Republic of the Philippines

COTABATO FOUNDATION COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Doroluman, Arakan, Cotabato

Module in
TEACHING MATHEMATICS IN
THE PRIMARY GRADES
(1st Semester, 2020-2021)

Prepared by:

ELIAN ROY B. ESCARO, MA-Math

Instructor I

1st Semester, 2020-2021

Vision CFCST: Haven of Intellectuals in 2023
Mission CFCST shall endeavor to be potent vehicle in uplifting the socio-economic status of its clientele and
its neighboring communities through the provision of custodial care service, access to quality education and relevant
training in science and technology.

Core Values
C-Cultural Sensitive
A-adherent to laws
R- Relevant and Responsive
E-efficient and effective
S- Spiritually oriented

Course Name: Math 212: Teaching Math in Primary Grades

Course Credit: 3 units
Course This course equips prospective teachers with pedagogical content knowledge for the
Description: teaching of basic contents in mathematics in the primary level. Understanding of key
concepts and skills of whole numbers up to 10,000, fractions, measurement, simple
geometric figures, pre-algebra concepts and data representation and analysis are applied
using appropriate technology. Teaching strategies include problem solving, critical
thinking, differentiated instruction, inquiry-based learning with the use of manipulative
based on cultural context will be emphasized.
Contact 3 hours a week; 54 hours; 1 semester
Hours/week/

semester:
Prerequisite NONE

Program Educational Objectives. After 3-5 years of completing all academic requirements of the program, the BEED
alumni could
A. Become pedagogically and technologically advance teachers.
B. Demonstrate commendable content knowledge teachers in their respective field of specialization.
C. Pursue higher/post graduate education
D. Become culture-sensitive and spiritually-oriented teachers in the practice of the teaching profession.
E. Become research oriented in their field of specialization.

COURSE Course Content/Subject Matter

OUTLINE AND
TIMEFRAME
Week

1 Orientation
- VMGO
- Class Delivery
- Policies
2–4 Introduction of the Course

Understanding the Key concepts and skills of whole numbers

5–7 Understanding the Key concepts and skills of Factions

8–9 Understanding the Key concepts and skills of Measurements

10 – 12 Understanding the Key concepts and skills of Geometric

13 – 15 Understanding the Key concepts and skills of Pre-algebra concepts

16-18 Understanding the Key concepts and skills of Data presentation and Analysis using appropriate
technology
.
RATIONALE

“The ability to develop and apply mathematical thinking in order to solve a range of problems in everyday
situations is important for all learners. Through Mathematics, learners acquire a sound knowledge of numbers,
measures and structures, basic operations and basic mathematical presentations, an understanding of mathematical
terms and concepts, and an awareness of the questions to which mathematics can offer answers.
 With increased fluency in Mathematics, young people are provided with opportunities to deepen their
mathematical knowledge and reasoning, to come more formally into contact with abstract and logical reasoning, and to
better appreciate and apply the communication possibilities that the mathematics medium offers. This Learning Area
will include financial literacy aspects such as mathematical and financial understandings in order to ensure that a
culture of financial planning and preparation is instilled and nurtured during the Junior and Secondary Cycles of
education.”
(National Curriculum Framework, 2012, p. 35)

“The learning that takes place within the area of Mathematics allows children to develop:
• Essential numeracy skills which support them in daily life.
• Key numeric competences that include the understanding of concepts, principles, and applications.
• Creative approaches in the four strands, namely, use of number, measurement, space and shapes and data
handling.
• Logical thought and engagement with investigative processes that lead to solutions.
• Application of mathematical concepts on matters relating to financial decisions and planning.
All children need to experience mathematics as a rewarding and enjoyable experience. This can best be
achieved by using a combination of different teaching styles and through differentiated teaching taking into
consideration different learning styles.”
(National Curriculum Framework, 2012, p. 53)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page

Chapter 1 Whole Numbers

Lesson 1: Counting and Place Value 1
Lesson 2: Addition and Subtraction of Whole Numbers 16
Lesson 3: Multiplication and Division of Whole Numbers 34

Chapter 2 Fractions
Lesson 1: Fraction Concepts
Lesson 2: Equivalent Fractions
Lesson 3: Comparing and Ordering Fractions
Lesson 4: Addition of Similar Fractions and Mixed Numbers
Lesson 5: subtraction of similar fractions and Mixed Numbers

Chapter 3 Measurements
Lesson 1: Time Measures
Lesson 2: Length, Mass and Volume
Lesson 3: Perimeter
 Lesson 4: Area

Chapter 4 Geometry
Lesson 1: Simple Geometric Figures
Lesson 2: Two-Dimensional Objects
Lesson 3: Three- Dimensional Objects
Lesson 4: Symmetry
Lesson 5: Tessellation

Chapter 5 Introduction to Algebra

Lesson 1: Continuous and Repeating Pattern
Lesson 2: Number Sentences

Chapter 6 Data Presentation and Interpretation

Lesson 1: Data Presentation and Interpretation
Lesson 2: Chance

CHAPTER 1:
LESSON 1 - COUNTING AND PLACE
VALUE
Experiences Before Starting School
Motivation
Content
Pre-counting
The next number in the sequence
Counting
Ordering numbers
Part-whole
Place value: Tens and units
Place value: Two ‘Tens’ and beyond
Extending counting
What is one hundred?
Extending place value
Using algorithms
Links Forward
History
References
ASSUMED KNOWLEDGE
Children learn to count before they learn to write numbers, just as they learn to speak
before they learn to write words. Even very young children understand that there are special
words to be said when counting and may be able to tell you how old they are, or point to
numbers in their environment. They might use number words, though often incorrectly. For
example, they may say “One, two, one, two…” as they touch a number of objects to be
counted.
Children begin school with a variety of experiences, indeed the range of mathematical
skills and understanding in any one early-years classroom can be quite vast. Children’s prior
learning about number will have been influenced by their family, whether or not they attended
pre-school or formal child-care, and their language and social development.
Typical exposure to numbers occurs via a variety of media, through songs, play,
interaction with adults and other children, picture storybooks and television programs. When a
small child walks down the steps s/he may count them. A long trip in the car is made more
enjoyable by counting yellow cars and the child who successfully places the right number of
potatoes into a plastic bag at the supermarket is learning to count as well as being helpful.
There are many wonderful stories, songs and rhymes that involve mathematical themes and
these are useful in enhancing the learning of mathematics for children.

Children arriving for their first year of school may be able to:
 Recite the numbers up to 20 in order
 Write the numerals 0 to 9
 Grasp the connection between the numeral ‘3’, the word ‘three’ and a picture such as 

 or 

Teachers and parents should take care that certain understanding is evident before proceeding
to tasks that are more cognitively demanding. It is advisable that students who arrive at
school with a firm grasp of number concepts are also catered for, with suitably challenging
tasks and the introduction of new concepts as appropriate.

MOTIVATION
Numeracy and literacy are essential skills in modern society. Just as we need the
alphabet to write down words and sentences, so we need a notation to write down numbers.
We use a base-ten place-value notation to write numbers. It was developed over several
centuries in India and the Arab world, so we call it Hindu-Arabic notation. The place-value
nature of Hindu-Arabic notation enabled the development of highly efficient algorithms for
arithmetic, and this contributed to its success and wide acceptance.
Hindu-Arabic numerals exhibit some of the qualities that make mathematics so 
powerful, namely
 they can be used by understanding a small number of ideas, and
 they can be generalized beyond the original setting for which they were devised.

To illustrate the second point, the notation was developed to express whole numbers,  
but it extends to the representation of fractions and decimals.
A solid understanding of numbers and arithmetic is essential for the development of
later concepts including fractions and algebra.

CONTENT
Hindu-Arabic numerals are a decimal, or base-ten, place-value number system with the
ten digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 as fundamental building blocks. It is important that
students build an understanding of the numbers up to ten before they progress further.

PRE-COUNTING
We will make a distinction between a number and a numeral. A number is an
abstract concept, whereas a numeral is a symbol that relates to a quantity that we assign
to it. Thus the number three is the abstract concept common to three chairs, three crayons,
and three children, whereas the symbols 3 and III are numerals for the number three. 

For example, the numeral ‘3’ relates directly to the number of stars shown here .

Although the concept of number is universal (there are the same number of stars
in  regardless of whether you count in English, Spanish or Mandarin) the number names
and numerals are a necessary, but arbitrary, label invented by humans. Assigning a numeral
to a number of objects, writing a symbol that relates to the number of items in the set, has
happened in a variety of ways across different cultures for thousands of years. So, while some
students may have a good sense of number from an early age, they all need to learn the
number names and numerals.

The ability to identify quickly the number of objects in a small set is known
as subitising. This is different to counting and requires a rapid response. Before their first
birthday babies can make judgements about the relative sizes of sets of objects. They react
differently when two sets of the same size are presented compared to when two sets with
different amounts are presented. The skill of subitising stays with us and is used in helping us
to recognise numbers displayed on dice and playing cards, for example.

One-to-one correspondence
It is not necessary to name the numbers to tell if one set has more or less than
another. Early understanding of ‘more than’ and ‘less than’ can result from simple matching
activities that help children see that one set is larger (or smaller) than another. Using one-to-
one correspondence the child matches up the elements of the two sets, pairing each item in
one set with exactly one element in the other set. The child can now tell if the sets are ‘the
same’ or ‘different’ in number and which is larger or smaller.

In the example below, it is not easy to immediately say if there are more puppies or kittens,

but the answer is clear when they are lined up with one-to-one correspondence.

Matching activities will help a young child develop one-to-one correspondence. Activities
may include matching pairs (of socks or shoes), distributing materials to each member of a
group, sharing food or toys equally amongst classmates, placing one toy on top of each of
several blocks, returning materials to shelves, setting the table, matching object to object (for
example, matching people to their coats and hats) and matching a picture of a quantity to a
set of objects with the same number of items. Gradually, the child recognizes that one group
of things can have the same number of elements as another group and abstracts the concept
of number.

THE NEXT NUMBER IN THE SEQUENCE

A two-year-old’s favourite number is two until they have a birthday, when they quickly
learn what comes next in the sequence. Once a child has understood that the number two can
be shown by the numeral ‘2’ and by holding up two fingers, they need to progress onto the
idea of building to the next number. This is essentially a mastery of the idea that we can
obtain the next number by the addition of ‘one more’ and can be achieved by lots of
experience counting with manipulatives.
COUNTING
Recitation of a list of numbers is not necessarily counting. Many children can recite the
number names when they arrive at school. Some of them may be able to recite them in order
up to 20 or more. It is likely, however, that some of them are only just beginning to
understand that each numeral and its corresponding number word represent a quantity that is
fixed. For children to be considered as having the ability to count, there are certain behaviours
that must be evident; each of these is essential to counting.

One-to-one correspondence with number names and objects

The understanding that we use different number names for each object included in a
count is a major milestone. A child who counts a set of objects by saying “four, two, one” has
understood the need for one-to-one correspondence, as has the child who correctly counts
“one, two, three”. A child who counts “three, two, three” has not used a unique number name
for each object and neither has the child who uses more number names than objects and
counts “one, three, six, seven, two, four” when counting these stars  .

Stable order
To count accurately and reliably, it is important to say the number names in the right
order and without skipping any numbers. The ability to assign the number names in order to
objects being counted and without skipping any numbers, is known as the stable-order
principle. Children may begin to do this by counting their fingers, counting the number of
‘sleeps’ until their birthday or the number of peas left on their plate.

Cardinality
One of the deep observations about counting is that when you set up a 1-1
correspondence between the number names in their correct order and the set of objects you
are trying to count, then the last number name you say is the cardinality (or size) of the set.
We can help children develop the understanding of cardinality by involving them in
activities where they answer questions about ‘how many’. They need not only to be able to
say the counting names in the correct order, but also to count a group of, for example, seven
objects and say that there are seven. Counting activities should have some basis in reality,
giving a purpose to counting. For example, we can create a need to count by involving
children in food preparation. They will need to know how many people, plates or apples in
order to complete the task.
Once a child has a sense of cardinality, then we can involve them in matching activities
where a number word is matched to a quantity and the numeral that belongs to it.

