning experiences in which students will participate. It is important that teachers’
generalised plans should provide for both a wide range of student abilities and interests and a variety
of teaching approaches.
The learning experiences which are effective with one group or individual will not necessarily suit the
requirements of another group or individual. Teachers should consult with the community in order to
make informed decisions about suitable learning experiences. The different rates at which students
develop mathematical ideas will require some students to work on different activities from others,
according to individual needs. By providing activities which cater for these needs, teachers are able to
individualise mathematics programs so that students are interested, motivated and stimulated by
relevant, meaningful and enjoyable mathematical experiences.

287
 How can I organise my
class most effectively?
eg Whole class, pairs, groups.

Which resources are How can activities be

available and appropriate evaluated effectively?
to the needs of students?

Which approaches are

Which approaches
best suited to the
could be used?
specific task?

PROGRAMMED Which approaches

Which factors affect MATHEMATICAL best reflect the way
students involvement? EXPERIENCES students learn?

Have students been With whom can

encouraged to suggest alternative ideas
activities and experiences? be discussed?

What problems What applications

may be investigated? Should all students are possible?
approach this in
the same way?

Questions which assist in organising mathematical experiences

PLANNING APPROACHES
The ways in which teachers approach general planning may be affected by individual preferences and
school organisation.
• Some teachers may choose to work with another colleague (someone from the same grade, a
different grade, ESL teachers, community language teachers, ethnic aides, Aboriginal
educational assistants or an executive member of staff) to discuss and clarify their ideas.
Similarly, some teachers may choose to work with a number of colleagues from the same grade
to pool ideas and formulate general grade plans.
• In team teaching situations, teachers may work together initially, on general plans, then each take
responsibility for developing specific activities for particular aspects of mathematics and for
particular groups of students.
• In schools where mathematics groups operate, a number of colleagues may discuss general plans
together, then each teacher takes responsibility for the organisation of activities for one group of
students.
• Some teachers may prefer to plan for mathematics in an individual way and may discuss
organisational procedures and mathematics activities with their colleagues at grade and staff
meetings or in other contexts.

288
TERM PLANNER
A “Term Planner” is a useful way of providing an overview of what is to be taught in a defined period
of time. The Term Planner may take the form of a wall chart or desktop chart to which both teacher and
students contribute ideas. Sample program 3(a), in the following section of this document provides a
suitable format. The teacher should record details of the objectives and activities which will be explored
within the three strands of mathematics, ensuring a balance of learning experiences in the areas of
Space, Measurement and Number. Additional activities which are negotiated between the teacher and
students should be added to the chart. Its purpose is to provide at a glance direction to the teacher and
students .

SPECIFIC PLANNING
Specific planning should provide a detailed program of how the strands and sub-strands of mathematics
are to be investigated during a specified period of time, eg a ten week term, five weeks, a month, one
week. The teacher’s program should document details of the main ideas, objectives and activities in
which students will be involved. It is the teacher’s guide for daily activities and should be evaluated in
terms of its effectiveness in assisting students to achieve the desired outcomes. This program of
learning experiences should come full circle, beginning with an initial evaluation of student needs and
ending with an evaluation of student outcomes.

PLANNING OUTCOMES
The planning processes involved in organising mathematical learning experiences benefit teachers and
students when activities are initially negotiated, then discussed and finally evaluated. Negotiating may
involve a number of people in a mathematics conference session. In schools, the personnel most likely
to be involved are the whole staff, grade teachers, teacher librarians, students, parents, ESL teachers,
school counsellors, community language teachers and the class teacher. This process enables teachers
to
• clarify their mathematical thinking • give purpose and direction to programs of work
• organise activity time effectively • plan, prepare and present a variety of activities
• assess effectiveness of programs • evaluate student progress
• provide a record of learning experiences • create a resource for themselves and others.

WHAT PROGRAMMING FORMAT SHOULD I USE?

The program formats which follow, demonstrate how ideas from the units (and other resources) can be
translated into what is to be taught and how it will be taught. Each format is accompanied by an
example of how it could be interpreted for a mathematics program.
A structured framework, such as that provided by a well designed program format, helps to organise
mathematical experiences and provide for sequential learning, variety of activities, appropriate group
work and balance within the three strands. The “best” program format to use is one which suits the
needs of the teacher, the students and the unit(s) of work in which they will be involved. It is intended
that the program formats be used as a starting point, to be modified and changed until “tailor-made”
samples are developed.
Some of the completed sample programs include objectives, activities, language, resource lists and
assessment strategies taken directly from the units of work in the Mathematics K–6 Syllabus while
others are a combination of ideas collected from a wide variety of sources. To assist students in
achieving the stated objectives, teachers are encouraged to supplement the sample activities in each unit
with a variety of activities from other sources.

289
Three possible ways of documenting mathematical learning experiences have been identified
• A skills/activity approach
• A process/problem solving approach
• A thematic approach.
The program formats are only part of the teacher’s mathematics program. The formats are convenient
ways of organising the learning experiences of the students as suggested in the Teaching Learning units.
The total program should include aims, objectives, rationale, learning experiences and assessment and
evaluation procedures, both student and program (refer Assessment and Evaluation section of this
document).

1. A SKILLS/ACTIVITY APPROACH
This approach closely reflects the presentation of the units of work in this syllabus. It emphasises the
links which exist between objectives, activities and assessment and it reinforces the cyclical nature of
learning, where end points become starting points for new understandings. The three program formats
each aim to assist planning in different ways; l(a) has an emphasis on balancing activities across the
three strands of mathematics, l(b) provides for detailed planning within one sub-strand only, and 1(c)
is designed to assist in planning activities for three groups of students at different levels of
understanding.

