Mathematics-0

Complex Numbers, Part 01

Dimitri Jeltsema
2 Recall the set of all real numbers: R
3 The real (number) line: R

The real numbers are ordered:

We say a is less than b and write a < b if b − a is positive.

The notation a ≤ b (or b ≥ a) means that either a < b or a = b, and
reads as “a is less than or equal to b.”
4 Definition of a set

A set is a collection of objects, and these objects are called the

elements of the set. If S is a set, the notation a ∈ S (a 6∈ S) means
that a is (not) an element of S.
If S is empty, we write S = ∅.
Some sets can be described as (for instance)

A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5},

or, equivalently, in set-builder notation as

A = {x | x is an integer and 0 < x < 6},

meaning: “A is the set of x such that x is an integer and 0 < x < 6.”
5 Intervals

Open ‘( )’ vs closed ‘[ ]’ interval, or semi-open/-closed: ‘( ]’ and ‘[ )’.

6 Absolute value
The absolute value of a number a, denoted as |a|, is the distance
from a to 0 on R. Since distances are always positive or 0, we have

|a| ≥ 0 for every number a.

In general, we have

|a| = a if a ≥ 0
|a| = −a if a < 0
√ √
Recall that x means “the positive square root of x .” Thus s = r
means s = r 2 and s ≥ 0.
√
Question: is x 2 = x always true?
6 Absolute value
The absolute value of a number a, denoted as |a|, is the distance
from a to 0 on R. Since distances are always positive or 0, we have

|a| ≥ 0 for every number a.

In general, we have

|a| = a if a ≥ 0
|a| = −a if a < 0
√ √
Recall that x means “the positive square root of x .” Thus s = r
means s = r 2 and s ≥ 0.
√
Question: is x 2 = x always true?
√
No! Only when x ≥ 0. However, x 2 = |x | is always true.
7 Some useful properties absolute values
Suppose a and b are real numbers, i.e., a, b ∈ R, and n is an integer.
1. |ab| = |a||b|
a |a|
2. = (b 6= 0)
b |b|
3. |an | = |a|n

4. |a + b| ≤ |a| + |b| (Triangular Inequality)

Suppose a > 0. Then

5. |x | = a if and only if x = ±a

6. |x | < a if and only if −a < x < a

7. |x | > a if and only if x > a or x < −a

8 Entering imaginary numbers

You can solve equations like this

x 2 − 4 = 0,

right?
8 Entering imaginary numbers

You can solve equations like this

x 2 − 4 = 0,

right? The answers are 2 and −2, or x ∈ {−2, 2}.

8 Entering imaginary numbers

You can solve equations like this

x 2 − 4 = 0,

right? The answers are 2 and −2, or x ∈ {−2, 2}.

Now suppose some weirdo comes in, and changes this equation just a
tiny little bit, into something like

x 2 + 4 = 0.

Is there a ‘real’ meaning to this problem?

8 Entering imaginary numbers

You can solve equations like this

x 2 − 4 = 0,

right? The answers are 2 and −2, or x ∈ {−2, 2}.

Now suppose some weirdo comes in, and changes this equation just a
tiny little bit, into something like

x 2 + 4 = 0.

Is there a ‘real’ meaning to this problem? The answer is yes!

9 Entering imaginary numbers

√
Define i := −1 and call it an imaginary (unit) number.
Now, just applying the same rules as before. . .

i 2 = −1

What does this mean, and how can this be useful?

Disclaimer: Like many others, I dislike the term ‘imaginary number’.

As it will turn out, the number i is just as normal as other numbers.
Moreover. . .
One might think ... that imaginary numbers are just a mathe-
matical game having nothing to do with the real world. From
the viewpoint of positivist philosophy, however, one cannot
determine what is real. All one can do is find which mathe-
matical models describe the universe we live in.

It turns out that a mathematical model involving imaginary

time predicts not only effects we have already observed but
also effects we have not been able to measure yet nevertheless
believe in for other reasons. So what is real and what is
imaginary? Is the distinction just in our minds?
Stephen Hawking
11 Understanding imaginary numbers

Let us return to the equation x 2 − 4 = 0, which really means

1 · x2 = 1 · x · x = 4

Thus, what operation x , when applied twice, turns 1 into 4?

Again, the two answers are x = 2 or x = −2.
From the perspective of an operation you can thus either (twice)
‘scale by 2’ or (twice) ‘scale by 2 and flip*’

*Flipping or taking the opposite is one possible interpretation of multiplying

by a negative number.
12 Understanding imaginary numbers

How about x 2 + 1 = 0, which really means

1 · x 2 = 1 · x · x = −1

Thus, what operation x , when applied twice, turns 1 into −1?