4 7 2
FOUR SEVEN TWO
In the activity above, students count the items and give a name to the total number in
the set. Using the last number-name that was spoken as a tag to label a quantity is a big step
in developing ‘number sense’.

Zero
Children may be accustomed to using words to describe the absence of something. For
example, “I have no lollies left.”, “There is nothing on my plate.” or “The olive jar is empty.”
We use the word zero to describe ‘nothing’ and we use the symbol ‘0’ when we write it in
numerals.
Zero is used in a place-value context also. For example in the number 208, the zero
indicates that there are ‘no tens’ in the number.
Later children will come to understand the effect of adding and subtracting zero. For
some children their inclination is to think that adding makes collections bigger, and subtracting
makes them smaller. As with introducing addition and subtraction with small numbers, acting
out situations where zero is added to or subtracted from a collection can help in developing
the understanding that this will have no effect on the size of the collection.
Counting objects in any order or arrangement
The number of elements in a set does not depend on the way the objects are presented
or the order in which they are counted. Knowing that the order in which objects are counted
has no relevance to the actual number of objects in the group of objects is known as
the order-irrelevance principle.
One way of testing to see if children have developed this understanding is to re-
arrange 
a set of objects that they have just counted, and ask them to count again.

ORDERING NUMBERS
Ordering is the basis of our number system. The ability to place quantities in order of
increasing (or decreasing) size demonstrates a deep understanding of how the number system
fits together. A child who understands that 2 is bigger than 1, 3 is bigger than 2 and so on, is
demonstrating sound conceptual knowledge of the number system. Beginning with the idea of
one more or one less, pre-school children become adept at moving around on a mental
number line. Start by asking what is one more than their age, then build from there. The idea
of ‘one more than’ and ‘one less than’ should be developed before ‘two more than’ and ‘two
less than’ and so on. Encourage the use of strategies to help, such as using fingers or objects.
Classroom activities where ordering from smallest to largest (or the reverse) is the prime skill
should be undertaken to help students develop a sense of order. For example, ordering
students from tallest to shortest, ordering strips of paper that measure the hand-span of each
student from smallest to largest or writing a ‘favourite number’ on a card and pegging it on a
number line in the correct order.

PART-WHOLE
Discussion about breaking numbers apart and putting them back together helps
children see that numbers can be ‘made’ from other numbers. It requires them to make
connections between numerical ideas and prepares the way for arithmetical thinking. The child
should be involved in activities that require them to pull a number apart and put it back
together, helping them learn more about how the number system works and giving them the
opportunity to demonstrate their understanding of cardinality and addition.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITY
On my fingers
Ask the child to show you the number five on their hands. There are many ways to do this and
soon they will see that five is made up of 1 and 4, 2 and 3, 3 and 2, 4 and 1 and, hopefully, 5
and 0.
There are many different ways to show the numbers to ten using fingers and thumbs.
Number of fingers
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
to be shown
Number of ways 
1 10 45 120 210 252 210 120 45 10 1
to show it
From the table above, we can see that there are 210 different ways to show the number 4 on
our hands. It is a convention that there is 1 way of showing 0. It is probably surprising to you
that there are so many ways of showing 5 with your fingers.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITY

Sticks in hands
Playing with sticks (or counters or pebbles) allows children to see part whole relationships. For
example, 7 sticks in two hands shows that 7 is made from 4 and 3.
 
CLASSROOM ACTIVITY
Block patterns
Provide blocks or counters and ask children to arrange the same number of counters in
different ways. For example, take six blocks and arrange them in different patterns, like two
rows of three, three rows of two, a triangle, and other more elaborate structures.  At this
point, we are really dealing with ‘six’ as a characterisation of the number of objects in the set,
and the patterns that we obtain are all characteristic of six.

PLACE VALUE: TENS AND UNITS

Once the numbers below ten are established, the next goal is to look at the numbers from ten
to twenty. We want students to see the importance of ten and as a result, many of the
activities they do in the early years of school are focussed on building from ten and using ten
as a countable unit.
By the time they come to school they may know 30, 40 or 60 from speed limit signs. Students
often begin using manipulatives that can help illustrate the importance of ten at this point. We
want them to come to think of these numbers as ten and one, ten and two, ten and three and
so on.

Students begin to record the numbers with

some 
understanding of the ‘ten’ and the ‘more
than’ in 
place-value columns. So 13 is written

 
Eleven, twelve, thirteen
The English words for 11, 12 and 13 appear to be unrelated to the numbers that follow, but
the etymology tells us that this was not always so. In each case, the base word is a version of
ten or means ‘ten more than’. The word eleven originated from the Germanic ainlif meaning
“one left” (after ten is taken). The word twelve then comes from twalif, meaning that two is
left after ten is taken. Only the remaining first two letters of twelve tell us that it is connected
to the number two.

Thirteen originates from the Old English reotiene (from reo meaning ‘three’ and tene which
translates as ‘ten more than’).

To ensure that students develop the Tens-frames give a sense of the ten and
concepts related to ‘ten more than’ we the more than:
encourage them to practice modelling
numbers using materials such as icy-pole 
sticks and counters.

The teen numbers

Once we get past the number thirteen, there is a pattern in the number words that helps us
understand the place value of the collection we are counting. This is more difficult in English
than in some other languages.
In Mandarin, there is a unique symbol for each of the numbers to ten, then these are
combined to make the numbers to 99.
The number 11 is written using the numerals for 10 and 1

 shi yi
The number 12 is written using the numerals for 10 and 2

 shi er
The number 13 is shi san (ten and three), 14 is shi si (ten and four), and so on. When you get
to 20, you say er shi (two tens), and then 21 is er shi yi, (two tens and one), 22 is er shi er
(two tens and two). So 87 is ba si qi.

PLACE VALUE: TWO ‘TENS’ AND BEYOND

Students should experience counting using manipulatives such as icy-pole sticks and counters
with numbers that are large enough for them to see the need to make and use ‘tens’. We want
them to become accustomed to organising the items they are counting into ‘tens’ as an
efficient means of finding the total of the count.
So, a collection such as this

is organised in tens for easy counting

and the tens are counted first: “Ten, twenty, thirty, thirty-one, thirty-two, thirty-three, thirty
four.” There are thirty-four counters.
This can also be demonstrated using base-ten arithmetic blocks,

on the number line,

and using tens frames.

The place-value columns reinforce the idea of ‘how many tens’ and ‘how many ones’. 

So 34 is recorded in place-value columns as follows:

When the children are comfortable with the numbers beyond ten, we can extend some of the
activities for developing number sense that were used earlier. This is a good teaching
strategy, as the children are already comfortable with the activity with smaller numbers.
CLASSROOM ACTIVITY
Block patterns
Provide blocks or counters and ask children to arrange the same number of counters in
different ways.
For example,

CLASSROOM ACTIVITY
Sticky notes
Prepare overlapping sticky notes or place-value cards to reveal the place value 
of digits in numbers.

This shows that 34 = 30 + 4

EXTENDING COUNTING
Children who have developed the ability to count should continue to do so, expanding their
repertoire beyond ten or even one hundred or one thousand. Counting forwards and
backwards from different starting points including zero helps with fluency with numbers, is
connected to arithmetic and can be used with fractions and decimals.

Counting backwards
Many children will be able to recite the backwards counting sequence from ten and will even
add zero on the end “10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0!” as in a countdown for a rocket taking off,
but understanding of what is happening as we subtract one from the set to show the number
before should be reinforced by using hands-on materials. Going up and down by one and by
two prepares the way for addition and subtraction.

Whisper counting
Whisper counting is a precursor to skip counting. When whisper counting by 3s, you say every
third number loudly. Gradually say the skip counted numbers louder and louder and the other
numbers softer and softer. Increase the speed of counting until the child can count entirely in
skip count mode (3, 6, 9, 12, 15...). You can also clap (hop, ring a bell, etc.) instead of
whispering as you move to skip counting. Give children time to develop and feel successful
with one type of skip-count before moving to the next one.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITY
Whisper counting
The teacher and the child each take a role in counting together.
Start by taking turns to count
a  I say 1, you say 2, I say 3, you say 4, …
b  I say 1 very quietly, you say 2, I say 3 very quietly, you say 4, …
c  You imagine me saying 1, then you say 2, then you image me saying 3, 
then you say 4, …
d  Repeat all these steps with the teacher starting at 2, and then at 0.

Skip counting
Skip counting is an essential step in the development of arithmetic, so there is a great deal to
learn from it. Start with counting by 2s, then 10s, 5s, and finally by 3s, 4s and so on.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITY
Counting by 2s
1 a Ask the child to arrange ten blocks in two equal rows and then count to check that there
are five columns.
b Now have the child count the ten blocks counting each column in turn.
c Now make the big leap and get the child to count the blocks in twos by pointing to each
column in turn and running through the even numbers.  The really big idea here is that the
final number, 10, is indeed the total number of blocks, and there needs to be quite a bit of
checking backwards and forwards while the child makes certain that this ‘clever’ method of
counting does indeed end up with the total number of blocks.
d Repeat with other even numbers
2 The next step is adding two with blocks.
a Put out the eight blocks, and repeat everything.
b Bring up two more blocks and ask how any blocks there are now. You might notice that s/he
will dutifully count the blocks in ones and get ten.
c Invite the child to count the blocks in twos, and be delighted when she gets the same
answer.
d Repeat this many times, until eventually the child, on being faced with ten blocks 
in two rows, and another two blocks, will claim immediately that there are 12. 
Make sure that s/he checks!
WHAT IS ONE HUNDRED?
The number 100 is an important one for
children to understand. It is the next place One hundred has
in the place value system after ‘tens’, as some interesting
with the number 834 shown below properties.

We can count to 100 by tens. So a child would say 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100.
100 can be ripped apart in many different ways.
100 can be arranged into a square array made 
from ten rows of ten. 
 
CLASSROOM ACTIVITY
Rip apart 100
Give children a zip-lock bag and a number of counters, icy-pole sticks or coloured match
sticks. Ask them to count out 100. Use the counters to show how 100 can be ripped apart in
many different ways. Ask the children to make statements about the different ways they have
‘ripped part’ the number 100. For example, 87 + 13 = 100

EXTENDING PLACE VALUE

As the numbers that students can cope with expands, so naming of numbers and the structure
of the place-value system expands to accommodate larger and larger numbers.
Each digit in a number has a place value depending on its position. These positions can be
thought of as columns labelled by powers of ten, with the powers increasing from right to left
as illustrated in the following table.

When reading Hindu-Arabic numerals, the digit with the largest place value is read first. Thus
the number 7352 is read as “seven thousand, three hundred and fifty-two”, and we think of it
in columns as illustrated in the following table.

These labels are made explicit when we write numbers in expanded form. For example, 7352
= 7 × 1000 + 3 × 100 + 5 × 10 + 2.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITY
Sticky notes
The sticky notes activity can be extended
to any number of places. Prepare
overlapping sticky notes or place-value
cards to reveal the place value of digits in
numbers. This shows that 7352 = 7000 +
300 + 50 + 2

The importance of zero

The digit 0 is essential in the Hindu-Arabic system because it acts as a place-holder. In the
number 302, the 0 tells us that there are ‘no tens’.

Multiplying a number by ten shifts each

digit one place to the left. Because there is
now nothing in the ones column, we put a 0
in that column as a place-holder. The
following table illustrates the process for 35
× 10 = 350. Dividing by ten shifts the digits one step to
the right, and requires decimals unless the
last digit in the original number was 0. The
following table illustrates this process for
350 ÷ 10 = 35.

