Concrete is the world’s most widely used construction material, and the Portland Cement Association

estimates its annual production in excess of 5 billion cu yd. Concrete has many characteristics that make
it such a widely used construction material. Among them are raw material availability, the ability of
concrete to take the shape of the form it is placed in, and the ease with which its properties can be
modified. The ability of concrete to modify such properties as its strength, durability, economy,

watertightness, and abrasion resistance is most important. As illustrated in Table 4–1, there are a great
many variables that affect the properties of concrete. The ease with which concrete can be modified by
its variables can often work to the disadvantage of the user if quality control is not maintained from the
first to the last operations in concrete work. Basically, concrete is 60 to 80 percent aggregates

(i.e., sand and stone), which are considered “inert” ingredients, and 20 to 40 percent “paste” (i.e., water
and Portland cement), considered the active ingredient. These materials are combined, or mixed, and
cured to develop the hardened properties of concrete.

HISTORY

The development of cementing materials can be traced back to the Egyptians and Romans and their use
of masonry construction. The Egyptians used a cement produced by a heating process, and this may
have been the start of the technology. Roman engineering upgraded simple lime mortars with the
addition of volcanic ash which increased their durability, as evidenced by the sound structures that

still stand. A good example of the durability and longevity of Roman concrete is the Aqua Virgo built
around 19 B.C. Today it still carries spring water over 11 miles to the Trevi Fountain in Rome.

The development of concrete or cement technology as we know it today probably can be traced back to
England, where in 1824 Joseph Aspdin produced a portland cement from a heated mixture of limestone
and clay. He was awarded a British patent, and the name “portland cement” was used because

when the material hardened, it resembled a stone from the quarries of Portland, England. Several of
Joseph Aspdin’s contemporaries were involved in the same research, but evidence shows that he fired
his product at approximately the clinkering temperature, thus producing a superior product. The
production of portland cement in the United States dates back to 1872, when the first portland cement
plant was opened at Coplay, Pennsylvania. Today, the production of portland cement is considered a
basic industry, and it occurs in almost all regions of the world.

MANUFACTURE OF PORTLAND CEMENT

The manufacture of portland cement requires raw materials which contain lime, silica, alumina, and iron.
The sources of these elements vary from one manufacturing location to another, but once these
materials are obtained, the process is rather uniform (Table 4–2).
 Common Sources of Raw Materials used in the manufacture of Portland cement
Calcium Iron Silica Alumina Sulfate
Aragonite Clay Clay Aluminum ore refuse* Gypsum
Calcite Iron Ore Marl Clay
Limestone Mill scale* sand Fly ash*
Marl shale Shale
Shale

CaO Fe2O3 SiO2 Al2O3

* Industrial by-product
Source: Portland Cement Association

Fly ash is a byproduct from burning pulverized coal in electric power generating plants.
During combustion, mineral impurities in the coal (clay, feldspar, quartz, and shale) fuse in
suspension and float out of the combustion chamber with the exhaust gases. As the fused
material rises, it cools and solidifies into spherical glassy particles called fly ash. Fly ash is
collected from the exhaust gases by electrostatic precipitators or bag filters.
As illustrated in Figure 4–1, the process begins with the acquisition of raw materials such as limestone,
clay, and sand.

 The limestone is reduced to an approximately 5-in.size in the primary crusher and further
reduced to 3/4 in. the secondary crusher. All of the raw materials are stored in the bins and
proportioned prior to delivery to the grinding mill.
 The wet process results in a slurry, which is mixed and pumped to storage basins. The dry
process produces a fine ground powder which is stored in bins.
 Both processes feed rotary kilns where the actual chemical changes will take place. The
material is fed into the upper end of the kiln, and as the kiln rotates, the material passes
slowly from the upper to the lower end at a rate controlled by the slope and speed of
rotation of the kiln. As the material passes through the kiln, its temperature is raised to the
point of incipient fusion, or clinkering temperature, where the chemical reactions take place.

Depending on the raw materials, this temperature is usually between 2400°F (1316°C) and
2700°F (1482°C).

Chemical recombinations of the raw ingredients take place in this temperature range to
produce the basic chemical components of portland cement. The clinker produced is black
or greenish black in color and rough in texture. Its size makes it relatively inert in the
presence of moisture.
 From clinker storage, the material is transported to final grinding where approximately 2 to 3
percent gypsum is added to control the setting time of the portland cement when it is mixed
with water. The resulting concrete will have improved shrinkage and strength properties.

The portland cement produced is either distributed in bulk by rail, barge, or truck or packaged in bags.
Bulk cement is sold by the barrel, which is the equivalent of four bags or 376 lb, or by the ton.

