6.

1 EMERGING SUSTAINABLE
TECHNOLOGIES
The Earth's resources are limited while human are Design and construction of a sustainable building
consuming natural resources at higher compared to should:
the previous generation which affects our ability to
provide for the future generations. Human impact is ● Strive for design of compact and efficient
the single greatest long- term problem of our planet. interior spaces so overall building size and
materials needed for construction and
Sustainability is the ability to meet our current needs operation are minimized.
without causing harm to the environmental, economic, ● Incorporate energy- and conserving methods
and societal systems on which the future generations strategies that complement the local climate in
will rely for meeting their needs. Embracing values of design and construction of the building
sustainability ensures that decisions made and actions envelope.
taken today do not hinder the existence of future ● Use locally produced (indigenous),
generations. environmentally preferable building materials
effectively.
In the United States, buildings consume 40% of the ● Use renewable materials and components that
total energy, over 65% of the electricity, over 10% of can be reused or recycled without difficulty
the water. About 42% of energy used in buildings is ● Avoid the use of energy-intensive,
used for comfort heating, cooling, ventilation, and environmentally damaging, waste- producing,
refrigeration: lighting accounts about for about 18%: and/or hazardous materials.
and water heating about 10%. Buildings in the United ● Use life-cycle analysis in decision making for
States account for about 10% of global energy use. materials and construction techniques
Such energy consumption makes buildings good ● Use simple, efficient, and "right-sized"
candidates for sustainability efforts. mechanical and electrical technologies
● Use renewable energy sources where effective
In the building construction industry, terms like ● Strive for minimal environmental disruption,
sustainable design are used to describe the process of resource consumption, and material waste,
designing and constructing sustainable buildings. It and identify opportunities for reuse and
creates a balance between human needs for shelter and recycling of construction debris
the natural and societal environment. It minimizes ● Incorporate provisions for trouble-free
adverse environmental and cultural effects. recycling of wastes generated by occupants
● Plan for future expansion and/or use by other
The ideal approach is to build only when necessary; to occupancies
use natural sustainable materials, collected on site if ● Plan for disassembly or adaptation that
possible; to limit waste generated from construction maximizes recovery of materials and
and manage waste during building operation; and rely minimizes demolition
on renewable energy sources, like solar or wind, to
condition and power the building. SUSTAINABLE BUILDINGS

Sustainable Building or Green Building, is a healthier
and more resource-efficient structure that is designed,
built, operated, renovated, reused, and eventually
dismantled/demolished in a sustainable manner. It is
designed to meet specific goals such as protecting
occupant health; improving employee productivity;
using energy, water, and other resources efficiently;
and reducing the overall impact to the environment.
A green building may cost more upfront, but reduced
operating costs over its life result in lower operating
costs over the life of the building. An integrated
systems approach is used to ensure that the building is
designed as one system rather than a collection of
stand-alone systems.
SUSTAINABLE BUILDING PROGRAMS ○ Indoor environmental quality (up to
15 points)
Most municipal, state, and federal state, and federal ○ Energy and atmosphere (up to 17
governments recognize the need for limiting energy points)
and resource use. Several energy and resource ○ Innovation and design process (up to
efficiency programs have been established to drive 5 points)
society to pursue the concept of sustainability. A major USGBC members continue to expand and adapt the
driver in building sustainability is the U.S. Green LEED system. Green building professionals can
Building Council (USGBC). become LEED accredited through the LEED
Accredited Professional Exam. This accreditation
USGBC: enables an individual to facilitate the rating of
★ A coalition of leaders in the building industry buildings with the various LEED systems.
working to promote buildings that are
environmentally responsible and sustainable, SUSTAINABILITY AND THE "P-GREEN" BUILDING
profitable, and healthy places to work and
Many designers and constructors, along with
live.
manufacturers and other businesses have jumped on
★ Its Leadership in Energy and Environment
the sustainability bandwagon by making green
Design (LEED) Rating System is a voluntary,
products and buildings.
consensus-based national standard for
developing high-performance, sustainable "P-GREEN" BUILDING
buildings. - motivated by the good intentions of helping
★ It provides a complete framework for environment.
assessing building performance and meeting - P-GREEN or PARTLY GREEN because it
sustainability goals. The LEED rating system is partially fulfill the standards of sustainability
a method for certifying a green building. or do not satisfy them at all.
- It is driven by marketing studies that show the
Leadership in Energy and Environment Design general public embraces green practices
(LEED) - The overall or many of its systems are not
● It provides a complete framework for really green at all.
assessing building performance and meeting - may feature high-efficiency systems for
sustainability goals. heating, cooling, ventilating, and lighting, yet
● This method is a rating system for certifying a have indoor spaces that are quite large and
green building. opulent requiring these systems to consume
● In LEED (Version 2.2), for new construction significant amount of energy
and major renovations for commercial - May include a handful inconsequential green
buildings there are 69 possible points; features
buildings can qualify for four levels of Example: Well-insulated McMansions
certification:
WELL-INSULATED McMansions
- Certified: 26-32 points
- Silver: 33-38 points - High efficiency heating, cooling, and lighting
- Gold: 39-51 points systems
- Platinum: 52-69 points - add-on solar system or turbines can be
● The LEED rating system addresses six major installed
areas as follows: - are incorrectly promoted as sustainable,
○ Sustainable sites (up to 1 4 points) environmentally friendly construction
○ Water efficiency (up to 5 points) - They are too large, poorly designed, use too
○ Materials and resources (up to 13 much energy and consumes too much
points) resources than a more simply designed
structure.
 MATERIALS IN THIS CHAPTER