2. PROCESS/PROBLEM SOLVING APPROACH

This approach is largely based on the units of work in this syllabus. It strongly emphasises the
importance of students developing process skills, eg sorting, classifying, predicting. Teachers may
initially select the main idea and objectives from a unit of work, then list a number of process skills in
which the students need to develop expertise. The selected process skills will determine the types of
activities and assessment strategies which are introduced. Alternatively, teachers may elect to begin by
selecting activities which support the objectives and then identify the process skills involved. In this
way, teachers are able to plan a program of experiences which requires students to develop a diverse
range of process skills. Format 2 is an example of a process/problem solving approach to programming.

3. THEMATIC APPROACH
This approach provides the teacher with a wide variety of options. Thematic plans are flexible and open
to interpretation in a number of ways. The formats are suitable for general planning and will require
additional week-by-week or day-by-day analysis to provide adequately for implementation in the
classroom. The formats could also be useful in planning one day mathematics themes. These thematic
plans do not provide teachers with ways in which to check on the balance of activities within the three
strands of mathematics, nor do they provide details of group work or assessment strategies. Other
structures should be formulated to keep records of these aspects of the class mathematics program.
Format 3(a) could be used to record teacher comments on an individual student’s progress and
achievement in each of the three strands of mathematics. In this way it becomes a Personal
Mathematics File on which to record specific details, eg outcomes of student-teacher conference
sessions, strengths and weaknesses, special interests, group skills. Format 3(b) involves a thematic,
across curriculum approach to programming. Format 3(c) is similar to 3(a), again thematic and
organised around the three strands of Space, Measurement and Number.

290
 1(a). Skills/activity approach to programming DURATION: __________________

SUB-STRAND/OBJECTIVES ACTIVITIES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

Sub-strand:________________
The student is able to:

NUMBER
MEASUREMENT
Sub-strand:________________
The student is able to:
291

Sub-strand:________________
The student is able to:

SPACE
Resources:
 1(a). Skills/activity approach to programming
SUB-STRAND/OBJECTIVES
Sub-strand:________________
The student is able to:
Length 5
Sub-strand:________________
The student is able to:
292
• order a group of three objects
according to length using direct
and indirect comparison
• order the distances between three
objects
Sub-strand:________________
The student is able to:
Resources:
DURATION: __________________
ACTIVITIES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT
NUMBER
• Students work in threes and arrange themselves in order from Longest, shortest, widest, • Students estimate, compare and
MEASUREMENT
tallest to shortest. Sit on chairs and see if height order can still arrange, order, graph, first, order three objects according to
be ascertained. Discuss. second, third, last, the their lengths, eg a shoe, a book and
• Students select three objects for their partner to order by length, same. a stick.
eg pen, pencil, straw.
• Cut lengths of string to match the perimeters of three
rectangular objects in the classroom. Arrange the strings in Spend time reinforcing • Students make statements about
order, making a graph. Repeat for circumferences of three names of body parts with their findings. Make a pictorial
cylindrical objects. ESL students. display of the results to pin on
• Cut lengths of string to match distance around ankle, waist, bulletin board.
head, thigh. Place in order.
SPACE
 1(b). Skills/activity approach to programming DURATION: __________________

SUB-STRAND/OBJECTIVES ACTIVITIES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

Sub-strand: _____________
The student is able to:
293

Resources:
 1(b). Skills/activity approach to programming DURATION: WEEK 1

SUB-STRAND/OBJECTIVES ACTIVITIES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

Area 1
Sub-strand:________________
The student is able to:

• describe surfaces of
familiar objects by
looking and touching
• cover surfaces using a
variety of flat objects
• cover the surfaces of
objects with other
objects (Space 2D 2)
294
Touch It – touch and describe a variety of Gaps, no gaps, cover,
surfaces in the school environment. fits, does not fit, on top,
Have a blindfold trail in the classroom – smooth, rough, soft,
students work in pairs to set up a small rail for hard, round, edge,
another pair to experience. curved, points, side,
surface, overlap, next to
Feely Bag – select a student to bring in an
each other.
interesting object to put into the bag.
Change the object each day. Students feel it and Use vocabulary in all
try to guess what it is. appropriate situations.
Encourage students to
• Ask students to describe different
types of surfaces, eg windows,
asphalt, carpet, skin.
• Have students cover the outside of
solid objects, eg papier-mache
bottles, boxes and tins. Ask them to
describe what they have done. Make
a note of the use of vocabulary and
language structures on Personal
Mathematics Files. How well was

Just One Shape – students work in groups to

describe surfaces in a each object completely covered?
cover large sheets of art paper and cardboard with
variety of ways.
one type of shape. • Observe students working and listen
Group 1 – margarine lids Place Minh and Thanh in for language used in informal
Group 2 – juice containers groups with Justin and situations.
Group 3 – popsticks Alex to encourage
Group 4 – playing cards interaction.
Group 5 – Multilink cubes
Can the surface be covered without overlap, gaps
or shapes hanging over the edge?
Discuss activity. Rotate groups.
Brogs and Glonks – see Unit 1 in Area for this
activity.