Bag cement weighs 94 lb and is considered to be 1 bulk cubic foot of cement.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF PORTLAND CEMENT

Portland cements are composed of four basic chemical compounds, shown with their names, chemical
formulas,and abbreviations. The relative percentages of these compounds can be determined by
chemical analysis. Each of the components exhibits a particular behavior, and it can be shown that by
modifying the relative percentages of these compounds, the behavior of the cement can be altered.

1. Tricalcium silicate:3 CaO ∙ Si O2=C 3 S

Tricalcium silicate hardens rapidly and is largely responsible for initial set and early strength.
In general, the early strength of portland cement concretes will be higher with increased percentages
of C3S.

2. Dicalcium silicate:2 CaO ∙ Si O2=C2 S

 If moist curing is continued, the later strength after about 6 months will, be greater for cements
with a higher percentage of C2S. Dicalcium silicate hardens slowly, and its effect on strength increases
occurs at ages beyond one week.

3. Tricalcium aluminate:3 CaO ∙ Al 2 O 3=C3 A

Tricalcium aluminate contributes to strength development in the first few days because it is
the first compound to hydrate. It is, however, the least desirable component because of its high heat
generation and its reactiveness wit soils and water containing moderate-to-high sulfate
concentrations. Cements made with low C3A contents usually generate less heat, develop higher
strengths, and show greater resistance to sulfate attacks.

4. Tetracalcium aluminoferrite:4 CaO ∙ Al 2 O3 Fe O 3=C 4 AFe

Tetracalcium aluminoferrite assists in the manufacture of portland cement by allowing lower

clinkering temperature.C4AFe contributes very little to the strength of concrete even though it
hydrates very rapidly. Most specifications for portland cements place limits on certain physical
properties and chemical composition of the cements. Therefore, the study of this material requires an
understanding of some of these basic properties.

Type of Potential Compound Composition % Blaine

Portland C3S C2S C3A C4AF Fineness
Cement m2/kg
I 54 18 10 8 369
II 55 19 6 11 377
III 55 17 9 8 548
IV 42 32 4 15 340
V 54 22 4 13 373
White 63 18 10 1 482

Water-Cement Reaction

Hydration is the chemical reaction that takes place when portland cement and water are mixed together.
The hydration reaction is considered complete at 28 days. The reaction depends on available moisture.
Figure below indicates strength gains for different curing conditions.
When cement is mixed with water to form a fluid paste, the mixture will eventually become stiff and
then hard. This process is called setting. A cement used in concrete must not set too fast, for then it
would be unworkable, that is, it would stiffen and become hard before it could be placed or finished.
When it sets too slowly, valuable construction time is lost. Most portland cements exhibit initial set in
about 3 hours and final set in about 7 hours. If gypsum were not added during final grinding of normal
portland cement, the set would be very rapid and the material unworkable.

False set of portland cement is a stiffening of a concrete mixture with little evidence of
significant heat generation. To restore plasticity, all that is required is further mixing without additional
water. There are cases where a flash set is exhibited by a cement, and in this case the cement has
hydrated and further remixing will do no good. The actual setting time of the concrete will vary from job
to job depending on the temperature of the concrete and wind velocity, humidity, placing conditions,
and other variables.

The ability of a cement to develop compressive strength in a concrete is an important property

(Table 4–4).The compressive strengths of cements are usually determined on standard 2-in.(50.8-mm)
cubes.The results of these tests are useful in comparing strengths of various cements in neat paste
conditions. Neat paste is water, cement, and a standard laboratory sand used to standardize tests. The
tests will not predict concrete strength values due to the variables in concrete mixtures that also
influence strength.

The heat generated when water and cement chemically react is called the heat of hydration, and
it can be a critical factor in concrete use. The total amount of heat generated depends on the chemical
composition of the cement, and the rate is affected by the fineness, chemical composition, and curing
temperatures (Figure 4–3).
 Approximate amounts of heat generation during the first 7 days of curing using Type I cement as
the base are as follows:

Type I 100%
Type II 80–85%
Type III 150%
Type IV 40–60%
Type V 60–75%
Concrete has a low tensile strength; it is approximately 11percent of concrete’s
compressive strength. To allow the use of concrete in locations where tensile strength is
important or increased compressive strength is required, steel is used to reinforce the concrete.
Tests to Characterize Portland Cement
Fineness Test(IS 4031 (Part 1) – 1996). The fineness of cement is a measure of cement particle
size and is denoted as terms of the specific surface area of cement. The Test is done by sieving
cement samples through a standard IS sieve.
Apparatus:
 90µm IS Sieve
 Weight Balance having a capacity of 10 mg to 100 g
 Nylon or pure bristle brush
The weight cement particle whose size is greater than 90 microns is determined and the
percentage of the retained particle are calculated. This is known as the Fineness of cement.

The standard value of fineness of cement should have a fineness of less than 10 % or fineness
should not be more than 10% as per IS Recommendations.