Indoor Air Quality

CO2 Ventilation
Control
Displacement Ventilation
District Heating and cooling
Heat Recovery
Indirect Evaporative
Cooling
Night Precooling or Ventilation
Thermal(ice) Storage
Chilled Beams This system uses many engine technologies, including:
Water Loop Heat Pump Systems ● Internal combustion reciprocating engine base
Law-flow and Waterless Plumbing Fixtures cogeneration systems
Point-od-use Domestic Water Heating ● Reciprocation external combustion Stirling
Gray Water Reuse Systems engine base cogeneration systems
Compact Flourescent and LED Lighting ● Fuel based cogeneration systems
Daylighting ● Microturbine based cogeneration systems

6.2: COMBINED HEAT AND POWER Internal combustion Reciprocating Engine:

SYSTEM
- Are most common and Efficient prime
COGENERATION SYSTEM mover used commercial cogeneration
systems
● Also known as combined heat and power (CHP) - Are based on the spark ignition or the
● Is the use of a heat engine (or other means) to compression ignition.
simultaneously generate both electricity and
heat. Compression-ignition (Diesel) Engine
● Its principal purpose is to produce electricity
but, as a by-product, the heat produced is used - involves only the compression of air in the
for heating water, space heating, or industrial cylinder; the fuel is introduced into the
process heating. cylinder towards the end of the compression
● is most efficient when the heat can be used stroke.
onsite or very close to it because overall - The spontaneous ignition is thus caused by the
efficiency is reduced when the heat must be high temperature of the compressed mixture.
transported through costly insulated pipes - run on diesel fuel or heavy oil; as a result, they
● Cogeneration units are generally classified by are primarily used for large-scale
the type of prime mover (i.e. drive system), cogeneration.
generator, and fuel used.
● Spark Ignition (Otto cycle) Engine
Basic elements of a conventional cogeneration system:
1. Prime Mover (Engine) use to drive - The mixture of air and fuel is compressed in
generators each cylinder before ignition is caused by an
2. Generator- generate electricity externally supplied spark.
(power) - These engines are mainly four-stroke
3. Heat recovery system direct-injection engines fitted with a
4. Exhaust system turbocharger and intercooler.
5. Controls - They run on gasoline, natural gas, or liquid
6. Acoustic enclosure propane gas (LPG).
Internal combustion Reciprocating Engine
- the engine drives a generator to produce
electricity.
- Thermal energy is captured through heat
recovery from the exhaust gas, engine oil, and
cooling water, which can then be used for
space or water.
- By recovering heat from the cooling systems
and exhaust, approximately 75 to 90% of the
energy derived from the fuel is utilized to
produce both electricity and useful heat.
Reciprocation external combustion Stirling engine
- is a closed-cycle, piston-driven, external heat
engine with a gaseous working fluid that
under cooling, compression, heating, and
expansion drives a piston.
- No valves are required, unlike other types of
piston engines.
- It is high efficiency, quiet operation, and ease
with which it can use waste heat.
- is currently being researched as a prime driver
(engine) in residential cogeneration systems.
In Reciprocation external combustion Stirling engine
- The working fluid is permanently sealed
within the engine's system so that no gas
enters or leaves the engine.
- Piston movement is accomplished by moving
the gas back and forth between hot and cold
heat exchangers, often with a regenerator
between the heater and cooler.
Fuel Cell Cogeneration
- is an electrochemical conversion device that
directly converts a fuel into electrical energy
- A hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell consumes
hydrogen and oxygen and produces water as
the principal by-product.
6.3: GEOTHERMAL ENERGY SYSTEM
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
- derived from the word "geo" (earth) and
"thermal" (heat).
- It comes from the process of decay of
radioactive elements within the earth's crust.
- Is not truly a renewable resource.
Direct Use of Geothermal Energy
● One method used to extract thermal energy
from the earth is called hydrothermal.
● Hydrothermal energy manifests in the form of
hot springs, geysers, or through dry steam.
● Provides direct heat needed for commercial,
industrial and residential uses.
Geothermal Heat Pump Systems
● Geothermal Heat Pump (GHP) is also known
as ground source heat pump (GSHP),
earth-coupled heat pump, or geoexchange
system.
● an electrically powered heat pump system that
consists of pipes buried in the shallow ground
near the building, a heat pump, and ductwork
in the building
The fundamental components of a geothermal heat
pump system includes the following:
● Ground loop - A system of fluid-filled plastic
pipes buried in the ground, or submersed in a
body of water, near the building.
● Heat pump - A device that removes heat from
the fluid in the pipes, concentrates it, and
transfers it to the building as heat. For cooling,
this process is reversed: heat is transferred
from the building; it is carried in the fluid to
the pipes, where it is transferred into the earth.
● heat pump is a type of heating and/or cooling
device that draws heat into a building from
outside of the building during the heating
season (if designed with cooling capability, the
heat pump expels heat from the building to
the outside during the cooling season.)
● Air delivery system - Conventional ductwork
attached to the heat pump and used to
distribute heated or cooled air throughout the
building.
● it can be used a heat source or heat sink that
can provide heating and cooling for both
residential and commercial buildings.