Conventions about spacing and naming

A number with many digits can be hard to read. We cluster the digits in groups of three,
starting from the ones place, and separate different groups by a thin space. By convention we
do not put a space in a four-digit number. Thus we write 7352, but 17 352 and 2 417 352.
The nested method that we use to name the columns enables us to read very large numbers
using a few basic words such as thousands and millions.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITY
Use place-value houses to gather digits into groups of three and to aid in the naming of larger
numbers.

So we write the number shown in the place value houses above as 1 427 596 and we say one
million, four hundred and twenty-seven thousand, five hundred and ninety-six’. Converting
between words and numbers and vice versa are important skills.
The following table summarises some column names and their values.
COLUMN
  NAME
VALUE
1 10 0
one (unit)

10   10   1
ten

100   10   2
hundred   ten × ten

1000   10   3
thousand   ten × hundred

10 000   10   4
ten thousand

100 000   10   5
hundred thousand

1 000 000   10   6
million   thousand × thousand

10 000 000   10   7
ten million

100 000 000   10   8

hundred million

1 000 000 000   10   9

billion   thousand × million

1 000 000 000 000   10   12

trillion

  10   100
googol

The convention is slightly different when we write about money. It is standard accounting
practice to separate the groups of digits by a comma. For example, the average annual salary
in Australia was close to $64,200 in 2009. This can cause confusion for two reasons.
Firstly, people often see numbers in the context of money and tend to always write large
numbers with commas to separate groups of digits.
Secondly, the use of a comma is not a world-wide standard. In continental Europe the groups
of digits are separated by points and what we call a decimal point is replaced by a comma.
The average annual salary in Spain might be 21.500 euros, but a coffee might only cost 1,20
euros.

USING ALGORITHMS
Children’s understanding of place value improves dramatically once they start working with
the formal algorithms for addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. These algorithms
will be covered in other modules. When using the algorithms there are a number of common
errors related to place value.
For example, a common error is to enter two digits into a single column when carrying out the
addition algorithm.

(Correct (Wrong)
Another common error is forgetting to use 0 as a place marker when performing division.

(Correct) (Wrong)
As we mentioned in the motivation, the existence of fast and efficient algorithms for arithmetic
is a major advantage of the Hindu-Arabic numerals.

LINKS FORWARD

This module has dealt with whole numbers. Once students have mastered whole numbers, we
introduce them to integers (the whole numbers together with the negative numbers −1, −2,
−3, …) and rational numbers (positive and negative fractions).
The development of the concept of number can be described with the aid of the following
diagram.

School mathematics normally follows the historical development of numbers and introduces
students first to whole numbers then to positive fractions, then to integers, 
and finally to the rational numbers.

HISTORY
Note that when we discuss the historical development of this topic we are always talking about
the same numbers. The history of numeration is all about the evolution 
of numerals.
Early civilizations developed different ways of writing numbers. Many of these ways were
cumbersome and made it hard to do arithmetic. The most basic and oldest known system of
numeration involves tally marks.

THE BABYLONIANS
The two earliest civilisations known to have developed writing and written number systems are
the Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilisations centred on the modern countries Egypt and Iraq.
Mesopotamia probably began to develop as small city-states between 6000 and 7000 years
ago.
For various reasons, Mesopotamian mathematics is called Babylonian mathematics and quite a
lot is known about it and its users, despite the fact that to date the only clay tablets
discovered date from about 1600 BC, 1000 BC and 300 BC.
The Babylonian number system was in base 60 so the number 1, 5, 13 is

1 × 60  + 5 × 60 + 13 = 3913 in base 10.

2

This, of course, means that 60 digits from 0 to 59 are needed. In 1600 BC a space was used
as a place holder as in 1, 0, 13 but by 300 BC the symbol   was used as a place holder. The
remaining 59 digits were created using a base 10 system. So 34 was drawn as 10, 10, 10, 1,
1, 1, 1 in a neat character grouping. By 1600 BC the system also represented sexagesimal

(base 60) fractions so, depending on the context, 1, 5, 13 could also represent   +   

+  . This sexagesimal number system had all the features of the modern decimal place-
value system except for the sexagesimal point.

THE EGYPTIANS

The Egyptians used a system of numeration based on powers of ten, but it was not a place-
value system. They used the following hieroglyphs for powers of ten and simply drew as
many of each as they needed.

1 10 100 1000 10 000 100 000 10 6

For example, the number 7352 was written as:

Later, when the Egyptians started writing on papyrus, they developed a short-hand system
based on hieratic numerals illustrated in the table below. Hieratic means “of priests” and
reflects the close connection between religion and education at the time.
Hieratic numerals allowed people to write numbers more succinctly and with greater speed
than before.
ROMAN NUMERALS

Once civilisations moved from hieroglyphic (picture-based) to alphabet-based writing, letters

were used as numerals. The best-known example is the system of Roman numerals, but
earlier systems were also developed using the Greek and Hebrew alphabets.
The basic numerals are listed in the following table:

Roman numerals are added whenever they were listed in decreasing order, so LXVII
represents 50 + 10 + 5 + 1 + 1 = 67. The value of a numeral does not change depending on
its location, except in a very local sense. If a numeral is placed immediately to the left of the
next-biggest numeral then the smaller numeral is subtracted from the larger; so XI represents
10 + 1 = 11 whereas IX represents 10 − 1 = 9, but 49 would not be written as IL. Forty-nine
is written as XLIX.

HINDU-ARABIC NOTATION

The Hindu-Arabic notation was probably developed in India. A place-value system using 9
digits and a space or the word kha (for emptiness) as place marker was used in India the
6 century AD. By the 9th century the system had made its way to the Arab world (including
th

Persia and Al-Andalus in what is now Spain). The digit 0 evolved from “.” and was used in both
Madhya Pradesh (Northern India) and the Arab world by the 10th century.

Leonardo of Pisa, known as Fibonacci, learned to use the notation from merchants in Africa
when he was a boy. His book, Liber Abaci, written in 1202 contained a description of the
notation. This book popularized the Hindu-Arabic system in Europe. At about the same time,
Maximus Planudes wrote a treatise called The Great Calculation entirely devoted to the Hindu-
Arabic notation and the algorithms of arithmetic.

It is no coincidence that the word digit also means the fingers and thumbs on our hands. The
fact that we use a base-ten place value system is almost certainly a consequence of a natural
tendency to count on our fingers.

The inconsistencies in the use of commas and points to separate groups of digits or whole
numbers from fractional parts when writing about money is one of several examples of
cultural differences in mathematics. Countries colonized or influenced by Britain (including the
USA, India and Malaysia) use a comma to separate blocks of 3 digits when writing amounts of
money, whereas countries colonized or influenced by continental European countries (including
South America and Vietnam) use a point. In Canada, a comma is used in the English speaking
west of the country and a point in the French-speaking east. These types of considerations
should be taken into account when working with families from other cultural backgrounds.

REFERENCES
The Child’s Understanding of Number, R. Gelman, and C. R. Gallistel, Harvard University
Press, (1978)
Children’s understanding of mathematics, K.M. Hart (Ed.), London: John Murray, (1981)
Young Children as Mathematicians: Theory and Practice for Teaching Mathematics, Dianna
Mannigel, Wentworth Falls NSW. Social Science Press, (1992)
CHAPTER 1
LESSON 2 - ADDITION AND
SUBTRACTION
Experiences Before Starting School
Motivation
Content
Vocabulary and symbols
Addition and subtraction with single-digit numbers
Addition beyond 20
Subtraction
Subtraction beyond 20
The relationship between subtraction and addition
Introducing algorithms
The standard addition algorithm
Common errors
Adding several numbers together
Standard subtraction algorithms
Links Forward
History
References

EXPERIENCES BEFORE STARTING SCHOOL

On their arrival at school, small children are likely to be aware that the world of numbers
exists, and may be able to:
 Recite the numbers up to 20 in order.
 Write the numerals 0 to 9.
 Grasp the connection between the numeral ‘3’, the word ‘three’ and a picture such as 

 or  .

MOTIVATION
Addition and subtraction are two of the ways we work with numbers. We call them arithmetical
operations. The word operation comes from the Latin ‘operari’, meaning to work or toil. Of the
four arithmetical operations on numbers, addition is the most natural.
Subtraction and addition are inverse operations.

For example, 6 = 4 + 2 is equivalent to 6 − 4 = 2 and also 6 − 2 = 4.

The ability to add numbers in your head is used when you play, or watch sport and when you
buy a couple of items at the shops.

Formal or written algorithms are useful when larger numbers make mental calculations
difficult. While there are many ways to calculate with arithmetic, the commonly taught
algorithms have remained in constant use because they provide an accurate and efficient
means to the answer. It is usual for children to develop some basic mental strategies before
they are taught formal algorithms.

A student will not develop a number-sense, or fluency with operations, if they move to
calculators too quickly. Once an understanding of numbers has been developed, calculators
and computers can be used with some confidence that any data-entry errors that are
inconsistent with our number sense will be identified. A relatively common example of
someone working without a sense of number is the person at the check-out who tries to
charge a large sum for an inexpensive item simply because the cash register tells them to,
without pausing to think that perhaps the code for the item was incorrect.

The development of solid understanding of addition and subtraction is essential for the
development of later concepts including other arithmetical operations, calculations arising
from measurements and algebra.
CONTENT
A child can develop the basic ideas related to addition whilst investigating the place value
system. However, there are some basic skills that are useful foundations necessary for
addition and subtraction of whole numbers:
 Some ability to decompose small numbers into tens and ones.
 Some understanding of place value.
 Counting forwards and backwards by ones and skip-counting.
 The use of the number line to place numbers in relation to other numbers.
 The use of the number line to compare numbers to thirty.
 The ability to make a judgment about the relative size of two or more sets of objects as
a pre-cursor to finding the difference between them.

Children’s early experience of addition and subtraction may include an understanding that
‘when I add, I get more’ and ‘when I subtract, I have less than what I started with’. Later,
when they have some experience with negative numbers, they will learn that this is not
always true.

When we combine two or more disjoint collections of objects, the total number of objects is
the sum of the numbers in each of the collections. For example, in the picture below there are
4 pineapples in the first set and 2 pineapples in the second set,

so we say there are 6 pineapples altogether and we can write 4 + 2 = 6.

If we start with 6 pineapples and take away 2, we are left with 4. We can write 6 – 2 = 4.

VOCABULARY AND SYMBOLS

There is a great deal of language related to the concepts of addition and subtraction.
Addition − and, add, plus, put together with, sum
Subtraction − take away, minus, subtract, difference

Some of those words are used imprecisely outside of mathematics. For example, there is no
exact amount of brown sugar that I need to add to my porridge to make it tasty. It is
important that children are exposed to a variety of different terms that apply in addition and
subtraction situations and that the terms are used accurately. Often it is desirable to
emphasise one term more than others when introducing concepts, however a flexibility with
terminology is to be aimed for.

Looking at where words come from gives us some indication of what they mean. The word
‘sum’ comes from the Latin summus and means highest. In Latin, less is written as minus,
hence our use of the word to mean subtraction.
Use of the word ‘sum’

It is important that we use the language related to addition correctly. Many years ago
students were told to ‘do their sums’ and this could apply to any calculation using any of the
four basic operations. This is an inaccurate use of the word ‘sum’. Finding the ‘sum’ of two or
more numbers means to add them together. Teachers at this level should take care not to use
the word ‘sum’ for anything but addition.

The symbols + and −

The first use of the symbols + and − for addition and subtraction in Europe occurred during
the 17th Century. Until then, it was common to use the letter P for plus and the letter M for
minus.

Once students are becoming fluent with the concept of addition and subtraction then the
symbolic notation, + for addition and − for subtraction, can be introduced. Initially, the ideas
will be explored through a conversation, then written in words, followed by a combination of
words and numerals and finally using numerals and symbols. At each step, when the child is
ready, the use of symbols can reflect the child’s ability to deal with abstract concepts.