Resources: Papier-mache scrap paper, glue, bottles, boxes, tins, leaves, twigs, coloured paper, popsticks, empty juice containers, playing cards, Multilink cubes.
 1(c). Skills/activity approach to programming DURATION: _______________________

SUB-STRAND/OBJECTIVES ACTIVITIES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

Sub-strand:________________
The student is able to:

GROUP 3
Sub-strand:________________
The student is able to:

GROUP 2
295

Sub-strand:________________
The student is able to:

GROUP 1
Resources:
 1(c). Skills/activity approach to programming DURATION: ________________________

SUB-STRAND/OBJECTIVES ACTIVITIES LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT

Graphs 3
Sub-strand:________________
The student is able to: “Traffic Survey” activity and “Favourites” activity More than, the same as, the Ask students to construct column

GROUP 3
from Graphs 3. Parents will assist in supervising same number as, less than, graphs based on a survey of their
• compare groups represented by
students outside the school grounds. Students have equal to, different from, choice and discuss their findings.
tally marks.
been asked to bring in their favourite toys for the least popular, most popular,
“Favourites” activity. sort, symbols, category,
tally, arrangements.

Graphs 4
Sub-strand:________________ “Playground Games” activities from Graphs 4. Least popular, most Ask students to predict the size of
The student is able to: Students will play their favourite games as a whole popular, sort, category, groups of people in the class in

GROUP 2
predict, bar graph, column different categories and record results
296

class activity.
• construct and interpret column graph, key, arrangements. of a survey using tally marks.
graphs.

Graphs 4
Sub-strand:________________ “Probability” activities from Graphs 4. As for Group 2. As for Group 2.
The student is able to:

GROUP 1
• construct and interporet column
graphs.

Note: Link work on graphs to Weather Unit in

Science and Social Studies.

Resources: Dice, headless matches, grid paper, coloured pencils, students’ toys, games equipment.
 2. Process/problem solving approach to programming DURATION: ______________________

OBJECTIVES ACTIVITIES ASSESSMENT

PROCESSES

GROUPING
MAIN IDEA
297

LANGUAGE

RESOURCES
 2. Process/problem solving approach to programming DURATION: ______________________

OBJECTIVES ACTIVITIES PROCESSES ASSESSMENT

• Explore and describe faces, edges and corners of 3D objects. • Free play with material. • Teacher observation:
language, degree of
• Classify 3D objects according to flat/curved faces hollow/solid shape. • Classify 3D objects Exploring involvement in activity,
– record a written sentence to display group interaction.
• Recognise 3D shapes from drawings and photographs and represent them with objects.
through artwork. Classifying • Written sentences and
• Sort objects within categories examples of recordings.
• Investigate ways of telling natural and manufactured objects apart. – how many ways?
– solid, hollow? • Oral explanations eg “I
Sorting put these together
• Ordering material, eg smallest to because …”
largest.
GROUPING Ordering • Observation of ordered
• Counting total objects objects.
• social MAIN IDEA – in groups, edges, faces.
298

Natural and manufactured objects • Oral counting.

• needs • Use own language to describe shape, Counting Comparing.
have shape and structure in three
dimensions. similarities and differences.
• Objects in a bag.
LANGUAGE How can you tell the difference • Stack and pack objects then predict Describing Describe after touching.
between natural and manufactured what the container would hold.
Solid, flat, face, edge, corner, objects? Solids? Liquids? • Write predictions.
curved, order, large, small, Predicting/
round, rectangle, sharp, • Pair/group students to talk about their Estimating • Oral/group presentations.
pointed, natural, artificial, objects(s) and compare their
stone tool. objects(s) to other objects. • Written stories.
• Write about an object. Talking/ Recording/
Using the language of Reporting Drawing • Written explanations of
comparison and sorting. • Listen to teacher or visitor describe choices made between
the differences between stone tools natural and artificial.
and natural stones. Pick out the tools Inferring/Using
from the stones. Explain your Evidence
• Models and pictures.
RESOURCES choices. Problem solving
Problem strategies.
Containers, boxes, off-cuts, lids, jars, bottles, dice, Base 10 materials, wooden • Make a model of/draw an object.
Solving
and plastic blocks, playgrounds, photographs, Museum in a Box (Australian Predict if it will be the same as the
Museum). original object. Test predictions.
 3(a). Thematic approach to programming

THEME DURATION:

SPACE MEASUREMENT NUMBER

299
 3(a). Thematic approach to programming
THEME How Can We Collect and Use Information About Weather?
SPACE
2D and 3 D representation
Observe and discuss cloud shapes by sketching clouds
on different days over a two week period, and
comparing and contrasting the different types observed.
Discuss why and how clouds are shaped differently. For
example, does a cloud’s shape relate to its
function/effect? How?
Position
Weather maps are a 2-D representation of a 3-D
phenomenon. Discuss how cloud mass is represented on
300
weather maps and how it appears in reality. Refer to
satellite weather pictures on TV. Discuss the meaning of
the phrase “bird’s eye view” and practise drawing
familiar situations/objects from this perspective, eg
“bird’s eye view” of your house, bicycle, desk.
Discuss the difficulties this raises for cartographers,
meterorologists, air traffic controllers, etc.
Radar screens – what they represent and how they
represent it. How is weather represented on radar
screens?
Graphs
Compare the amount(s) of rainfall collected
• on different days
• from week to week
• from hour to hour
Show this information in graph form.
MEASUREMENT
Volume, Length
Collect rainfall in containers of various sizes to find
how much rain fell in a day, an hour, etc.
Students devise their own methods of measuring rainfall
collected.
Compare and contrast amounts collected in the different
containers. Discuss possible ways of measuring rainfall
accurately, eg depth gauges, graduated measuring
containers, and the importance of a standardised
measurement of volume in experiments.
Temperature, Time
Groups devise their own experiments/activities
involving measuring investigations with wind speed,
humidity, barometric pressure, temperature, etc.
Investigate the difference in evaporation rates when a
measured volume of water (eg 100 mL)
is left for a set period of time (eg four hours),
then measured again and the difference calculated.
Investigate water evaporation on
– hot days, cool days, overcast days, windy days, sunny
days, etc.
Students develop their own hypotheses in relation to
evaporation rates in a variety of conditions.
DURATION: 5 weeks
NUMBER
Subtraction, Addition
Compare rainfall data collected from magazines,
encyclopaedias, newspapers etc, to find
– the differences in annual rainfall between capital cities
in Australia
– the comparison/contrast between yearly rainfall in
arid/humid areas of the world.
Division, Addition
Use rainfall data to find average monthly/yearly
amounts for specific cities.
Approximate yearly rainfall from daily rainfall rates.
Calculator Activities
Estimate, then calculate, how long it rained in hours,
minutes and seconds. Use calculators to assist in
calculations when appropriate. Calculate rainfull in
mm/minute.
3(b). Thematic approach to programming DURATION:

LANGUAGE Year SOCIAL

STUDIES

MUSIC

VISUAL ARTS SCIENCE

HEALTH STUDIES

301
3(b). Thematic approach to programming (example)
Activities in this plan are from a number of TIME units
LANGUAGE
Use “The Earth is a
Sundial”, a book by
Mitsumasa Anno, as a basis
for literature/language
activities which involve an
understanding of the
mathematical concepts
related to time, space and
distance.
Students decide on a
number of “Talkie Topics”,
eg favourite sport/hobby,
my pet, holidays. Individual
students then speak to a
small group for one minute
on this topic without
stopping or changing the
topic.
VISUAL ARTS
Activities to explore the
theme: “When Time Frames
Alter” – move in slow
motion/ff/ normal speed in
doing everyday activities.
Make video tape of normal
speed activities then show
them on ff to explore the
differences that time makes.
Painting/drawing at different
times of the day to explore
the effect of shadows and
light on dimensions.
Look at examples of Monet’s
work which illustrate the
difference that light can make
in terms of the perspective in
2-D representations, eg
London Bridge paintings.
This is an overview of a thematically based unit which would require week-by-week or day-by-day analysis in
order to provide adequately for implementation in the classroom.
Year 4
MUSIC
Practical activities which
develop concepts related to
tempo and time signature.
Group percussion activities
involving sequencing a
rhythm which the student
has devised to fit in whith
rhythms devised by other
students.
Body percussion/clapping
in time to music.
TIME
HEALTH STUDIES
Students make graphs to
represent the time spent each
day on routine activities – to
develop understandings of
parts of a day.
Experiment with different types
of graphs to find the most
appropriate representation of
the data, eg bar graphs, pie
graphs, picture graphs.
Create models to represent the
proportion of time spent on
each activity.
302
DURATION: 3 weeks
SOCIAL STUDIES
Investigate ancient methods
of measuring time, eg the
use of the sun, candle clocks,
water timers, the earliest
clocks.
Global time zones and their
relationship to GMT.
Daylight saving in Australia.
Discuss the importance of
understanding/adapting to
time zones and daylight
saving hours for travellers
and when making overseas
and interstate telephone
calls.
Investigate traditionally
oriented Aboriginal people’s
understandings of time.
How do they know what time
is passing? Does time recur?
Is the precise time required?
Is time saved or wasted?
Is it free? When is the
Dreamtime?
SCIENCE
Construct and use paper
sundials (see Anno’s
book) to tell the time.
Devise experiments to
compare and contrast
the time taken to
perform a particular
activity by a variety of
students, eg how long
does it take Year 4
students to run 100
metres. Find average
time taken, longest time
taken, shortest time
taken, etc.
3(c). Thematic approach to programming DURATION:

SPACE

MEASUREMENT NUMBER

303
3(c). Thematic approach to programming (example) DURATION: 4 weeks

SPACE
Development of concepts of area, perimeter and scale.

Use grid paper to make a 2-D plan of a farm. Show all existing building
walls and property boundaries.

Draw in new fence boundaries so that there are five paddocks; decide
on the potential use of each paddock.

Group activity
Problem solving activity: if the total farm area is square in shape, in
how many ways can this area be divided into square paddocks?
Experiment to find a rule about dividing squares into squares.

Make a 3-D model of the farm using Lego bricks, plasticine and other
suitable material. Some attention to scale should be demonstrated.

FARMS
MEASUREMENT NUMBER
Investigate some of the measuring tasks How many eggs do the hens produce each day?
that a farmer does regularly: Each week?

– weighs feed for animals (mass, kg)
– orders fertiliser/phosphate (mass, t)
– estimates the amount of water to be used
by animals and for irrigation (volume, L)
– buys bulk fuel for tractors and other farm
vehicles (volume, L)
– sells milk to dairy at a fixed price/litre
– transports milk by quantity in large
capacity tankers (volume, L).
Estimate how many eggs each hen lays in a week,
a month, a year.
How many sheep does the farmer have altogether?
Invent an easy way of counting them.
As a class group, make a list of some of the costs
involved in operating a farm for one week. Itemise
each cost to decide on the most/least expensive
items. How could students make their model farms
profitable? What would be sold? Who would it be
sold to? How much would it cost?
Problem solving activity
If the farmer can see 50 animals’ legs on the
ground in a paddock, how many pigs and how
many chickens could there be?

This is an overview of a thematically based unit which would require week-by-week or day-by-day analysis in
order to provide adequately for implementation in the classroom.