Types of GPH Ground Loops
- Geothermal heat pump systems are classified
by the type of ground loop that they use.
- The type chosen depends on the available land
areas and the soil and rock type at the
installation site.
1. CLOSED-LOOP SYSTEM
● Closed-loop geothermal heat pump systems
circulate a solution of water and antifreeze
through a series of sealed loops of piping.
● The loops serve as a heat exchange medium
between the fluid and the earth.
● Can be installed in the ground vertically,
horizontally, or in a body of water.
Horizontal Ground Closed Loops
- horizontal ground closed-loop system uses a
number of horizontal trenches.
- Piping system designs range from a single
pipe, to multiple pipes arranged vertically in a
narrow trench, to multiple pipes in a wider
trench.
Vertical Ground Closed Loops
- Vertical ground closed loop system is used
where there is little yard space, when surface
rocks make digging impractical, or when you
want to disrupt the landscape as little as
possible.
- Vertical loops are generally more expensive to
install but require less piping than horizontal
loops.
Pond Closed Loops
- Pond closed-loop system may be the most
economical when a building is near a body of
water such as a shallow pond or lake.
- Because it is a closed system, it results in no
adverse impacts on the aquatic system.
2. OPEN-LOOP SYSTEM
● it circulates water drawn from a ground.
● a surface water source.
● operate on the same principle as closed loop
system.
3. STANDING COLUMN WELL SYSTEM
● also called turbulent wells or energy wells.
● the most establish technology.
● typically, 6 inches in diameter and as deep as
450 m.
● it serves to provide potable water.
● Under normal circumstances, the water
diverted for building (potable) use is replace
by constant temperature groundwater, which
makes the system act like a true open-loop
system.
● If the well water temperature climbs too high
or drops too low water can be BLED from the
system to allow groundwater to restore the
well water temperature to the normal
operating range.
● The water is never treated with chemicals.
GPH Site Evaluation
● Effectively used anywhere.
● The specific geological, hydrological, and
physical characteristics of the site will help
determined the best type of ground loop for a
specific site.
GEOLOGY
● The factor of composition of soil and rock
require consideration when designing ground
loop.
● A soil with good heat transfer requires less
piping to gather a certain amount of heat than
soil with poor heat transfer properties.
● The amount of soil available contributes to
system design.
● GHP system suppliers in areas with extensive
hard rock or soil too shallow to trench may
install vertical ground loops.
● Horizontal loop is disregarded.
● Also, vertical systems can vary significantly
but are usually around to 10m2/KW.
● Horizontal system requires the most land area.
● The amount of land requires varies with the
layout.
● Piping arrangement required to minimize the
pumping power.
GPH System Efficiency
ISO 133256-1
It is a manufacturer publish the ratings of their heat
pump on the basis of a specific set of standard
condition.

Ground Loop heat pump (GLHP)