The use of the = symbol

It is important that children see the = symbol as a sign for equality. Unfortunately, many
children think of = as a ‘put the answer here’ symbol and never develop the ability to think of
= as a balance between equivalent statements. One way to avoid this misconception is to
present the statement in different ways so

3 + 1 =    can also be written as  =3+1  or  4 =   + 1

Making connections between equivalent statements is also desirable. As children become

familiar with addition and subtraction they may begin to write statements such as
3 + 1 = 2 + 2 since both are equal to 4.

The = symbol can be thought of as a

balance in the same way a set of scales
balances when the two sides are
equivalent. Many teachers use this idea
with blocks or other objects of the same
size and mass on a set of classroom scales
to model addition and subtraction.

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION WITH SINGLE-DIGIT NUMBERS

In the early years of school, a feeling for mathematics is developed through the use of stories,
games and conversations accompanied by concrete objects such as toys, pebbles or counters
and virtual manipulatives such as interactive whiteboard objects and items that can be moved
around on a computer screen. With practice, students will come to visualize objects and
manipulate them mentally to assist with calculations. We group all of these types of objects
and call them manipulatives.

At this stage, the focus is on the use of numbers up to ten. As the child’s repertoire develops,
larger numbers can be introduced. A further development in the child’s understanding will be
for these early strategies to become mental strategies.
Much work is sometimes needed with concrete objects before these concepts can be wholly
abstracted. As each strategy for carrying out addition and subtraction is developed with the
students, there is a similar approach:
The teacher may spend more time on any one of these steps, depending on the needs of the
students.

The approach is outlined below for the example 2 + 3 = 5

1. Introduce the idea with real-life contexts and concrete objects. There are two girls and
three girls sitting at a table in our classroom. How many girls are there altogether? Teacher
draws the following or acts out the situation with the students.

2. Explain the action in words.

Say: “There are two girls and three girls. There are five girls altogether.”
Write: Two girls and three girls is five girls.
3. Use numerals instead of number words in a sentence. 2 girls and 3 girls is 5 girls
4. Introduce symbols for the action of addition or subtraction. 2 + 3 is 5
5. Use the = symbol for equality. 2 + 3 = 5
6. Think of other situations to illustrate this problem.
2 girls + 3 girls = 5 girls
2 monkeys + 3 monkeys = 5 monkeys
2 stars + 3 stars = 5 stars
and so on…

One more and one less

Starting with a number that they know, children can be introduced to addition and subtraction
through the ideas of ‘one more’ and ‘one less’. These ideas will be familiar to the child who has
experienced counting forwards and backwards by ones. Then, we can build the understanding
by talking about ‘two more’ and ‘two less’ than a particular number and so on.
In the beginning, these ideas should be discussed in conjunction with the use of collections of
concrete objects.

Counters can be used to show addition following the steps as before

  Three   One more than three is four

     3 + 1 is 4
     3+1=4
 
We can also use counters to demonstrate subtraction.
      

   

  Four   One less than four is three

      4 take-away (subtract or minus)1 is 3
      4 − 1 is 3
      4−1=3
‘One more’ can be illustrated on the number line:

‘One less’ can also be illustrated on the number line:

After some time exploring one and two more and one and two less, children begin to recall the
addition or subtraction ‘fact’ quickly, without having to think for very long about it. We call
this quick or automatic recall of facts, and this comes from understanding the processes
involved, not just memorisation.
Addition with single-digit numbers
In their first year of school, before the concepts of addition and subtraction are introduced,
children work with small numbers and represent them in different ways, showing their
understanding of the number system and the ways we can combine and decompose numbers.
For example, they may use tens-frames with counters to illustrate their understanding that
ten is 4 and 6 or 3 and 7 as shown:

They may demonstrate the different ways to ‘make a number’ using coloured blocks as shown
below. In each case, different words have been used to illustrate the variety of vocabulary
related to this exercise.
7 equals zero add seven  

1 and 6 make 7  

2 plus 5 is 7  

7 is 3 plus 4  

four add three is seven  

the sum of 5 and 2 is 7  

6 and one more makes 7  

7 plus nothing = seven  

It is useful for students to become adept at all of the different ways to decompose each
number under ten and include these in their repertoire of facts.
For example, 7 = 7 + 0 = 6 + 1 = 5 + 2 = 4 + 3 = 3 + 4 = 2 + 5 = 1 + 6 = 0 + 7
The quick recall of these makes more complex calculations much simpler and efficient later on.
Once the numbers to ten are known, then students can build to twenty and beyond.
Knowledge of addition and subtraction with small numbers helps with the more difficult ones.
For example, knowing that 6 + 3 is 9 is essential when calculating 26 + 3 = 29.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITY
You will need a beach ball and a permanent marker. Write the numbers 0 to 20 on a beach
ball. Pass the beach ball around the class. The teacher describes a procedure or operation to
be carried out using the number that lands nearest the right thumb of the person who catches
the ball. For example, if a child catches the ball and the number nearest their right thumb is 7.
Some suggestions:

 Double the number

 Say one more than the number
 Tell the class the number that is two less than the number
 Add 6 to the number
 Add 17 to the number
 Tell the class one way to ‘rip apart’ the number
 Say the number needed to make-up to the next ten

Zero
When zero is added to any number, the number is unchanged. 
For example,
5 + 0 = 5 = 0 + 5.
This is true for all numbers. Hence, we call zero the identity element for addition of 
whole numbers.
The identity element for multiplication is 1. When any number is multiplied by 1 the number is
unchanged. For example,
5×1=5=1×5
It is important to have this conversation with young children in very simple terms, using lots
of examples in the early stages of developing understanding about addition.

Addition on the number line

The number line gives another picture to aid in understanding the addition. Each addition is a
jump to the right.
So we can show 4 + 7 = 11 on the number line:

Tens complements

In this module we use the word decompose for the act of breaking a number into smaller
parts. In the classroom, teachers might be less formal in their language and use phrases such
as ‘pull apart’ and ‘rip apart’ as well as decompose.
Fluency with the different ways to decompose ten is the basis of calculating strategies to
come. Since ten is central in our number system, rapid recall of the tens complements is an
important skill:
10 = 0 + 10 = 1 + 9 = 2 + 8 = 3 + 7 = 4 + 6 = 5 + 5 = 6 + 4 = 7 + 3 = 8 + 2 = 9 + 1 = 10
+0

In the early years of schoolling, understanding of the tens complements can be modelled with
blocks or counters or shown on the number line.

Use of doubles and near-doubles

Doubles of each of the single-digit numbers can be demonstrated using concrete materials and
matching one for one.

So we get ‘the doubles’

1 + 1 = 2, 2 + 2 = 4, 3 + 3 = 6, 4 + 4 = 8, 5 + 5 = 10, 6 + 6 = 12, 7 + 7 = 14,  

8 + 8 = 16, 9 + 9 = 18…
Instant recall of the doubles is a useful skill.

Once the doubles have been mastered the ‘near-doubles’ are the natural next step. For
example to calculate 5 + 6 the child might say “I know that 5 + 5 is 10 so 5 + 6 must be 11”
and so on.
The doubles can be used in reverse to solve subtractions too. For example, if a child is trying
to calculate 12 − 6, they may say “double six is 12, so 12 − 6 must be 6”.
The addition table

It is essential that students can do all the additions in the addition table for two single-digit
numbers before they progress to larger numbers. No standard addition algorithm will help
students do these additions − they are the building blocks of the addition algorithm.

Fluency with the addition table provides a milestone for understanding for the student and a
key stage in the child’s development that the teacher should be aware of. The more automatic
these are, the easier the student will find addition and subtraction in the future.

Before moving on to subtraction algorithms, students need to be fluent in all subtractions for
which the addition table of single-digit numbers provides the complementary additions. For
example, 13 = 8 + 5 gives 13 − 5 = 8 and 13 − 8 = 5.

ADDITION BEYOND 20

Once students have grasped addition with single digit numbers and two-digit numbers to
around twenty, then they should progress to the larger numbers. A firm understanding of
place value is necessary before embarking on this stage of the journey. Many of the strategies
for the numbers over 20 build on those used with the small numbers.

Some addition strategies are more useful than others depending on the numbers used. The
strategies described earlier for one-digit and two-digit numbers can become mental strategies
after much practice. The key to successful and efficient use of mental strategies is to choose
the best strategy for the numbers involved. In some cases the best strategy may be the
formal algorithm.

Adding single digit numbers

Once the additions to 20 have been mastered, they can be used to solve similar problems
where one of the numbers is larger by ten, or a multiple of ten.
For example, if we know that 8 + 7 = 15, then 18 + 7 is ten more, so 18 + 7 = 25
and 28 + 7 = 35 and so on.

Using concrete objects for addition beyond 20

Having a firm understanding of the importance of ‘ten’, and of place-value in general, is

necessary before embarking on this stage. To introduce the idea of the ten as a unit, we can
make bundles of ten with concrete objects.
Icy-pole sticks bundled into a ten with an elastic band can be used to represent the two
numbers to be added.
To add 19 to 12, first we make each number using icy-pole sticks. Bundling each ten with an
elastic band.

Then we add the two numbers by pushing the two sets of icy-pole sticks together. We group
them into tens and ones,

making new bundles of ten where possible from the loose ‘ones’.

and we find that 19 + 12 is 31.

The next step is to use MAB blocks in the same way, but this time we trade ten ones for one
ten in the final step.

Adding a single-digit number to a two-digit number without ‘carrying’

The first step is to understand that this simplifies to the addition of two single-digit numbers.
Using hands-on materials is necessary in the early stages. Students then need to mentally
apply decomposition and associativity to produce arguments such as the following.
22 + 5 =(20 + 2) + 5 = 20 + (2 + 5) = 20 + 7 = 27

This is decomposition followed by the use of the associative rule.

When children are using the number line, we can identify which children are still counting on
by ones

from those that are skip-counting by fives.

Adding a single-digit number to a two-digit number with carrying

Once the previous case is mastered, students should be progressed to the extra complication
of the need to go over the ten or to ‘carry’ a ten. In the first instance, students would use tens
complements as illustrated below.
28 + 5 = 28 + 2 + 3 = 30 + 3 = 33
On the number line, this corresponds to jumping to the first number, then jumping to the
nearest ten above it, then jumping the rest of the way. The mental strategy essentially
involves calculating the size of this last jump.

Alternative strategies should also be investigated. Different strategies should be recognized as

equally valid and their relative merits discussed. In particular, students should be introduced
to the process used in the standard algorithm in an informal way. For example,
28 + 5 = 20 + 8 + 5 = 20 + 13 = 33

We observe that this argument reduces to a decomposition and two applications of adding two
single-digit numbers, with one of the additions taking place in the tens column.

Adding two two-digit numbers with no carrying involved

Mental strategies for adding two-digit numbers usually involve decomposing one of them and
reducing the problem to one, or a combination, of the cases already discussed. We illustrate
this with the example 24 + 15.
First add ones then add tens.
This approach corresponds to
24 + 15 = (24 +5) + 10 = 29 + 10 = 39

This is the approach that is formalised in the standard algorithm. On the number line, this
corresponds to skip-counting as illustrated below.

First add tens then add ones.

This involves the calculation
24 + 15 = 24 + 10 + 5 = 34 + 5 = 39

This is a valid approach. Indeed, developmentally it often comes before the previous
technique. It is messier when applied algorithmically, so it is important that students who
naturally discover this method also understand the previous approach.

On the number line this corresponds to implementing the second and third jumps above in the
opposite order.

Adding two two-digit numbers with carrying involved

The next level of complication involves introducing ‘carries’. We illustrate various techniques
using 28 + 15.