Surely, we cannot multiply by a
1. positive number twice, because the result stays positive;
2. negative number twice, because the result will flip back to
positive on the second multiplication.
12 Understanding imaginary numbers

How about x 2 + 1 = 0, which really means

1 · x 2 = 1 · x · x = −1

Thus, what operation x , when applied twice, turns 1 into −1?

Surely, we cannot multiply by a
1. positive number twice, because the result stays positive;
2. negative number twice, because the result will flip back to
positive on the second multiplication.
But what about. . . a rotation! Perhaps it sounds totally crazy, but if
we imagine x being a ‘rotation of 90 degrees’, then applying x twice
will be a 180 degree rotation, or a flip from 1 to −1!
13 Understanding imaginary numbers

This means we need to ‘breakout’ of R, like. . .

Thus: i or −i is what numbers ‘turn into’ when rotated ±90 degrees!

14 Understanding imaginary numbers
Question: What happens if we keep on multiplying by i ?

i2 = . . . , i3 = . . . , i4 = . . . , i5 = . . . , i6 = . . .
14 Understanding imaginary numbers
Question: What happens if we keep on multiplying by i ?

i2 = . . . , i3 = . . . , i4 = . . . , i5 = . . . , i6 = . . .

Answer:
15 Complex numbers

How about rotations not equal to multiples of 90 degrees?

15 Complex numbers

How about rotations not equal to multiples of 90 degrees?

For example, like these two. . .
16 Complex numbers

Indeed, we can pick any combination of real and imaginary numbers

and make a (right) triangle, where the angle becomes the ‘angle of
rotation’.
Such combinations of two real numbers is called a complex number
and are written like this:

z = a + ib
where
I the real part equals Re{z} = a, and
I the imaginary part equals Im{z} = b.
16 Complex numbers

Indeed, we can pick any combination of real and imaginary numbers

and make a (right) triangle, where the angle becomes the ‘angle of
rotation’.
Such combinations of two real numbers is called a complex number
and are written like this:

z = a + ib
where
I the real part equals Re{z} = a, and
I the imaginary part equals Im{z} = b.

Question: how ‘large’ is a complex number?

17 Complex numbers
Maybe one step back . . . What is the size of a negative number?
Answer: size of −x equals . . .
q
(−x )2 = |x |.

Hence, since a and b in z = a + ib are ‘creating’ a right triangle, the

size of a complex number is simply the hypotenuse (distance from 0)
determined by
p
|z| = |a + ib| = a2 + b 2
which is just Pythagoras in action . . .
17 Complex numbers
Maybe one step back . . . What is the size of a negative number?
Answer: size of −x equals . . .
q
(−x )2 = |x |.

Hence, since a and b in z = a + ib are ‘creating’ a right triangle, the

size of a complex number is simply the hypotenuse (distance from 0)
determined by
p
|z| = |a + ib| = a2 + b 2
which is just Pythagoras in action . . .
18 Sum and difference of two complex numbers

Let a, b, c, d ∈ R, then

(a + ib) + (c + id) = (a + c) + i(b + d)

(a + ib) − (c + id) = (a − c) + i(b − d)

For instance,

(1 − i) + (3 + i4) = (1 + 3) + i(−1 + 4) = 4 + i3.

19 Product of two complex numbers

Let a, b, c, d ∈ R, then

(a + ib)(c + id) = a(c + id) + (ib)(c + id)

= ac + iad + ibc + i 2 bd

Since i 2 = −1, this becomes

(a + ib)(c + id) = (ac − bd) + i(ad + bc).

For instance,

(1 − i)(3 + i4) = 1 · (3 + i4) − i · (3 + i4)

= 3 + i4 − 3i − i 2 4 = 3 + i(4 − 1) − (−1) · 4 = 7 + i.
20 Complex conjugate

a + ib
How about ?
c + id
For that, let us define the complex conjugate:

z := a − ib

and perform the following ‘trick’:

a + ib c − id (ac + bd) + i(bc − ad) ac + bd bc − ad

· = = 2 +i 2 .
c + id c − id c2 + d2 c + d2 c + d2
For instance,
−1 + i3 −1 + i3 2 − i5 13 + i11 13 11
= · = 2 = +i .
2 + i5 2 + i5 2 − i5 2 + 52 29 29
21 Complex conjugate
Some useful properties
1. z + w = z + w
2. zw = z w
3. z n = z n
Notice that

zz = (a + ib)(a − ib) = a2 + iab − iab − i 2 b 2 = a2 + b 2 ,

and so
zz = |z|2
which makes it (even more) clear that for a devision, we have
z zw zw
= = .
w ww |w |2
22 Exercises

Evaluate the the following expressions in the form a + ib:

a) (5 − i6) + (3 + i2)
b) (4 − i 21 ) − (9 − i 25 )
c) (2 + i5)(4 − i)
d) (1 − i2)(8 − i3)
e) 12 + i7
f) 2i( 12 − i)
1 + i4
g)
3 + i2
1
h)
1+i