HYDROLOGY
The rating for a closed loop system.
● Ground or surface water availability also plays
Groundwater heat pump (GWHP)
a part in deciding what type of ground loop to
rating for an open-loop or groundwater
use.
system.
● Factors such as depth, volume, and water
quality, bodies of water can be used as a
● In the heating season, a geothermal heat pump
source of water for an open loop system.
supplies 3 to 5 units of useable heat for every
● Can be also a repository for coils of piping in a
unit of electrical energy required to operate
closed- loop system.
the system.
● Groundwater can also be used as a source for
● This equates to 3 to 5 kilowatt-hours (kWh) of
open- loop systems, provided the water
free energy for every one kWh of electrical
quality is suitable and all groundwater
energy consumed.
discharge regulations are met.
● A ground-source heat pump is 300% to 500%
efficient.
LAND AVAILABILITY
● The amount and layout of the land, the
6.4: BIOMASS
landscaping and the location of underground
utilities also contributes to system design.
Biomass
● Horizontal ground loops- typically used for
● Is organic material from plant and animal
newly constructed buildings with sufficient
growth.
land.
● Biomass is sunlight stored in the form of
● Vertical installation- often used for existing
organic compounds that are formed in
building to minimize the disturbance to the
growing plant life through the process of
landscape.
photosynthesis, which takes energy from the
sun and converts carbon dioxide into
LAND AREA REQUIREMENTS
carbohydrates
● The land typical area required for a
Biopower
groundwater system is usually not a crucial
● Biomass is converted to energy by burning it
design factor.
for commercial and residential space heating
● estimated on a 6m radius per well, including
and for industrial process heat and steam.
the presence of injection wells, can be
Bioheat
calculated.
● energy resources can be burned to create
● Vertical closed-loop systems can base on an
steam for generating electricity.
average borehole depth of 91m and spacing of
5m between the boreholes.
The actual source of biomass differs depending on
location, availability, and end use. Biomass can come
from:
- Harvested timber from local forests
- Wood wastes from timber thinning (i.e., wood
collected in forest fire mitigation efforts)
- Residue from paper mills, woodworking
shops, and forest operations (e.g., sawdust,
shavings, wood chips, and recycled untreated
wood)
- Agricultural and animal wastes (e.g., manure
and litter)
- Food processing (e.g., nutshells, olive pits)
- Garbage from paper, plant, or animal products
(e.g., food scraps, lawn clippings, leaves,
wood-based construction debris), but not
made out of glass, plastic, and metals
- Intentionally grown energy crops (e.g.,
fast-growing native trees and grasses) and
agricultural crops
- Biomass is presently the leading source of
renewable energy in the United States. In 2003
it accounted for 47% of all renewable energy or
almost 4% of the total energy produced in the
United States. Biomass currently provides
about 2% of U.S. electricity, about 1% of the
fuel used in cars and trucks, and some of the
heat and steam used by homes, businesses,
and schools.
- Biomass represents an enormous quantity of
renewable energy in the United States, thereby
increasing the potential for national energy
independence.
Solid Fuels
Common types of biomass fuels used in
buildings include timber (logs) and manufactured
logs, wood pellets, briquettes, and corn. An example of
wood residue used as a biomass fuel. Many other
types of solid biomass fuels can be used as an
alternative to fossil fuels. For example, corn is
currently utilized for feed in the agricultural industry.
It is readily available, flows smoothly in augur