The finer a cement is ground, the higher the heat of hydration and resulting accelerated strength
gain. The strength gain due to fineness is evident during the first 7 days. For a given weight of
cement, the surface area of the grains of a coarse-ground cement is less than for a fine-ground
cement. Because the water is in contact with more surface area in a fine-ground cement, the
hydration process occurs more rapidly in this cement. If the cement is ground too finely,
however, there is a possibility of prehydration due to moisture vapor during manufacturing and
storage, with the resulting mloss in cementing properties of the material. There is evidence to
show that in some cases very coarse-ground particles may never completely hydrate.

2. Standard Consistency Test IS: 5513-1976, IS: 4031 ( Part 4 ) – 1988

The standard consistency of cement paste is defined as the percentage of water added In
300gm weights of cement which will permit a Vicat plunger having 50 mm length and 10 mm
diameter to penetrate in cement paste to a depth of 33-35 mm from the top of the mold.

Apparatus

Vicat apparatus
Balance
Gauging Trowel
Stop Watch, etc.
The standard consistency of cement paste generally varies between 25-35%.
3. Initial and Final Setting Time Of Cement Test (IS: 4031 (Part 5) – 1988)

The Initial Setting Time gives an idea about how fast cement can start losing its plasticity and
the final setting time of cement gives an idea about how much Time cement takes to lose its full
plasticity and gain some strength to resist pressure.

Initial Setting Time of Cement: It is the time elapsed between the moments that the water is
added to the cement, to the time that the paste starts losing its plasticity.

Final Setting Time of Cement: It is the time elapsed between the moment the water is added to
the cement and the time when the cement paste loses its plasticity completely and has attained
sufficient firmness to resist certain definite pressure.

Apparatus

 Balance
 Vicat Apparatus
 Stop Watch
 Gauging or Mixing Trowel
 Glass Plate
 Enamel Tray

Result

As per standards, the initial setting time of cement should be less than 30 min for OPC cement.
Whereas, it should not be more than 600 min for OPC cement.

4. Soundness Test of Cement IS: 4031-Part 3-1988

The soundness of cement indicates the stability of any cement during the volume
change in the process of setting and hardening.

In case the volume change in cement is unstable after setting and hardening, the
concrete element will crack, which can affect the quality of the structure or even cause
serious accidents, known as poor dimensional stability.

Apparatus

1. Le-Chatelier mold
2. Cement
3. Glass sheets
4. Mixing pan
5. Trowel
6. Wight
Result

The soundness calculated L1 – L2 for the types of cement Ordinary or OPC, Rapid,
Low Heat, PPC, and High alumina cement should not Exceeds 10mm.

Soundness is the ability of a cement to maintain a stable volume after setting. An

unsound cement will exhibit cracking, disruption, and eventual disintegration of the
material mass. This delayed-destruction expansion is caused by excessive amounts of
free lime or magnesium. The free lime is enclosed in cement particles, and eventually
the moisture reaches the lime after the cement has set.

5. Heat Of Hydration Test IS 4031-1968

During the Curing of Concrete, Hydro-thermal Reaction takes place, resulting in the
production of heat because of chemical reactions. The rise of heat in concrete could be
as high as 50oC.

Hence in order to reduce such heat, low-heat cement is used. The test is carried out
using a calorimeter using the principle of heat gain.

Apparatus

Calorimeter, insulated wood case, thermometer plus holder, vacuum jar with stopper,
glass funnel, stirring paddle, and chuck are the apparatus required for the test.

Result

It has been Standardized that the low heat cement should not generate heat of 65
Calories per gram of cement in 7 days and 75 Calories per gram for the duration of 28
days.

6. Specific Gravity Test On Cement(IS 2720- Part 3)

The specific gravity of cement is defined as the mass of cement of a specified volume to
the mass of water of the same volume of cement. It can also be defined as the density
of cement to the density of water for the same volume.
 \Specific Gravity Test Apparatus

Apparatus

1. Le Chaterlier flask
2. Weighing balance
3. Kerosene (free from water).

Results

The Specific Gravity of Cement is 1440 kg/m3. Around this value, the Specific Gravity of
Cement is Considered to be standard and suitable for construction.

7. Tensile Strength Test (IS:456 2000)

The Tensile Strength of Cement is the maximum load that cement in its hardened state
can withstand without fracture when tension is applied.

It is necessary to test the tensile strength of cement because concrete structures are
highly prone to tensile cracking due to various kinds of load applied. As compared to
Compressive Strength Tensile strength is very low.
Apparatus

 Testing Machine
 Tamping Rod
 Concrete Mould
 Trowel

Result

The Tensile Strength of Cement is between 3-5 MPa i.e 300 – 700 psi.

8. Chemical Composition Test (IS 269-1998)

The components present in cement for forming cement as the complete products are
lime or limestone, silica (SiO2), alumina (Al2O2), magnesia (MgO), etc. Among which
most important raw materials required for making cement are limestone, clay, and marl.