304
MANAGING THE CLASSROOM
ENVIRONMENT
“That group worked really well!”
“Today’s lessons went so smoothly!”
“My class was terrific in maths this morning!”
As teachers, we are continually in a position to assess what goes on in our classrooms and relate it back
to our planning, teaching techniques and classroom management strategies. We make numerous
decisions each day based on what we want to happen in our classrooms and what strategies work for
us. For example, consider how often you have
• reorganised furniture in your classroom to create a special atmosphere
• introduced a new resource to students and let them play with it to explore its possibilities
• opened your classroom to visitors and invited their participation in mathematics work
• planned an excursion and utilised the resources of a different learning environment
• carefully planned a mathematics session and been thrilled about the outcomes
• reflected on a particular lesson and asked, “Why was that so successful?”
• recognised and displayed the cultural diversity of the school community
• displayed students work in mathematics.
When students are actively involved in their own learning (eg using a variety of concrete materials and
other resources for investigations, working in groups and talking about their mathematical experiences,
solving problems which relate to their real-world experiences) their learning environment needs to be
well organised. Activity-based classrooms are busy places, characterised by talking and action, and
they require teachers to use sound management techniques.
Specific ways in which teachers manage their classrooms are strongly influenced by their expertise and
previous teaching experiences. Therefore, there is no single formula which can be applied to all learning
situations. This support statement outlines general strategies which teachers may use in organising their
classrooms and implementing an activity based approach to the teaching of mathematics.

RESOURCES
In the development of mathematical thinking, it is not only the particular concrete materials used in an
activity which are important, but the processes used in order to make discoveries. Therefore, students
need to be given opportunities to manipulate a wide variety of concrete materials and other resources to
ensure consolidation of understandings. For example, where students sort or pattern with buttons, shells,
blocks or bottle tops the concepts of patterning and sorting are important, as are materials used.
Materials used should be representative of the students’ interests, experiences and backgrounds and free
of cultural or gender bias. These resources may be collected, teacher made or commercially produced.

SELECTING AND USING RESOURCES

Teachers should be careful that the materials they have selected are representative of the students’
backgrounds. Bias, for example steretotypes, omissions, tokenistic inclusions, use of derogatory
language and negative value judgements may be contained in teaching/learning resources. Guidelines
and strategies for assessing teaching/learning materials for bias are available in a variety of documents,
eg Taking Stock (available from Special Programs Directorate).

INEXPENSIVE MATERIALS
The assistance of students and parents is invaluable in establishing a collection of inexpensive resource
materials for mathematics. Enlisting their help also encourages the development of a sense of

305
ownership and responsibility in the classroom. Students will become more aware of the mathematics in
their environment as they collect the materials. Parents may be more willing to become involved with
classroom activities when they have been actively involved in the setting up of the classroom
environment. Keeping parents informed of the materials required will facilitate a steady supply of
equipment. It may be possible to provide collection bins for contributions. The Resources statement of
this syllabus contains a list of inexpensive materials useful for teaching mathematics.

TEACHER MADE RESOURCES

Resources can be adapted and produced with materials readily available in schools. They may be
adaptations of existing resources or they may come from the imagination, experience and expertise of
parents, students and teachers. Some components can be made durable by laminating or covering in
adhesive plastic film.

COMMERCIAL RESOURCES
The availability of commercially produced resources will vary greatly in each school. It would be
advantageous for a mechanism to be set up within the school to keep teachers informed of the available
resources. This could be done during staff or grade meetings, by setting up a display in a prominent
place, such as the staff room or library or by means of regular staff bulletins.

ORGANISATION OF RESOURCES
Students and teachers need to establish
• how resources could be used
• where resources are located
• rules for borrowing and returning resources.

HOW CAN WE USE RESOURCES?

Initially, all students will need to be given time to investigate, discuss and explore concrete materials
through free and guided play situations. After this stage, the students will be ready to use the materials
in teacher guided activities to develop particular mathematics concepts, where the focus is on the
mathematics and not the concrete materials themselves.

WHERE CAN WE STORE RESOURCES?

In the classroom, suitable storage systems can be improvised if they are not readily available to ensure
that students have ready access to the resources they need.
Some examples of storage systems are

Labelled Activity Centres

Cover the top of a table or
cupboard with paper, place
materials/resources on this
and draw around them.
Students can easily return
items to their exact spot after
use.

306
Remove tops from large detergent Hanging shoe bags can be
boxes. Cover boxes individually. labelled and used to store
Stack and tape them together, then everyday resources required in
use them to store workcards, paper, mathematics investigations.
cardboard and other flat items.

Library hang-up bags can

be used to store activity
workcards and/or resources.
A series of classroom kits
can be made in this way.

Cake boxes can be stacked Cut large boxes and use to

in a large box and used to store frequently used materials,
store mathematics resources. eg Base 10 equipment.

N.B. Materials should be clearly labelled and stored in easily accessible areas of the classroom.

Many resources may be kept in classrooms but larger items or those in less frequent demand may be
centrally located, eg grade store room, school store room, investigations room. If this is the case, an
effective borrowing system needs to be established to ensure equal access for all teachers and students.
The storage and borrowing system decided on should take into account the size and physical layout of
the school to ensure ease of accessibility. A system of ongoing maintenance and monitoring might need
to be established. A school assistant or parents could assist with this.

RULES
Students can be involved in making decisions about storing, labelling, borrowing and returning
resources. This will help them to develop an awareness about where resources belong, as well as
establishing routines for their use in the classroom. When established, these procedures allow for the
maximum use of available learning time.

307
PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
The physical environment comprises those areas to which teachers and students have immediate access,
such as classrooms, playground areas, the school library, the immediate neighbourhood. The physical
environment should be supportive of student needs.

MANAGING THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

Classroom arrangements will vary according to the number and age of the students, the resources
available, the unit of work and the teaching style used. Some experimenting may be necessary to
achieve a working environment which is comfortable for both teachers and students.