systems, is inexpensive when compared to fossil fuel,
is renewable, does not contaminate the ground or
groundwater, is nonexplosive, and is abundant.
Liquid Fuels
Alternative liquid transportation fuels (e.g.,
ethanol, biodiesel) can be produced from agricultural
crops, mainly corn, soybeans, and sunflowers, instead
of petroleum. Ethanol and biodiesel can be blended
with or directly substituted for gasoline and diesel.
Ethanol is an alcohol that is made from any biomass
high in carbohydrates (starches, sugars, or celluloses),
typically corn, through a fermenting process similar to
brewing beer.
Black liquor is a recycled by-product formed
during the pulping of wood in the papermaking
industry that can be used as a source of energy. It is
burned in a boiler to produce electricity and steam.
Gaseous Fuels
● Methane gas is a combustible gas produced by
the anaerobic, or oxygen-free, digestion of
vegetable and/or animal wastes. Methane gas
can be used to generate power.
● When biomass is heated in the absence of
oxygen it gasifies to a mixture of carbon
monoxide and hydrogen, which is known as
synthesis gas or syngas. Syngas burns more
efficiently and cleanly than the solid biomass
from which it was made
● The energy content of biomass fuels varies
significantly with the biomass product. The
average energy content of different
conventional and biomass resources is
provided in Table 25.4.
Type of Biomass Technologies
Direct Combustion
Anaerobic Digestion
Gasification
Pyrolysis
Biofuels
Municipal Solid Waste
Direct Combustion
The direct combustion process makes use of a
furnace or boiler to convert biomass fuel into hot air,
hot water, steam, and electricity for commercial or
industrial uses.
Anaerobic Digestion
Anaerobic digestion is a biochemical process
in which groups of bacteria, working symbiotically,
break down complex organic wastes in animal manure
and food- processing residue to produce biogas,
mainly a methane and carbon dioxide mix.
- Digester - Controlled anaerobic digestion
requires an airtight chamber
Gasification
Biomass gasification is a thermochemical
process that converts biomass into a combustible a
combustible gas called producer gas that contains
carbon monoxide, hydrogen, water vapor, carbon
dioxide, tar vapor, and ash particles.
Pyrolysis
In the pyrolysis process, very
low-moisture particles of biomass fuel are rapidly
heated to temperatures in the range of 840° to 1020°F
(450° to 550°C) in the absence of oxygen, resulting in
liquid pyrolysis oil, which can be used as a synthetic
fuel oil.
Municipal Solid Waste
A municipal solid waste (MSW) program
makes use of trash as a source of energy by either
burning MSW in a waste-to-energy plant or by
capturing biogas.
In landfills, biomass rots and releases methane
gas, called landfill gas.
Biofuels
Production of biofuels such as ethanol
(alcohol), biodiesel, and black liquor involve different
processes
● Fermentation - is the biochemical process that
converts sugars into ethanol.
● Biodiesel production is a chemical conversion
process that converts oilseed crops into
biodiesel fuel.
● Production of methanol involves
thermochemical conversion process
converts wood and agricultural residues into
methanol.
6.5: PHOTOVOLTAIC (SOLAR
ELECTRICITY) POWER
PV Cells
● A photovoltaic (PV) cell is a power-generating
device that produces direct current electricity
when it is exposed to light.
● PV cells are constructed of a semiconducting
material, usually silicon. When a cell absorbs
light, electrons in the semiconducting material
are dislodged, producing a flow of electrical
current.
● This electricity can be used to power electrical
appliances and equipment.
A typical PV cell consists of:
- a weatherproof glass cover,
- an antireflective layer to keep light from
reflecting away from the cell,
- a top metallic grid that serves as a contact to