First add ones then add tens

28 + 15 = 28 + 5 + 10 = 33 + 10 = 43
First add tens then add ones
28 + 15 = 28 + 10 + 5 = 38 + 5 = 43

This technique requires revisiting the tens after the ones have been dealt with.
Build to tens

In this technique we decompose one number to create a tens complement for the other. This
can usually be done in more than one way. For example
28 + 15 = 28 + 2 + 13 = 30 + 13 = 43 and 28 + 15 = 23 + 5 + 15 = 23 + 20 = 43.
SUBTRACTION

Our choice of approach for subtraction depends on the numbers involved. We usually calculate
20 − 17 using complementary addition, whereas we calculate 20 − 3 directly by taking away.
Both correspond to the same addition fact 20 = 17 + 3.
Once students start using an algorithm, they might be less likely to develop new strategies. It
is therefore important that students are given the opportunity to develop a variety of useful
strategies before an algorithm is introduced.

Subtraction as take-away
Subtraction can be thought of as removing some objects from a set of objects.
If we start with 9 keys

And take away 7

We are left with 2 keys

This can be shown on the number line. A subtraction can be thought of as a jump to the left
on the number line.

So, for 9 − 7 = 2, we start at the number nine, and take a jump of 7 to the left.

9−7=2

Subtraction as difference

There is another way to think about subtraction, as the difference between the size of two
collections. This helps us answer questions of the type “What is the difference between 9 and
7?” This can be shown using counters.

We line up 9 counters and then line up 7 counters, placing them so that there is one-to-one
correspondence between the collections as far as possible:

and we can see that there is a difference of 2 in the size of the collections. So we say that the
difference between 9 and 7 is 2.

Difference arises naturally when comparing the heights of two people.

For example, Harry is 123cm tall and Ally is 112cm tall. How much taller is Harry than Ally?
We calculate the difference between Harry’s height and Ally’s height and conclude that Harry
is 11 cm taller than Ally or Ally is 11cm shorter than Harry.
Subtracting as “adding on”
Sometimes we add to solve subtraction situations. To calculate the subtraction 5 − 2 we can
ask “What do you add to 2 in order to get to 5?” This can also be illustrated on the number
line.

That is 5 − 2 = 3

One example of this is “I have 5 pencils and my brother has 2, so I have 3 more pencils than
my brother”.

SUBTRACTION BEYOND 20

Once students have grasped subtraction with single digit numbers and two-digit numbers to
around twenty, then they should progress to the larger numbers. It is at this point that the
student will need a firm understanding of place value. Many of the strategies for the numbers
over 20 build on those used with the small numbers.

Using concrete objects for subtraction beyond 20

When we explored the use of concrete objects for addition beyond 20, we used icy-pole sticks
and explained that the next step would be to use MAB Blocks. In this section, we will use MAB
blocks and allow the reader to determine how the icy-pole sticks might be used as the
introductory step for subtraction.

Subtraction without trading

For example, to subtract 34 from 76 we make the number 76 using 7 tens and 6 ones with
MAB

then take-away 4 ones and 3 tens, which leaves 42.

Subtraction with trading

Trading, or decomposition, relies on the student understanding that ten ones can be traded for
one ten.
To calculate 76 − 39, we make the number 76 using 7 tens and 6 ones with MAB.

The next step is to take 9 ones. To have enough ones we need to ‘trade’ one ten for ten ones:

making 6 tens and 16 ones

Now we can take 9 ones and 3 tens, which results in

the calculation 76 − 39 = 37.

The trading is an important step.
76 − 39
=   60 + 16 − (30 + 9)
=   60 − 30 + 16 − 9
=   30 + 7
=   37

Single-digit subtraction with no change to ‘columns’

When a student sees 68 − 5, they must recognize that the mental calculation is not much
more complicated than 8 − 5 and conclude that 68 − 5 = 63. In doing so, they are mentally
decomposing 68 and calculating
68 − 5 = 60 + (8 − 5) = 63

Decomposition is a basic component of all subtraction algorithms.

Single digit subtraction with change to ‘columns’

Students should be asked to consider calculations such as 62 − 5 = 57 and encouraged to

perform the subtraction in different ways including:
 Counting backwards and keeping track of the steps. 

For example, 
 Breaking the number apart into manageable steps. 
For example, 62 − 5 = 60 − 3 = 57 
 Mentally trading one ten for ten ones. 
For example, 62 − 5 = 50 + 12 − 5 = 57

Subtraction by equal addition

The principle of equal addition is the observation that if you add the same amount to two
numbers, their difference does not change.
In the example,
37 − 18 = 39 − 20 = 19,
we have added 2 to both 37 and 18 to make the calculation easier.

Note that the principle of equal addition also tells us that if you subtract the same amount
from two numbers their difference does not change. This can be used in a mental subtraction
such as
115 − 65 = 100 − 50 = 50  or  115 − 65 = 110 − 60 = 50.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SUBTRACTION AND ADDITION

Each addition statement gives two subtraction statements.
For example, 4 + 6 = 10 gives 10 − 4 = 6 and 10 − 6 = 4.

As children build understanding about addition and subtraction, it is important that they
become accustomed to making these connections.

We can use addition to solve subtraction problems because subtraction is the inverse
operation to addition. To “undo” an addition we perform the corresponding subtraction and
vice-versa. This relationship makes it tempting to assume subtraction behaves in a similar way
to addition, but this assumption is incorrect and this thinking can be the source of many errors
in arithmetic.

Addition satisfies the following important properties.

The any-order property for addition states that a list of whole numbers can be added two at a
time in any order to give the same result.

The any-order property of addition is a consequence of two properties.

Addition is commutative, in the sense that a + b = b + a for all numbers a and b. 

For example, 14 + 6 = 6 + 14

Addition is associative, in the sense that (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) for all numbers,
b, and c.

For example, (3 + 2) + 6 = 3 + (2 + 6)
Subtraction is not as well-behaved as addition.
Subtraction is not commutative. For example, 2 − 4 ≠ 4 − 2.
Subtraction is not associative. For example, 6 − (4 − 1) ≠ (6 − 4) − 1.
In particular, the any-order property of addition does not transfer to subtraction. With
subtraction, the order in which operations are performed is critical. Failing to observe and
understand this can cause many arithmetic errors.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITY
Write the following numbers on the board (or choose some of your own):
16  29  4  13  42  10  19  23  17  30  6  46
Ask students to select two or three numbers and show a connection between them using + for
addition or − for subtraction and = for equality and any of the strategies the students know
for addition or subtraction.
For example,
 Double 23 is 46, so 23 + 23 = 46
 23 + 6 = 29, so 29 − 23 = 6 and 29 − 6 = 23

INTRODUCING ALGORITHMS

An algorithm works most efficiently if it uses a small number of strategies that apply in all
situations. So algorithms do not resort to techniques, such as the use of near-doubles, that
are efficient for a few cases but not useful in the majority of cases. The benefit of an algorithm
is that it can become an automated process that, once understood, provides an accurate and
efficient means to finding a solution. Algorithms are dependable and efficient tools in
mathematics.

Algorithms for addition and subtraction should not be introduced until students have started to
develop a familiarity with basic addition and subtraction to twenty.

Most addition and subtraction algorithms rely on place value for their implementation. Thus
the ability to line up numbers in their place value columns is a pre-cursor to the introduction
of both the addition and subtraction algorithms.

THE STANDARD ADDITION ALGORITHM

As a procedure, the standard algorithm for addition works in the following steps.
 Align the digits in the numbers into columns of corresponding place value.
 Draw a line under the last number you are adding and put a + somewhere to note
which operation you are performing.
 Starting from the rightmost column and working from right to left, perform the
following subprocedure for each column.
o Add the digits in the column, including any carry digits.
o Write the units digit of your answer in the same column, but under the line.
o Make a note of any carry digits in the next column to the left.
If we want to add 39 to 45 we can use the addition algorithm.

   

We say, ‘9 ones plus 5 ones is 14 ones’.

14 ones is the same as 1 ten and 4 ones.
Write 4 in the ones column and carry 1 ten 
into the tens column.

   

Now look at the tens column.

We say, ‘3 tens + 4 tens + 1 tens 
(carried from before) = 8 tens’.
Write the 8 in the tens column.
39 + 45 = 84

The addition algorithm can be extended to add any number of numbers of any size. All you
need to do is add the columns from right to left, and carry whenever you get ten or more.
The digits are aligned in columns to ensure that like terms are added. The digits in smaller
fonts are the carry digits and are reminders to add values into that column generated from the
sum of the digits in the previous (that is, immediately to the right) column. In the standard
algorithm, the location of the carry digits are habitual, as is the location of the + sign.

COMMON ERRORS

Misaligned columns
A common early error is to misalign the columns. For example, miscalculating 278 + 54 by
writing

Entering a two-digit number into a single column

Another common error is to enter a two-digit number into a single column, thereby destroying
the place-value alignment in the solution. For example,
Forgetting to add the carry digits in the calculation
For example,

ADDING SEVERAL NUMBERS TOGETHER

When we use the standard algorithm to add several numbers together, new situations arise.
Adding within columns

When implementing the algorithm to add two numbers, the most complicated process we face
when adding a column of digits is the sum of two single-digit numbers. When we use the
algorithm to add more than two numbers, we may have to use mental arithmetic to add a
single-digit number to a two-digit number. Consider the following example.

When adding the digits in the ones column we calculate 3 + 9 = 12 and then 12 + 6 = 18.
Similarly, when adding the digits in the tens column we also need to use mental arithmetic to
add a single-digit number to a two-digit number.

Higher carry digits

In some cases, the carry digits are greater than 1.

When we add a long list of numbers, the sum of a column may be a three-digit number. In
this case we will need to add a single-digit number to a three-digit number, and the carry will
be a two-digit number.

STANDARD SUBTRACTION ALGORITHMS

We need an algorithm for subtraction, just as we have an algorithm for addition. Algorithms
must be robust − that is, they must be easy to remember and implement.
The special case

When each digit in the ‘bottom number’ is less than or equal to the digit in the ‘top number’,
you simply subtract in each column.

The general case

We need to deal with subtractions such as

where the 6 is greater than the 4. There are several standard approaches to this, and we
discuss the two most common.

The equal addition method (also known as ‘borrow and pay back’)
This method is based on the observation that adding 10 to both numbers does not change the
difference between them. So we write

to mean that we add ten ones to 34 and one ten to 16. The algorithm works because,
arithmetically, we are actually subtracting 26 from 44. The difference between 44 and 26 is
the same as the difference between 34 and 16.
This can be seen on the number line:

CLASSROOM ACTIVITY
Demonstrate 42 − 17 = 45 − 20 = 25 on the number line.
1. Draw an accurate number line on the board, marking in benchmarks such as 0, 50, the
multiples of ten and the numbers 42 and 17.
2. Cut a streamer equal to the distance on the number line between 42 and 17.
3. Slide the streamer along the number line to show that this is equal to 45 − 20 and to
the distance between 0 and 25
If there are many zeroes, we may need to
In the subtraction below, we are adding perform equal addition in several columns
‘ten tens’ to the top line and adding one before we can complete the calculation, as
hundred to the bottom line. illustrated below.

You can check that 3004 = 46 + 2958.

The traditional terminology for equal addition, “borrow and pay back”, is an unfortunate term
because it does not accurately describe the process. The phrase “add the same to both
numbers” is a more accurate description of the equal addition principle.

Decomposition method (also known as ‘trading’)

The names trading and decomposition come from the place-value representation of the
numbers, as modelled by Diene’s blocks (MAB). The subtraction of one from the tens column
and adding ten to the ones column can be viewed as the “long” block being traded for, or
decomposed into, ten “ones”.

We calculate 34 − 16 by writing 34 as 20 + 14 instead of 30 + 4.

34 − 16 = (20 + 14) − (10 + 6)
= (20 − 10) + (14 − 6)
= 10 + 8
Algorithmically, we indicate the new
regrouping as a conversion of one ten into
ten ones.
This can get messy using the decomposition
method if you don’t have a good number
sense. We could implement the calculation
one column at a time, but this is time
consuming and can get untidy and hard to
follow.

Cascading trades
Consider the following calculation

People often say `I haven’t got any tens’.