Have procedures been established

which will facilitate the use of
alternative learning areas such as
libraries, wet areas, verandas, hallways,
hat rooms and the playground?

Do students have a clear Is there a balance of

view of the chalkboard/ flexible seating and
charts if necessary? open floor space?

MANAGING THE
PHYSICAL
ENVIRONMENT

Do students and teachers Are teachers able to move

have access to resources easily between groups
without causing and from work space to
disruption to others? work space as required?

Is adequate space
provided for groups and/or
individuals to work effectively
without hindering others?

A wide range of different activities can occur simultaneously in a classroom in which furniture,
resources and available spaces have been effectively utilised, eg
• concrete materials to explore, experiment and investigate
• recording, organising and communicating findings through drawings, graphs, pictures, models
and writing
• playing board games, listening to tapes.

308
DISPLAYING STUDENTS’ WORK
A mathematics display area is an important consideration in the organisation of the classroom. A display
area can provide a visual record of mathematics activities and ongoing feedback to the teacher, parents and
students about individual progress. Walls and bulletin boards can be decorated with the students’ work,
displays can also be suspended from ceilings and set up on cupboard tops or desks. Creative and interesting
displays in classrooms and corridors will help to motivate students, as will posters, charts, investigations
activity cards, “Problem of the Week” puzzles and Maths Trivia Corners. Be inventive!
Displayed work represents an individual, class or whole school effort valued by teachers, students and parents.
It also provides opportunities for everyone to communicate mathematical ideas and it encourages students to
extend and refine understandings by responding to questions, comments and suggestions from others.

USING SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY PERSONNEL

Individual, pair and group work is made far more manageable with additional adult assistance.
Available personnel include teacher librarians, Aboriginal education assistants, support teachers, ESL
teachers, community language teachers, parents and other community members, who can all be actively
involved in mathematics teaching and learning.
The advantages for the classroom teacher of using additional personnel include
• more time for observation and discussion with individuals or groups of students
• more ideas for activities, resources and organisation
• a greater variety of work spaces with more adults to provide supervision and direction
• strengthening links between the school and the community
• access to local knowledge.
Parents and community members can be of invaluable assistance in the classroom. Some parents may be
initially reluctant to assist with group activities but would like to assist in some way. Introductory
activities in which parents and community members may be involved could include
• organising storage systems
• collecting everyday resources
• covering materials in adhesive plastic film
• cutting cardboard/paper
• repairing resources
• monitoring the borrowing and returning of resources from a central store.
Once parents and community have become familiar with classroom procedures, they may be willing to
participate more directly in the teaching/learning process, including working with individuals or groups
of students.

GROUP WORK
Small groups assist students to
• participate at an individual level
• share and work cooperatively
• work at their own pace and level
• use language to refine and consolidate
mathematical understandings
• develop independent learning skills
• develop a range of social skills
• develop mathematical understanding through
active involvement
• develop problem solving strategies
• perform tasks more effectively
Small groups assist teachers to
• manage concrete materials effectively
• develop close working relationships with students
• teach students individually
• have students working on different tasks or
different aspects of a task
• encourage students to develop useful work habits
• encourage students to develop self-reliance and
independence
• encourage students to share and work
cooperatively
• evaluate student understanding.

309
FORMING GROUPS
The planning of mathematics activities should allow for varied and flexible groupings so that students
have the experience of interacting widely with their peers in a range of situations.

GROUPING STRATEGIES

interests needs

• students with a particular interest work together • students of similar ability working together
• students with similar needs in a particular skill area

relationships random selection

• friends working in groups together • students born in the same month

• groupings of students who work harmoniously • select students’ names from a box
• students numbered off into groups

The grouping strategy used will often be determined by the purpose of the activity. It is important,
therefore, that the grouping technique satisfies the students’ needs and the requirements of the task. For
example, in an activity where students are constructing three-dimensional structures from concrete
materials, peer group friendships and shared interest groupings could be appropriate, whereas a specific
needs group may be formed to reinforce a particular skill such as telling the time in minute intervals.
There may be individual students who need to be grouped, at times, to meet their particular needs, eg
• quiet students
• dominant students
• students with poor verbal expression
• disruptive students
• loners or disinterested students
• students with special abilities.

ESTABLISHING A POSITIVE CLASSROOM CLIMATE

Group work in mathematics requires cooperation between teachers and students. To develop a classroom
climate in which group work may flourish, students need to experience success and satisfaction in
programmed group activities. It is important to support and encourage positive outcomes in the initial stages
of group work, as this will foster the development of desirable group skills. Group work can also provide
a means of controlling dominant behaviours and encouraging equal participation.
Teachers should set aside time to discuss with the students how best to establish a classroom code
which clearly sets out
• purpose of participating in groups
• routines and working procedures
• roles of group members
• ground rules for group work.
Teachers should regularly evaluate group activities in order to identify those strategies which are
successful for group work. Since some strategies will work more effectively than others, it is essential
to identify those which best meet the needs of the students.

310
STARTING GROUP WORK
A gradual approach is needed in classrooms where students have limited experience of group work. Initially
the focus of group work may need to be on learning to work in groups, using a mathematical task. Once group
procedures have been established, the focus can shift to greater emphasis on the mathematical task.
One way to initiate group work is to withdraw a small number of students to a suitable work space, eg
the front of the classroom or a mathematics activity area, where the teacher can individually and/or
collectively assist the students with a specifically assigned task. Once the small group of students are
working on the activity the teacher can work with both the large class group and the small withdrawal
group, as needed.
As students complete the small group tasks, they return to the large class group. As students become
familiar with this procedure, the teacher may feel confident enough to set up more than one specific
mathematics group task at the same time.
Once a small group activity is completed, it is useful for students to talk about the mathematics they
have done and what they have discovered. At this stage the teacher should ask a variety of questions
and encourage the students to question each other in similar ways. It may also be useful to capitalise
on this sharing session and discuss any of the general difficulties which arose in the small group tasks.
In listening to their peers describing their experiences, students are often encouraged and motivated to
participate in new and/or unfamiliar activities.