allow the
- electrons to enter a circuit, and
- a back contact layer to allow them to complete
small, the circuit. Sandwiched between these contacts
are the semiconductor layers where electron
(electrical) flow develops.
Solar radiation is composed of photons (particles) that
contain energy. When a PV cell absorbs a photon, the
energy of the absorbed photon is transferred to an
A schematic drawing of a simple photovoltaic circuit.
Electrons in the semiconductor material that makes up
the PV cell.
• A permanent electric field is built into the cell forces
electron movement in a particular direction: out of the
cell, through an electrical circuit, and back to the other
side of the cell. Electron flow is electricity, which can
be used to drive electrical appliances and equipment.
A Building-integrated PV (BIPV) materials are a
a
special type of PV cell that is manufactured with the
that
dual purpose of generating electricity and serving as a
construction material.
BIPV materials can replace customary building
components such as curtain walls, skylights, atrium
roofs, awnings, roof tiles and shingles, and windows.
PV Cell Conversion Efficiency
● The conversion efficiency of a PV cell is the
proportion of solar radiation that the cell
converts to electrical energy. Because of the
low power density of sunlight, high efficiency
is very important in making PV energy
competitive with more traditional sources of
energy.
● Commercially available PV cells measure
between 12 to 4 in (12 to 100 mm) square and
produces a maximum of about 1 to 2 W of
power in direct sunlight.
PV Cell Configurations
● Cells are grouped together in a PV module
that creates a power source capable of lighting
a small electric lamp.
● To generate power required in a building, PV
modules must be grouped together in a PV
array that when combined with other
components make up a PV system.
Most building-scale systems involve fixed arrays
mounted on rooftops to minimize installation and
maintenance costs.
Photovoltaic (PV) cells are grouped together in a PV
module. To generate power required in a building, PV
modules MUST be grouped together in a PV array that
when combined with other components make up a PV
system.
PV Cell Position
● Southeast- or southwest-facing arrays are also
adequate and may even be advantageous
depending on the power requirements and
time of loads on the building power system.
● The most effective tilt angle for fixed PV arrays
depends on latitude. The PV array should be
tilted at an angle in a range equal to the
latitude plus or minus 15° relative to the
horizontal plane.
● Roof surfaces are ideally suited for PV
integration in a building because there is
usually little shadowing at roof heights and a
roof usually provides a large surface for
integration.
Photovoltaic Systems
A photovoltaic (PV) system collects solar energy and
converts it to electricity. A basic PV system
incorporates the following components:
● An array of solar cells that converts sunlight
into DC Electricity
● An inverter that changes DC electricity into
AC electricity
● A connection to the utility grid for additional
power or a bank of batteries to store collected
electricity
Generic Types of PV Systems Some utilities only use a single meter: the meter turns
1. Off-Grid PV Systems backwards when the system is producing more power
2. Grid-Connected PV System than it is consuming. This measuring technique is
called net metering.
Off-Grid PV Systems
Although a grid-connected system does not constitute
Stand-alone, off-grid, or autonomous PV systems true storage, it provides power on demand at any time,
produce power independently of the utility grid. • In in any
remote locations, stand-alone systems can be more Amount.
cost-effective than extending a power line to the
electricity grid.