But in fact they have 300 tens! The key is
to think of the 3000 as 300 tens and shift
one of the tens over to the ones column,
leaving you with 299 tens.

This way the calculation looks clean and is fast.

The advantages and disadvantages of the equal addition and decomposition

algorithms

An advantage of the equal addition method is that it is easier to use and produces a tidier and
less cluttered layout. A disadvantage of the method is that the mathematics underpinning the
technique has an extra layer of complexity.

An advantage of the decomposition method is that it is initially easier to explain, especially

using place-value blocks. The algorithm depends on expressing one number in a more
convenient format. A disadvantage is that the layout can get messy, mainly because of all of
the markings, and this can lead to more errors.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITY
Calculate 842 − 678 using equal addition and using decomposition (trading) to compare the
two techniques.
LINKS FORWARD
Understanding addition and subtraction of whole numbers is essential for the further study of
arithmetic and mathematics. Multiplication of whole numbers can be thought of as repeated
addition. Fluency with subtraction is essential for division. Subtraction is used when we
perform division calculations, especially with the use of the division algorithm.

A strong number-sense is an invaluable advantage in the understanding of algebra. In

particular, the process of decomposing and recombining numbers aids the understanding of
general algebraic manipulations. A strong grounding in arithmetic sets a student up for
success in algebra.

Consumer arithmetic contains a wealth of applications of addition and subtraction. These

include basic calculations, such as finding the change in a financial transaction, to calculating
discounts and mortgage repayments.

HISTORY
Addition, in the sense of measuring the size of combined sets, was probably done as soon as
people counted. Addition itself does not change; 4 + 2 is six regardless of whether you write it
as 6, VI or  . Just as the history of number is really all about the development of numerals,
the history of addition and subtraction is mainly the history of the processes people have used
to perform calculations. The development of addition and subtraction are not documented
because they are essentially prehistoric. The oldest written records of mathematical
calculations date back over 4000 years to the ancient Egyptians and Babylonians. These
documents include addition and subtraction problems, so we know that these operations were
already used by then.

The development of the Hindu-Arabic place-value notation enabled the implementation of

efficient algorithms for arithmetic and was probably the main reason for the popularity and
fast adoption of the notation.

The word algorithm is derived from the name of Muhammad al-Khwārizmī, an Islamic
astronomer and mathematician. In 825 AD he wrote a treatise entitled Book on Addition and
Subtraction after the Method of the Indians. It was translated into Latin in the 12th century
as Algoritmi de Numero Indorum. The term Algoritmi probably referred to 
al-Khwarizmi rather than a general procedure of calculation, but the name has stuck.
REFERENCES
A History of Mathematics: An Introduction, 3rd Edition, Victor J. Katz, Addison-Wesley, (2008)
CHAPTER 1
LESSON 3 - MULTIPLICATION AND
DIVISION
Assumed Knowledge
Motivation
Content
Introducing vocabulary and symbols
Modelling multiplication
Properties of multiplication
Learning the multiplication table.
Modelling division
Division without remainder
Division with remainder
Properties of division
Multiplication algorithm
The standard division algorithm
Links Forward
History
Italian or lattice method
References
Answers to Exercises

ASSUMED KNOWLEDGE
Much of the building of understanding of early mathematics occurs concurrently, so a child can
be developing the basic ideas related to multiplication and division whilst also investigating the
place-value system. However, there are some useful foundations necessary for multiplication
and division of whole numbers:
 Some experience with forwards and backwards skip-counting.
 Some experience doubling and halving small numbers.
(see F-4 Module Counting and Place Value  and F-4 Module Addition and Subtraction)

MOTIVATION
One way of thinking of multiplication is as repeated addition. Multiplicative situations arise
when finding a total of a number of collections or measurements of equal size. Arrays are a
good way to illustrate this. Some division problems arise when we try to break up a quantity
into groups of equal size and when we try to undo multiplications.

Multiplication answers questions such as:

1
Judy brought 3 boxes of chocolates. Each box contained 6 chocolates. How many chocolates
did Judy have?
2
Henry has 3 rolls of wire. Each roll is 4m long. What is the total length of wire that Henry has?
Division answers questions such as:
1
How many apples will each friend get if four friends share 12 apples equally 
between them?
2
If twenty pens are shared between seven children how many does each child receive, and how
many are left over?

Addition is a useful strategy for calculating ‘how many’ when two or more collections of objects
are combined. When there are many collections of the same size, addition is not the most
efficient means of calculating the total number of objects. For example, it is much quicker to
calculate 6 × 27 by multiplication than by repeated addition.
Fluency with multiplication reduces the cognitive load in learning later topics such as division.
The natural geometric model of multiplication as rectangular area leads to applications in
measurement. As such, multiplication provides an early link between arithmetic and geometry.

Fluency with division is essential in many later topics and division is central to the calculations
of ratios, proportions, percentages and slopes. Division with remainder is a fundamental idea
in electronic security and cryptography.

CONTENT
Multiplication and division are related arithmetic operations and arise out of everyday
experiences. For example, if every member of a family of 7 people eats 5 biscuits, we can
calculate 7 × 5 to work out how many biscuits are eaten altogether or we can count by ‘fives’,
counting one group of five for each person. In many situations children will use their hands for
multiples of five.

For whole numbers, multiplication is equivalent to repeated addition and is often introduced
using repeated addition activities. It is important, though that children see multiplication as
much more than repeated addition.

If we had 35 biscuits and wanted to share them equally amongst the family of 7, we would
use sharing to distribute the biscuits equally into 7 groups.

We can write down statements showing these situations:

7 × 5 = 35 and 5 × 7 = 35
Also,
35 ÷ 5 = 7 and 35 ÷ 7 = 5

INTRODUCING VOCABULARY AND SYMBOLS

There is a great deal of vocabulary related to the concepts of multiplication and division. For
example,
multiplication − multiply, times, product, lots of, groups of, repeated addition
division − sharing, divided by, repeated subtraction

Some of these words are used imprecisely outside of mathematics. For example, we might say
that a child is the product of her environment or we insist that children ‘share’ their toys even
though we do not always expect them to share equally with everyone.

It is important that children are exposed to a variety of different terms that apply in
multiplication and division situations and that the terms are used accurately. Often it is
desirable to emphasise one term more than others when introducing concepts, however a
flexibility with terminology is to be aimed for.

Looking at where words come from gives us some indication of what they mean. The word
‘multiply’ was used in the mathematical sense from the late fourteenth century and comes
from the Latin multi meaning ‘many’ and plicare meaning ‘folds’ giving multiplicare - ‘having
many folds’, which means ‘many times greater in number’. The term ‘manyfold’ in English is
antiquated but we still use particular instances such as ‘twofold’ or threefold’.

The word ‘divide’ was used in mathematics from the early 15th century. It comes from the
Latin, dividere meaning ‘to force apart, cleave or distribute’. Interestingly, the word widow has
the same etymological root, which can be understood in the sense that a widow is a woman
forced apart from her husband.

Use of the word ‘product’

The product of two numbers is the result when they are multiplied. So the product of 
3 and 4 is the multiplication 3 × 4 and is equal to 12.
It is important that we use the vocabulary related to multiplication and division correctly.
Many years ago we were told to ‘do our sums’ and this could apply to any calculation using
any of the operations. This is an inaccurate use of the word ‘sum’. Finding the ‘sum’ of two or
more numbers means to add them together. Teachers should take care not to use the word
‘sum’ for anything but addition.

The symbols × and ÷

The × symbol for multiplication has been in use since 1631. It was chosen for religious
reasons to represent the cross. We read the statement 3 × 4 as ‘3 multiplied by 4’.

In some countries a middle dot is used so 3 × 4 is written as 3.4. In algebra it is common to

not use a symbol for multiplication at all. So, a × b is written as ab.

The division symbol ÷ is known as the obelus. It was first used to signify division in 1659. We
read the statement 12 ÷ 3 as ‘12 divided by 3’. Another way to write division in school
arithmetic is to use the notation  , meaning ‘12 divided by 3’, but sometimes read as 
‘3 goes into 12’.

Mathematicians almost never use the ÷ symbol for division. Instead they use fraction
notation. The writing of a fraction is really another way to write division. So 12 ÷ 4 is

equivalent to writing  , where the numerator, 12, is the dividend and the denominator, 4, is
the divisor. The line is called called a vinculum, which is a Latin word meaning ‘bond or link’.

Once students are becoming fluent with the concepts of multiplication and division then the
symbolic notation, × for multiplication and ÷ for division, can be introduced. Initially, the ideas
will be explored through a conversation, then written in words, followed by a combination of
words and numerals and finally using numerals and symbols. At each step, when the child is
ready, the use of symbols can reflect the child’s ability to deal with abstract concepts.

MODELLING MULTIPLICATION

Modelling multiplication by arrays

Rectangular arrays can be used to model multiplication. For example, 3 × 5 is illustrated by

We call 15 the product of 3 and 5, and we call 3 and 5 factors of 15.

By looking at the rows of the array we see that

3×5=5+5+5

By looking at the columns of the array we also see that

5×3=3+3+3+3+3

This illustrates 3 × 5 = 5 × 3. We say that multiplication is commutative.

Arrays are useful because they can be used with very small as well as very large numbers,
and also with fractions and decimals.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITY
Children can model multiplication using counters, blocks, shells or any materials that are
available and arranging them in arrays.
1
Children construct arrays using a variety of materials.

2
Take a digital photograph.

3
Describe the multiplication using words, words and numbers and finally words 
and symbols.

Modelling multiplication by skip-counting and on the number line

Skip-counting, such as reciting 3, 6, 9, 15,..., is one of the earliest introductions to repeated
addition and hence to multiplication. This can be illustrated on a number line as shown for 3 ×
5 = 15 below.

3 × 5 = 15
On the number line, the fact that 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 = 5 + 5 + 5 is not so obvious; the
previous image shows 5 + 5 + 5, whereas 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 looks quite different.
Skip-counting is important because it helps children learn their multiplication tables.

Modelling multiplication by area

Replacing objects in an array by unit squares provides a natural transition to the area model of
multiplication. This is illustrated below for 3 × 5.

At this stage, we are simply using unit squares instead of counters or stars. We can also use
the area model of multiplication later for multiplication of fractions.

PROPERTIES OF MULTIPLICATION
One of the advantages of the array and area approach is that properties of multiplication are
more apparent.

Commutativity
As discussed above, turning the 3 × 5 array on its side illustrates that 3 × 5 = 5 × 3 because
the total number of objects in the array does not change.

   
3×5=5×3
We saw this before by looking at the rows and columns separately, but we can also do this by
turning the rectangle on its side. The area of the rectangle does not change.
3×5=5×3

Associativity
Another important property of multiplication is associativity, which says that
a × (b × c) = (a × b) × c for all numbers.
We can demonstrate this with the numbers 2, 3 and 4:
2 × (3 × 4) = (2 × 3) × 4
Associativity of multiplication ensures that the expression a × b × c is unambiguous.

Any-order property
We usually don’t teach young children associativity of multiplication explicitly when introducing
multiplication. Instead, we teach the any-order property of multiplication, which is a
consequence of the commutative and associative properties.

Any-order property of multiplication

A list of numbers can be multiplied together in any order to give the product of the numbers.
The any-order property of multiplication is analogous to the any- order property of addition.
Both associativity and commutativity are nontrivial observations; note that subtraction and
division are neither commutative nor associative. Once we are familiar with the arithmetic
operations we tend to take both associativity and commutativity of multiplication for granted,
just as we do for addition. Every so often, it is worth reflecting that commutativity and
associativity combine to give the important and powerful any-order properties for addition and
multiplication.
Multiplying three whole numbers corresponds geometrically to calculating the number of unit
cubes in (or volume of) a rectangular prism. The any-order property of multiplication means
that we can calculate this volume by multiplying the lengths of the sides in any order. The
order of the calculation corresponds to slicing the volume up in different ways.