MANAGING SEVERAL SMALL MATHEMATICS GROUPS

The simultaneous management of several small groups is assisted when students are familiar with the
routines and working procedures, the roles of group members and the ground rules for group work.
Once tasks have been assigned, students should know where to locate resources and so gain experience
in organising themselves independently of the teacher. As students begin to accept responsibility for
their own learning, the teacher can
• monitor what the students are doing and how they have approached investigations
• identify activities which individuals/pairs/groups have completed
• keep records of students’ particular interests, strengths and weaknesses
• learn when and how to respond to individuals in group settings.
The grouping strategy used will depend on the purposes of the task and the needs of individual students.
It is important that students have experiences in selecting for themselves the groups in which they
participate; by doing this, they are enabled to make decisions about who they will work with and,
importantly, evaluate group participation and outcomes.
A number of factors may need to be considered when planning for several small mathematics groups
to operate in the classroom at any one time.

SELECTING ACTIVITIES TIMETABLING

• Activities should be set for a specific purpose.
• Activities should be of a suitable duration.
• The activities should require little extra explanation so
that students are able to work independently.
• Individual students should experience success with the
activities.
LOCATING ACTIVITIES
• There will need to be adequate space for each group to
work comfortably, using the required resources.
• Other spaces in the classroom and the school can be
utilised, providing rules for working there have been
established.
ALLOCATING ACTIVITIES
• Charts and displays that indicate groups and activities
need to be clear.
TEACHING ROLE
• The teacher may choose to work with one group for a
time and concentrate on developing a particular
mathematical skill.
• The teacher may move from group to group.
• Scheduling group work before and after a break can
assist in the movement of students between different
activities. Plan for an uninterrupted period of time for
group work and time for whole class discussion after
group activities have been completed.
USING APPROPRIATE RESOURCES
• Students should have access to the necessary resources.
• The directions for each activity need to specify which
resources are needed by the students.
• There should be an adequate amount of materials.
ESTABLISHING RULES
• Group work rules should be set down to assist the
students to work cooperatively in groups.
• Procedures should be established for borrowing and
returning resources.
PARTICIPATION OF OTHER PERSONNEL
• Extra assistance with the managing of mathematical
groups may be possible by involving support teachers,
parents, ESL teachers, older students, librarians, etc.

311
IDENTIFYING PARTICIPANTS AND ACTIVITIES
When desirable groupings have been established for a particular mathematics session, charts can be
used to show in which groups students have been placed and the activities each group will undertake.
These charts should be flexible enough to allow for changes in activities and group members, as
decided by the teacher and the students, on a rotational basis, eg daily, weekly.
There are many types of organisational charts which can be developed to suit specific needs.

Sub-strand Unit Group members

3D 6 Miellie Nick Etore Greg Anson

Length 9 Susan Kathy Jamie Salma David

Addition 5 Sam Joanne Dominic Hans

Time 9 Joe Andy Steve Sandy Kirsty

Fractions 4 Angus Derek C;ara Ahmed Maria

Graphs 3 Lauren Gordon Caitlin Xiao Tan Sant

The cards on the rotation chart above can be used in two ways
• rotate the activity cards while the groups remain fixed
• alter the group structure while the activities remain fixed.
The necessary resources for each group should be readily accessible, to enable group members to
organise themselves successfully.
Sometimes only one or two groups will have their tasks organised on the rotation chart, while other
students work in a large group.
Teachers can program activities from a variety of units to suit different ability levels and have students
working simultaneously on challenging, appropriate tasks.

Rotation wheels can be made from cardboard.

The fixed inner circle shows the activities for
a mathematics session. The students’ name tags
are clipped onto the rotating outer circle to
identify the activity in which they will
participate. In this way, the composition of
groups and the range of activities can be altered
as necessary.