They are especially appropriate for remote,

environmentally sensitive areas, such as national
parks, cabins, and remote homes.

A schematic of a grid-connected photovoltaic (PV) system.

INVERTERS

● An inverter transforms DC power to AC

A schematic of a stand-alone, off-grid
photovoltaic (PV) system.
Direct-coupled systems need no electrical storage
because they operate only during daylight hours, but
most systems rely on battery storage. Some systems,
called hybrid systems, combine solar power with
additional power sources (e.g., wind turbine or diesel
generator).
power to supply electricity to AC equipment
and appliances and/or to feed excess power
into the utility lines or to battery storage.
● If the generated power exceeds the load from
the appliances, the inverter feeds excess power
into the utility line or charges batteries.
● If the generated power cannot meet the load,
power is drawn into the house from the utility
line or from the batteries.
Types of inverters

Battery systems can supply the owner with reserve
power whenever energy demand exceeds that
delivered by the PV system. By combining two or
more sources of energy, the size of energy storage can
be decreased
Grid-Connected PV Systems
Grid-connected PV systems interface with the utility
grid. They supply surplus power back through the
grid to the utility and obtain power from the utility
grid when the building system's power supply is
low.
Static Inverter
- A static, stand-alone, or battery-charging
inverter is used with an independent power
system to draw power from battery storage.
- They operate totally independent of a utility
grid.
- Inverters that convert DC to AC are typically
equipped with features that produce the
correct voltage (120 or 240 V) and constant
frequency (60 cycles in the United States) of
electricity, even when the electrical charge is
fluctuating.

These systems eliminate the need for battery storage.

Synchronous Inverter
- A synchronous or utility-interactive inverter is
used in systems connected to a utility power
line.
- A synchronous or utility-interactive inverter is
used in systems connected to a utility power
line.
- A synchronous inverter requires utility power
to operate and cannot be used in a remote site,
away from utility line.
● A synchronous inverter and related power
conditioning equipment must provide four
functions:
1. Efficient conversion of DC power to
AC power
2. Accurate frequency of the AC cycle
3. Consistency of voltage
4. Quality of the AC sine curve
Multifunction Inverter
- A multifunction inverter performs a dual
purpose. It can operate as stand-alone inverter
and serve as a synchronous inverter at the
same time.
- The battery storage configuration is typically
for emergency backup power.
SAMPLE SPECIFICATIONS OF
SELECTED STATIC AND SYNCHRONOUS
INVERTERS.
Inverters have two output ratings: continuous and
surge (or peak intermittent).
The continuous rating is the maximum amount of
power available on an uninterrupted basis. This rating
relates to the continuous load an inverter can handle.
The surge rating relates to the momentary surge of
power (e.g., from startup of motors) the inverter can
handle without shutting off to protect itself from
overload.
- Inverter efficiency ratings are typically based
on a partial power output point where
maximum efficiency is achieved.
- Some inverters operate very efficiently at
one-quarter or one-half of their rated capacity.
- More efficient inverters have a load-sensing
feature that senses when a device is using the
inverter and turns off the inverter when all
loads are shut down.
Inverter Interference
Inverters may cause interference with
electronic signals (e.g. Radio and television reception,
noise on telephones and audio equipment).
Locating the inverter very close to the
batteries, twisting together cables that connect the
inverter to the battery, and locating the inverter away
from appliances that are susceptible to interference can
minimize interference.
Inverter Configuration
Synchronous inverters are also designed to
disconnect from the grid during a utility grid power
failure, so that utility company workers can safely
make repairs on the lines.
Installation and operation of a synchronous
inverter must comply with safety requirements, local
electrical codes, and utility regulations.
Battery Storage
A battery storage or backup system will be
necessary if tapping into the utility grid is not an
option and for which there are power demands other
than during sunlight hours.
A charge regulator or charge controller keeps
batteries charged properly. Mainly, it operates by
monitoring thecharge to the batteries, shutting off
electrical flow when the batteries are fully charged.