(5 × 2) × 3 = (2 × 5)
5×2=2×5  
×3
     
  

(3 × 2) × 5 = (2 × 3)
3×2=2×3  
×5
     

(5 × 3) × 2 = (3 × 5)
5×3=3×5  
×2
We can apply this to the multiplication of three or more numbers, it doesn’t matter in which
order we do this.

Distributivity of Multiplication over Addition

The equation 3 × (2 + 4) = (3 × 2) + (3 × 4) is an example of the distributivity of
multiplication over addition. With arrays, this corresponds to the following diagram.

With areas it corresponds to the diagram below.

Multiplication is also distributive over subtraction.

For example 7 × (10 − 2) = 7 × 10 − 7 × 2.
We use the distributive property to enable us to reduce multiplication problems to a
combination of familiar multiples. For example,
7 × 101 = 7 × (100 + 1) = 700 + 7 = 707,
7 × 99 = 7 × (100 − 1) = 700 − 7 = 693,
7 × 102 = 7 × (100 + 2) = 700 + 14 = 714,
and
7 × 98 = 7 × (100 − 2) = 700 − 14 = 686.

EXERCISE 1
Use the distributive law to carry out the following multiplications.
a  9 × 32  b 31 × 8  c 102 × 8
The effect of multiplying by one
When any number is multiplied by 1, the number is unchanged. For example,
5×1=5=1×5
We call 1 the multiplicative identity. It is important to have this conversation with young
children in very simple terms, using lots of examples in the early stages of developing
understanding about multiplication.
Zero is the identity element for addition. When nothing is added to a set there is no effect on
the number of objects in that set. For example,
5 + 0 = 5 = 0 + 5.
This is true for all addition. Hence, we call zero the identity element for addition of 
whole numbers.

The effect of multiplying by zero

When any number is multiplied by zero the result is zero. Situations showing the effect of
multiplying by zero can be acted out with children using concrete objects.
For example,
If I have 5 baskets with three apples in each I have 5 × 3 = 15 apples in total. 
However, if I have 5 baskets with 0 apples in each, the result is 5 × 0 = 0 apples in total.

LEARNING THE MULTIPLICATION TABLE.

Fluency with multiplication tables is essential for further mathematics and in everyday life. For
a while it was considered unnecessary to learn multiplications tables by memory, but it is a
great help to be fluent with tables in many areas of mathematics.
If students can add a single-digit number to a two-digit number, they can at least reconstruct
their tables even if they have not yet developed fluency. It is therefore essential to ensure
that students can add fluently before they begin to learn their ‘tables’.
We strongly recommend that students learn their multiplication facts up to 12 × 12. This is
primarily because the 12 times table is essential for time calculations — there are 12 months
in a year, 24 hours in a day, and 60 minutes in an hour. Familiarity with dozens is useful in
everyday life because packaging in 3 × 4 arrays is so much more convenient than in 2 × 5
arrays. In addition, the 12 × 12 table has many patterns that can be constructively exploited
in pre-algebra exercises.
A straightforward approach to learning the tables is to recite each row, either by heart or by
skip-counting. However, students also need to be able to recall individual facts without
resorting to the entire table.
Looking at the 12 × 12 multiplication table gives the impression that there are 144 facts to be
learnt.

However, there are several techniques that can be used to reduce the number of facts to be
learnt.
 The commutativity of multiplication (8 × 3 = 3 × 8) immediately reduces this number
to 78.
 The 1 and 10 times tables are straightforward and their mastery reduces the number of
facts to be learnt to 55.

 The 2 and 5 times tables are the easiest to learn and their mastery further reduces the
number of facts to be learnt to 36.

 The 9 and 11 times tables are the next easiest to skip-count because 9 and 11 differ
from 10 by 1. This reduces the number of facts to 21. Children may notice the decreasing
ones digit and increasing tens digit in the nine times table. They may also be intrigued by the
fact that the sum of the digits of a multiple of 9 is always 9.
 The squares are useful and can be learnt just as one might learn a times table.

This reduces the number of terms to be learnt to 15.

Whatever techniques are used, the aim should be fluency.

MODELLING DIVISION
Division always involves splitting something into a number of equal parts, but there are many
contrasting situations that can all be described by ‘division’. Before introducing the standard
algorithm for division, it is worthwhile discussing some of these situations under the headings:
 Division without remainder,
 Division with remainder.

DIVISION WITHOUT REMAINDER

Here is a simple model of the division 24 ÷ 8.
Question: If I pack 24 apples into boxes, each with 8 apples, how many boxes will there be?
We can visualise the packing process by laying out the 24 apples successively in rows of 8, as
in the diagrams below.
The 3 rows in the last array use up all 24 apples, so there will be 3 full boxes, with no apples
left over. The result is written in mathematical symbols as

The number 24 is called the dividend (‘that which is to be divided’). The number 8 is called

the divisor (‘that which divides’). The number 3 is called the quotient, (from the
Latin quotiens meaning ‘how many times’).

Modelling division by skip-counting and on the number line

Division without remainder can be visualized as skip-counting.
0, 8, 16, 24…

On the number line we count in 8s until we reach 24.

EXERCISE 2
a  Evaluate 42 ÷ 3 by counting in 3s.
b  Evaluate 55 ÷ 11 by counting in 11s.
c  Evaluate 1000 ÷ 100 by counting in 100s.

Using arrays to show division without remainder is the inverse of multiplication

The rectangular array that we produced when we modeled 24 ÷ 8 is exactly the same array
that we would draw for the multiplication 3 × 8 = 24.

In our example:
 The statement 24 = 8 × 3 means ‘three boxes, each with 8 apples, is 24 apples’, and
 The statement 24 ÷ 8 = 3 means ‘24 apples make up 3 boxes, each with 8 apples’.

Division without remainder is the inverse process of multiplication.

The multiplication statement 24 = 8 × 3 can in turn be reversed to give a second division
statement
24 ÷ 3 = 8
which answers the question, ‘What is 24 divided by 3?
This corresponds to rotating the array by 90°, and regarding it as made up of 8 rows of 3. It
answers the question, ‘If I pack 24 apples into boxes each holding 3 apples, how many boxes
will be required?’
So the division statement 24 ÷ 8 = 3 now has four equivalent forms:
24 ÷ 8 = 3 and 24 = 8 × 3 and 24 = 3 × 8 and 24 ÷ 3 = 8.
EXERCISE 3
For each division statement, write down the corresponding multiplication statements, and the
other corresponding division statement.
a  8 ÷ 2 = 4  b  56 ÷ 8 = 7
c  81 ÷ 9 = 9. What happened in this example, and why?

Two models of division without remainder

This section is included for teachers because

children’s questions often concern pairs of 
situations similar to those described here.
If we have 24 balloons to share equally, there 
are two ways we can share them.
The first way is by asking ‘How many groups?’
For example, if we have 24 balloons and we give 
8 balloons each to a number of children, how many 
children get 8 balloons?
If we split 24 balloons into groups of 8, then 3 children get 8 balloons each.

We say ‘24 divided by 8 is 3’. This is written as 24 ÷ 8 = 3.

We can see this from the array:

3 lots of 8 make 24  24 ÷ 8 = 3

The second way is by asking ‘How many in each group?’ For example, if we share 
24 balloons among 8 children, how many balloons does each child receive? We want 
to make 8 equal groups. We do this by handing out one balloon to each child. This uses 
8 balloons. Then we do the same again.
We can do this 3 times, so each child gets 3 balloons.
Again, we can see this from the multiplication array:

So dividing 24 by 8 is the same as asking ‘Which number do I multiply 8 by to get 24?’

For each division problem, there is usually an associated problem modelling the same division
statement. The ‘balloons’ example above shows how two problems can have the same division
statement. One problem with balloons is the associate of the other.

EXERCISE 4
Write down in symbols the division statement, with its answer, for each problem below. Then
write down in words the associated problem:
a  If 24 children are divided into 4 equal groups, how many in each group?
b How many 2-metre lengths of fabric can be cut from a 20 metres length?
c  If 160 books are divided equally amongst 10 tables, how many on each table?
d  How many weeks are there in 35 days?

DIVISION WITH REMAINDER

We will now use apples to model 29 ÷ 8.

Question: If I pack 29 apples into boxes, each with 8 apples, how many boxes will there be?
As before, we can visualise the packing process by laying out the 29 apples successively in
rows of 8:

We can lay out 3 full rows, but the last row only has five apples, so there will be 3 full boxes
and 5 apples left over. The result is written as

dividend divisor quotient remainder

The number 5 is called the remainder because there are 5 apples left over. The remainder is
always a whole number less than the divisor.

As with division without remainder, skip-counting is the basis of this process:

0, 8, 16, 24, 32,…

We locate 29 between successive multiples 24 = 8 × 3 and 32 = 8 × 4 of the divisor 8. Then

we subtract to find the remainder 29 − 24 = 5.
We could also have answered the question above by saying, ‘There will be four boxes, but the
last box will be 3 apples short.’
This corresponds to counting backwards from 32 rather than forwards from 24, and the
corresponding mathematical statement would be
29 ÷ 8 = 4 remainder (−3).
It is not normal practice at school, however, to use negative remainders. Even when the
question demands the interpretation corresponding to it, we will always maintain the usual
school convention that the remainder is a whole number less than the divisor. Division without
remainder can be regarded as division with remainder 0. During the location process, we
actually land exactly on a multiple instead of landing between two of them. For example,  24 ÷
8 = 3 remainder 0, or more simply, 24÷ 8 = 3, and we say that
24 is divisible by 8 and that 8 is a divisor of 24.

The corresponding multiplication and addition statement

The 29 apples in our example were packed into 3 full boxes of 8 apples, with 5 left over. We
can write this as a division, but we can also write it using a product and a sum,
29 ÷ 8 = 3 remainder 5 or 29 = 8 × 3 + 5
So for division with remainder there is a corresponding statement with a multiplication
followed

by an addition, which is more complicated than division without remainder.

Two models of division with remainder

As before, problems involving division with remainder usually have an associated problem
modelling the same division statement. Continuing with our example of
29 ÷ 8 = 3 remainder 5:

Question: How many bags of 8 apples can I make from 29 apples and how many are left
over?

Question: I have 29 apples and 8 boxes. How many apples should I put in each box so that
there is an equal number of apples in each box and how many are leftover?
The following two associated questions model 63 ÷ 10 = 6 remainder 3.

Question: If I have 63 dollar coins, and ten people to give them to, how many coins does
each person get if they are to each have the same number of coins? How many are left over?

Question: If I have 63 dollar coins, how many $10 books can I buy and how many dollars do
I have left over?

EXERCISE 5
Answer each question in words, then write down its the associated division problem and
answer it.
a
How many 7-person rescue teams can be formed from 90 people?

b
How many 5-seater cars are needed to transport 43 people, and how many spare seats are
there?

PROPERTIES OF DIVISION

Order and brackets cannot be ignored

When multiplying two numbers, the order is unimportant. For example,
3 × 8 = 8 × 3 = 24.
When dividing numbers, however, the order is crucial. For example,
 20 ÷ 4= 5, but 4 ÷ 20 = 

To visualise this calculation, 20 people living in 4 homes means each home has on average 5

people, whereas 4 people living in 20 homes means each home has on average   of a person.

Similarly when multiplying numbers, the use of brackets is unimportant. For example,
(3 × 4) × 5 = 12 × 5 = 60  and  3 × (4 × 5) = 3 × 20 = 60.
When dividing numbers, however, the use of brackets is crucial. For example,
(24 ÷ 4) ÷ 2 = 6 ÷ 2 = 3;  but  24 ÷ (4 ÷ 2)= 24 ÷ 2= 12

Division by zero
Earlier we used empty baskets of apples to illustrate that 5 × 0 = 0.

The same model can be used to illustrate why division by zero is undefined.
If we have 10 apples to be shared equally amongst 5 baskets each basket will have 
10 ÷ 5 = 2 apples in each.
If the 10 apples are shared equally between 10 baskets, each basket has 10 ÷ 10 = 1 
apples in each.