312
INDEX displacement, 144
division algorithm, 259, 260
addition combinations to 10, 213 division by repeated subtraction up to 100, 253
addition combinations to 20, 214 division by repeated subtraction up to 1 000, 255
addition facts, 215 division facts up to 100, 258
addition number sentences, 212 division number sentences, 257
addition of decimal fractions, 275 division of decimal fractions, 276
addition to 99, 216, 217 division symbol, 256
addition to 999, 218
addition to 9 999 and beyond, 219 edges, 57, 59, 60
aims of Mathematics education K–6, 8 elevations, 64, 65
aims of Mathematics education K–12, 3 environment, 32, 308
angles, 79, 83, 88, 91 equal arm balance, 155, 156
area of a rectangle, 134 equal parts, 264
arranging shapes, 73 evaluation, 5, 42-47
assessment strategies, 42-46
astronomical time, 193 face values of coins and notes, 279
attitudes, 8, 16-20 faces, 57, 59, 60
attribute of area, 126 factors, 244
attribute of capacity, 138 format of teaching/learning units, 49
attribute of length, 111 fractions as parts of a whole, 265
attribute of mass, 152
attribute of temperature, 167 geographical time, 193
attribute of volume, 137 gram, 162, 163
audiovisual resources, 34-35 grids, 100, 101
gross mass, 164
balance, 154, 155, 156 group work, 309-312
bar graphs, 109
half hour, 184
calculators, 32, 35-37 hectare, 133
calendar, 181 hour, 182
centimetre, 119, 120, 121 hundredths, 266, 267, 268, 269
class shop, 281
classification, 53, 70, 80, 195 informal grids, 100
classifying coins, 278 informal multiplication, 245
classroom environment, 16-18 informal units of area, 128
classroom management, 305-312 informal units of capacity, 140, 142
column graphs, 107 informal units of length, 116
common fraction notation, 273 informal units of mass, 157, 158
comparing groups of objects, 105, 106, 223 informal units of temperature, 171
comparison of areas, 127, 129 informal units of time, 180
comparison of capacities, 139 informal units of volume, 143
comparison of lengths, 112, 113, 114 interviews, 43-44
comparison of masses, 153 isometric drawings, 64
comparison of temperatures, 168
joining groups of objects, 211
comparison of time, 179, 187
comparison type of subtraction, 223, 224 kilogram, 161
compass points, 102 kilometre, 122
computers, 32, 35, 37 knots, 68
concrete materials, 31-32, 33
cones, 65 language, 8, 26-31
construction of 2D shapes, 80, 94 line graphs, 109
contracted multiplication algorithm, 247 lines, 78, 81, 89
coordinates, 101 listening, 28, 43
corners, 57, 59, 60 litre, 146
creativity, 25-26
cross-sections, 61, 62 mapping, 100, 101, 102
cubic centimetre, 148 matching, 196
cubic metre, 149 mazes, 100
currency, 283 MEASUREMENT, 10-12, 110-193
cylinders, 59, 65 metre, 118, 121
millilitre, 147
days, 178, 181 millimetre, 123
decimal form of recording fractions, 269 minutes, 182, 186
decimal fractions and place value, 272 modelling equal groups of objects, 237
degree Celsius, 173 monetary system, 284
digital clocks, 185 month, 181

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multiples, 244 recording, 17
multiples of 10, 203 recording decimal fractions, 274
multiplication algorithm, 246, 247, 248 recording student assessment information, 45-46
multiplication of decimal fractions, 276 relationship of three-dimensional to two-dimensional
multiplication sign, 239 shapes, 71
multiplication tables, 240, 241, 242, 243 relationships between time units, 189
relationships in volume, capacity and mass, 150
nature of Mathematics, 2 repeated addition, 238
nature of Mathematics learning, 4-5 repeated subtraction, 251
need for standard unit of area, 130
need for standard unit of length, 117 samples of student work, 44
need for standard unit of mass, 160 scale models, 67
need for standard unit of temperature, 172 scales (mass), 164
need for standard units for capacity and volume, 145 scope and sequence charts, 50-51
need for temperature measuring device, 169 seasons, 181
net mass, 164 seconds, 182
nets, 61, 62 shadows, 90
notes (money), 282 sharing materials or objects, 250
NUMBER, 13-15, 194-284 sharing up to 100 objects, 252
number 10, 201 sharing up to 1 000 objects, 254
number 100, 205 skeletons, 61, 62
numbers 1-9, 199 sources of assistance, 35
numbers 11-19, 202 SPACE, 9-10, 52-109
numbers 20-99, 204 special days, 178
numbers 100-999, 206 speed, 192
numbers 1 000-9 999, 207 spheres, 65
numbers 10 000-99 999, 208 square centimetre, 132
numbers 100 000-one million and beyond, 209 square kilometre, 133
square metre, 131
observation, 42-43 square numbers, 244
o’clock, 183 stopwatches, 191
one-to-one correspondence, 196 student explanation and demonstration, 44
ordering containers according to capacity, 141 subtraction algorithm, 230
ordering decimal fractions, 274 subtraction facts to 20, 226
ordering groups by number, 197 subtraction involving four-digit numbers and beyond, 235
ordering lengths and distances, 115 subtraction involving two-digit numbers, 227
ordering masses, 159 subtraction number sentences, 222
subtraction of decimal fractions, 275
part/whole relationships, 263
subtraction of hundreds, tens and units with trading, 233
passage of time, 177, 180
subtraction of single-digit from two-digit numbers, 229
patterns, 54, 56, 71, 72, 73, 74, 77, 82, 84, 87, 89, 93, 198,
subtraction of tens and ones with trading, 231
213, 229
subtraction to 20, 225
pen(cil) and paper tests, 42
subtraction to 999, 232
percentage sign, 273
subtraction to 9 999, 234
perimeter, 116, 118, 120, 121
surface, 125
personnel, 309
symmetry, 72, 74, 82, 92
perspective, 90
physical environment, 308 taking away from a group of 1-10 objects, 221
pictorial representation, 104 tally marks, 106
picture graphs, 108 tangrams, 76, 85
pie graphs, 109 tenths, 270, 271, 272
polygons, 87 tessellations, 77, 84, 93, 130
practical investigations, 44-45 thermometers, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174
prisms, 59, 61, 63 time concepts, 176
problem solving, 20-25 time lines, 190
programming, 286-304 timetables, 190
programming formats, 289-304 tonne, 165
projections, 65 trading, 205, 207, 216, 218, 219, 227, 230, 231, 232, 233,
properties of 3D objects, 55, 56, 57, 58, 64, 66, 67 234, 235, 245, 252, 254, 259, 260, 270, 274
properties of 2D shapes, 76, 77 trading amounts of up to $2 using coins, 280
puzzles, 54, 85
pyramids, 60, 62, 63 week, 181

ratio, 244 zero, 200

rationale for Mathematics in the curriculum, 2
reading, 29
reading time, 188

314