Flame Photometer and ELE Flame Photometer are the instruments used to know the
constitutes of Cement.

Result

A good cement should have the constitution of components as listed,

 Lime or Limestone – 62% (Highest)

 Silica (SiO2) – 22%
 Alumina (Al2O2) – 7.5%
 Magnesia (MgO) – 2.5 %
 Other Components – remaining 6%
 Type I This type is a general concrete construction cement utilized when the special pavements and sidewalks,
(Normal) properties of the other types are not required. It is used where the concrete reinforced concrete buildings,
will not be subjected to sulfate attack from soil or water or be exposed to bridges, railway structures, tanks,
severe weathering conditions. It is generally not used in large masses because reservoirs, culverts, water pipes,
of the heat generated due to hydration. and masonry units.
Type II Type II cement is used where resistance to moderate sulfate attack is piers, abutments, and retaining
(Moderate important, as in areas where sulfate concentration in groundwater is higher walls, highway pavements
than normal but not severe. Type II cements produce less heat of hydration
or than Type I, hence their use in structures of mass such as. They are used in
Modified) warm-weather concreting because of their lower temperature rise than Type
I. The use of Type II for highway pavements will give the contractor more time
to saw control joints because of the lower heat generation and resulting
slower setting and hardening.
 Type III Type III cements are used where an early strength gain is important and heat
(Early generation is not a critical factor. When forms have to be removed for reuse
as soon as possible, Type III supplies the strength required in shorter periods
Strength) of time than the other types. In cold-weather concreting, Type III allows a
reduction in the heated curing time with no loss in strength.
Type IV Type IV cement is used where the rate and amount of heat generated must large mass placements such as
(Low Heat) be minimized. The strength development for Type IV is at a slower rate than gravity dams
Type I. It is primarily used in large mass placements such as gravity dams
where the
amount of concrete at any given time is so large that the temperature rise
resulting from heat generation during hardening becomes a critical factor.
Type V Type V is primarily used where the soil or groundwater contains high sulfate
(Sulfate concentrations and the structure would be exposed to severe sulfate attack.
Resisting)

Other types of cement

Air-Entraining Cements (Types IA, IIA and IIIA)

The three cements correspond to Types I, II, and III, with the addition of small quantities of air-
entraining materials integrated with the clinker during the manufacturing process. These cements
provide the concrete with improved resistance to freeze–thaw action and to scaling caused by chemicals
and salts used for ice and snow removal. Concrete made with these cements contains microscopic air
bubbles, separated, uniformly distributed, and so small that there are many billions in a cubic foot.

White Portland Cement

White portland cement is a true portland cement, its color being the principal difference
between it and normal Portland cement. The cement is manufactured to meet ASTM C150
and C175 specifications. The selected raw materials used in the manufacture of white cement have
negligible amounts of iron and manganese oxide, and the process of manufacture is
controlled to produce the white color. Its primary use is for architectural concrete products, cement
paints, tile grouts, and decorative concrete. Its use is recommended wherever
white or colored concrete or mortar is desired. Colored concretes are produced by using a coloring
additive, and the white cement allows for more accurate control of colors desired.

Portland Blast-Furnace Slag Cements

In these cements, granulated blast-furnace slag of selected quality is interground with portland
cement. The slag is obtained by rapidly chilling or quenching molten slag in water,steam,or air.
Portland blast-furnace slag cements include two types, Type IS and Type IS-A,conforming to ASTM
C595.These cements can be used in general concrete construction when the specific
properties of the other types are not required. However, moderate heat of hydration (MH), moderate
sulfate resistance (MS), or both are optional provisions. Type IS has about the
same rate of strength development as Type I cement, and both have the same compressive strength
requirements.
Slag is a by-product of smelting (pyrometallurgical) ores and recycled metals. Slag is mainly a mixture of metal
oxides and silicon dioxide. Broadly, it can be classified as ferrous (by-products of processing iron and steel),
ferroalloy (by-product of ferroalloy production) or non-ferrous/base metals (by-products of recovering non-ferrous
materials like copper, nickel, zinc and phosphorus)

Waterproof Portland Cement

Waterproof Portland cement is manufactured by the addition of a small amount of calcium, aluminum,
or other stearate to the clinker during final grinding. It is manufactured in either white or gray color and
is used to reduce water penetration through the concrete.

Portland-Pozzolan Cements

IP,IP-A,P,and P-A designate the portland-pozzolan cements with the A denoting air-entraining additives as
specified in C595.They are used principally for large hydraulic structures such as bridge piers and dams.
These cements are manufactured by intergrinding portland cement clinker with a suitable pozzolan such
as volcanic ash, fly ash from power plants,or diatomaceous earth, or by blending the portland cement or
portland blast-furnace slag cement and a pozzolan.