If 10 apples are shared between 20 baskets, each basket will have   an apple in each.
What happens if we try to share 10 apples between 0 baskets? This cannot be done.
If 10 ÷ 0 = a 1

    10 ≠ a × 0.

This action is meaningless, so we say that 10 ÷ 0 is undefined.

We must always be careful to relate this to children accurately so that they understand that:
 10 ÷ 0 is NOT equal to 1 and
 10 ÷ 0 is NOT equal to 0
but 10 ÷ 0 is not defined.

Dividing by 4, 8, 16, . . .

Because 4 = 2 × 2 and 8 = 2 × 2 × 2, we can divide by 4 and 8, and by all powers of 2, by

successive halving.

To divide by 4, halve and halve again. For example, to divide 628 by 4,

628 ÷ 4 = (628 ÷ 2) ÷ 2 = 314 ÷ 2 = 157

To divide by 8, halve, halve, and halve again. For example, to divide 976 by 8,
976 ÷ 8 = (976 ÷ 2) ÷ 2 ÷ 2 = 488 ÷ 2 ÷ 2 = 244 ÷ 2 = 122

EXERCISE 6
Use repeated halving to evaluate
a  246 ÷ 4  b  368 ÷ 8  c  163 ÷ 8  d 12 048 ÷ 16

MULTIPLICATION ALGORITHM

An algorithm works most efficiently if it uses a small number of strategies that apply in all
situations. So algorithms do not resort to techniques, such as the use of near-doubles, that
are efficient for a few cases but useless in the majority of cases.

The standard algorithm will not help you to multiply two single-digit numbers. It is essential
that students are fluent with the multiplication of two single-digit numbers and with adding
numbers to 20 before embarking on any formal algorithm.

The distributive property is at the heart of our multiplication algorithm because it enables us
to calculate products one column at a time and then add the results together. It should be
reinforced arithmetically, geometrically and algorithmically.
For example, arithmetically we have 6 × 14 and algorithmically we implement this in
= 6 × 10 + 6 × 4, geometrically we see the the following calculation.
same phenomenon,
1 4
× 6
2 4
6 0 +
8 4

Once this basic property is understood, we

can proceed to the contracted algorithm.
Introducing the algorithm using materials

Initially when children are doing multiplication they will act out situations using blocks.
Eventually the numbers they want to multiply will become too large for this to be an efficient
means of solving multiplicative problems. However base-10 materials or bundles of icy-pole
sticks can be used to introduce the more efficient method - the algorithm.
If we want to multiply 6 by 14 we make 6 groups of 14 (or 14 groups of 6):

Collect the ‘tens’ together and collect the ‘ones’ together.

This gives 6 ‘tens’ and 24 ‘ones’.

Then make as many tens from the loose ones. There should never be more than nine single
ones when representing any number with Base-10 blocks.
This gives 6 ‘tens’ + 2 ‘tens’ + 4 ‘ones’.
We add the tens to get
14 × 6 = 10 × 6 + 4 × 6 = 60 + 20 + 4 = 84

Eventually we should start recording what is being done with the blocks using the
multiplication algorithm vertical format. Eventually the support of using the blocks can be
dropped and students can complete the algorithm without concrete materials.

Multiplying by a single digit

First we contract the calculation by keeping track of carry digits and incorporating the addition
as we go. The previous calculation shortens as either

  or 
depending on where the carry digits are recorded.
Care should be taken even at this early stage because of the mixture of multiplication and
addition. Note also that the exact location and size of the carry digit is not essential to the
process and varies across cultures.

Multiplying by a single-digit multiple of a power of ten

The next observation is that multiplying by a single-digit multiple of ten is no harder than
multiplying by a single digit provided we keep track of place value. So, to find the number of
seconds in 14 minutes we calculate
14 × 60 = 14 × 6 × 10 = 840
and implement it algorithmically as

  1 4
×   6 0
8 4 0
Similarly, we can keep track of higher powers of ten by using place value to our advantage. So
14 × 600 = 14 × 6 × 100 = 8400
Becomes

    1 4
×   6 0 0
8 4 0 0
For students who have met the underlying observation as part of their mental arithmetic
exercises the only novelty at this point is how to lay out these calculations.

Multiplying by a two-digit number

The next cognitive jump happens when we use distributivity to multiply two two-digit numbers
together. This is implemented as two products of the types mentioned above. For example,
74 × 63 = 74 × (60 + 3) = 74 × 60 + 74 × 3
is used in the two-step calculation below.
  7 4
×   6 3
2 2 2
4 4 4 0
4 6 6 2
This corresponds to the area decomposition illustrated below.
In the early stages, it is worth concurrently developing the arithmetic, geometric and
algorithmic perspectives illustrated above.
Unpacking each line in the long multiplication calculation using distributivity explicitly, as in

  7 4
×   6 3
  1 2
  2 1 0
  2 4 0
4 2 0 0
4 6 6 2
corresponds to the area decomposition

It is not efficient to do this extended long multiplication in order to calculate products in

general, but it can be used to highlight the multiple use of distributivity in the process. The
area model illustration used in this case reappears later as a geometric interpretation of
calculations in algebra.

THE STANDARD DIVISION ALGORITHM

There is only one standard division algorithm, despite its different appearances. The algorithm
can be set out as a ‘long division’ calculation to show all the steps, or as a ‘short division’
algorithm where only the carries are shown, or with no written working at all.

Setting the calculation out as a long division

We could set the work out as follows:
5 × 400 = 2000, then subtract 2000 from
2193
5 × 30 = 150, then subtract 150 from 193
5 × 8 = 40, then subtract 40 from 43
The standard ‘long division’ setting-out,
however, 
allows place value to work for us even more
efficiently, 
by working only with the digits that are
required for 
each particular division. At each step
another digit is 
required − this is usually called ‘bringing
down the next digit’.
 Divide 21 by 5.
5 × 4 = 20, then subtract 20 from 21. 
Bring down the 9, and divide 19 by 5.
5 × 3 = 15, then subtract 15 from 19.
Bring down the 3, and divide 43 by 5.
5 × 8 = 40, then subtract 40 from 43.
Hence 2193 ÷ 5 = 138 remainder 3. 
(Never forget to gather the calculation up
into a conclusion.)
The placing of the digits in the top line is
crucial. The first step is ‘5 into 21 goes 4’,
and the digit 4 is placed above the digit 1 in
21.

Setting the calculation out as a short division

Once the steps have been mastered, many people are comfortable doing each
multiplication/subtraction step mentally and writing down only the carry. The calculation then
looks like this:
We say, ‘5 into 21 goes 4, remainder 1’.
    ‘5 into 19 goes 3, remainder 4’.
    ‘5 into 43 goes 8, remainder 3’.

Zeroes in the dividend and in the steps

Zeroes will cause no problems provided that all the digits are kept strictly in their correct
columns. This same principle is fundamental to all algorithms that rely on place value.
The example to the right shows the long division and short division calculations for

16 070 ÷ 8 = 2008 remainder 6 We twice had to bring down 

the digit 0, and two of the divisions resulted
in a quotient of 0.

  
 
 It is possible to extend the division
algorithm to divide by numbers of more
than one digit. See module, Division of
Whole Numbers F to 4.

 
Using the calculator for division with remainder
People often say that division is easily done on the calculator. Division with remainder,
however, requires some common sense to sort out the answer.

EXAMPLE
Use the calculator to convert 317 minutes to hours and minutes.

SOLUTION

We can see that

350 minutes = 300 minutes + 50 minutes = 5 hours and 50 minutes.

With a calculator using the division key: Enter 350 ÷ 60, and the answer is 5.833333… hours.
Then subtract 5 to get 0.833333…, and multiply by 60 to convert to 50 minutes, giving the
answer 5 hours and 50 minutes.

Calculator assistance may be extremely useful with larger numbers, but experience with long
division is essential to interpret the calculator display This phenomenon is common to many
similar situations in mathematics.

LINKS FORWARD
The first application of multiplication that students are likely to meet is division. When
calculating a division, we are constantly calculating multiples of the divisor, and lack of fluency
with multiplication is a significant handicap in this process. The material in this module lays
the foundation for multiplication, and then division, of fractions and decimals.

Other applications of multiplication include percentages and consumer arithmetic. For

example, we calculate the price of an item inclusive of GST by calculating 1.1 times its pre-
GST cost.

A familiarity with multiplication and the expression of numbers as products of factors paves
the way for one of the major theorems in mathematics.

The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic states that every whole number bigger than 1
can be written as a product of prime numbers and such an expression is unique up to the
order in which the factors are written.

For example, 24 = 2  × 3 and 20 = 2  × 5.

3 2

The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic has far-reaching consequences and applications in

computer science, coding, and public-key cryptography.

Last, but not least, a strong grounding in arithmetic sets a student up for success in algebra.

The division algorithm uses multiplication and subtraction. As such, division demands that we
synthesise a lot of prior knowledge. This is what makes division challenging, and for many
students it is their first taste of multi-layered processes. The ability to reflect on what you
know, and implement it within a new, higher-level process is one of the generic mathematical
skills that division helps to develop.

The implementation of the division algorithm is typically a multi- step process, and as such it
helps to develop skills that are invaluable when students move on to algebra. The link to
factors is also critical in later years.

HISTORY
The product of two numbers is the same no matter how you calculate it or how you write your
answer. Just as the history of number is really all about the development of numerals, the
history of multiplication and division is mainly the history of the processes people have used to
perform calculations. The development of the Hindu-Arabic place-value notation enabled the
implementation of efficient algorithms for arithmetic and was probably the main reason for the
popularity and fast adoption of the notation.

The earliest recorded example of a division implemented algorithmically is a Sunzi division

dating from 400AD in China. Essentially the same process reappeared in the book of al
Kwarizmi in 825AD and the modern-day equivalent is known as Galley division. It is, in
essence, equivalent to modern-day long division. However, it is a wonderful example of how
notation can make an enormous difference. Galley division is hard to follow and leaves the
page a mess compared to the modern layout.

The layout of the long division algorithm varies between cultures.

Throughout history there have been many different methods to solve problems involving
multiplication. Some of them are still in use in different parts of the world and are of interest
to teachers and students as alternative strategies or because of the mathematical challenge
involved in learning them.

ITALIAN OR LATTICE METHOD

Another technique, known as the Italian or lattice method is essentially an implementation of
the extended version of the standard algorithm but in a different layout. The method is very
old and might have been the one widely adopted if it had not been difficult to print. It appears
to have first appeared in India, but soon appeared in works by the Chinese and by the Arabs.
From the Arabs it found its way across to Italy and can be found many Italian manuscripts of
the 14th and 15th centuries.

The multiplication 34 × 27 is illustrated here.

34 × 27 = 918
In the top right rectangle 4 × 2 is
calculated. The digit 8 is placed in the
bottom triangle and 0 in the top triangle.
Then 3 × 2 is calculated and the result
entered as shown.
In the bottom right rectangle 4 × 7 is
calculated. The digit 8 is placed in the
bottom triangle and the digit 2 in the top
triangle. The result of 3 × 7 is also
recorded in this way.
The green diagonal contains the units.
The blue diagonal contains the tens.
The orange diagonal contains the hundreds.

The digits are now summed along each diagonal starting from the right and each 
result recorded as shown. Note that there is a ‘carry’ from the ‘tens diagonal’ to the ‘hundreds
diagonal’

REFERENCES
A History of Mathematics: An Introduction, 3rd Edition, Victor J. Katz, Addison-Wesley, (2008)
History of Mathematics, D. E. Smith, Dover publications New York, (1958)
Knowing and Teaching Elementary Mathematics: teachers’ understanding of fundamental
mathematics in China and the United States. Liping Ma, Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates, (1999)
History of Mathematics, Carl B. Boyer (revised by Uta C. Merzbach), John Wiley and Sons,
Inc., (1991)