Batteries
● Batteries can store and deliver only DC power.
● The battery voltage must be the same as the
voltage needed to run the appliance.
● Standard battery voltage is 6 or 12 V.
● When wired in series, batteries are called a
battery bank.
● The required size of the battery bank will
depend on the storage capacity required, the
maximum discharge rate at any time, the
maximum charge rate, and the temperature of
the batteries.
● The least costly batteries for PV applications
are deepcycle, heavy-duty, industrial-type
lead-acid batteries, such as those used in golf
carts and forklifts designed for high reliability
and long life.
● Lead-acid batteries get their name from the
materials they are made from: a number of
lead plates submerged in an electrolyte, a
mixture of sulfuric acid and water.
● Modern lead acid batteries have improved
safety over traditional liquid acid batteries by
containing the hydrogen produced during
charging and by preventing the liquid acid
from spilling.
Battery Ratings
- A battery is rated by capacity and discharge
rate.
- A battery's storage capacity is rated in
amp-hours, the amount of electrical energy it
can hold and a measure of its ability to deliver
a specific amperage for a certain number of
hours.
● Wattage = Voltage x Amperage
The discharge rate of a battery, expressed in
amp-hours, is the amount of time a battery is designed
to discharge its full capacity. For example, a 200-amp
hour battery with a 20-hr discharge rate is designed to
deliver 10 amps.
A battery bank in a PV system should have sufficient
amp- hour capacity to supply needed power during
the longest expected period of cloudy weather (and no
generated power) without being discharged more than
80%.
- a battery can be safely charged with a current
(amps) equal to one-tenth or less of its
amp-hour capacity. Industrial "rapid charge"
batteries can be charged at a faster rate. The
slower a battery is charged, the greater the
charging efficiency.
- A battery bank in a PV system should have
sufficient amp-hour capacity to supply needed
power during the longest expected period of
cloudy weather (and no generated power)
without being discharged more than 80%.
Battery Ratings
● A well-ventilated storage room is needed to
accommodate the battery bank.
● Ambient temperature in battery storage must
be considered in design because the amphour
capacity of a battery decreases with battery
temperature.
● The stated amp-hour capacity of a battery is
typically based on 80°F. When the same
battery is 40°F, its capacity is only 75% of its
rating and at o°F, its capacity is only 50% of its
rating.
● Battery conversion efficiency is approximately
60% to 80%.
● Properly maintained batteries last for about 5
to 8 years, after which their capacity is
significantly reduced. Overcharging and
excessive discharging will cause electrolyte
loss and will cause damage or destroy the
battery plates.
● Substantial research on battery technology has
taken place since 1990, with the initiation of
battery research for electric vehicles.
● Two examples of near-future alternatives to
lead-acid batteries are nickelcadmium batteries
and nickel-iron batteries. Both types generally
provide good low- temperature performance
and long life, but they are still more expensive
than lead-acid batteries.
Heat Storage
- When heat is the desired end product, hot
water is an alternate way to store energy. In
this system, electricity is sent to resistance
heaters immersed in water.
- Electric resistance heaters can be DC or AC
powered with unregulated voltage and
frequency levels.
- The conversion efficiency of a resistance heater
is nearly 100%, and heat loss is minimized if
the water storage tank is well insulated.
- Resistance heaters can also be used directly to
heat air, as with baseboard electric home
heaters.
PV System Sizing
● A typical size for a net-metered system is
between 2 and 10 kW.
● Energy-efficient appliances and lighting
should be used to reduce the electrical load
and thus the overall system requirements.
● Systems size and cost can vary dramatically
depending on the amount of power required
and the solar insolation available.
- Conducting a power load analysis involves
recording wattage and average daily use of all
lights and power-consuming equipment and
appliances.
- Power-consuming equipment that use
electricity intermittently are referred to as
selectable loads.
- Phantom loads come from power-consuming
equipment with continuous energy
consumption that is not readily apparent (e.g.,
radio, TV, appliance control/indicator, power
strip) and must be recorded.
- To determine total energy consumption,
wattage of lights and power-consuming
equipment and appliances is multiplied by the
number of hours they is used each day.
- For selectable loads, record the time(s) of day
the load exists. Generally, power use data can
be found on a label, nameplate, or cord tag
attached to the appliance. For appliances that
do not furnish the wattage on a label, it can be
calculated by multiplying the amperes times
the volts.

Conducting a Power Load Analysis

● The first step in the process of investigating a
PV system for a home or small business is to
calculate the power load. A thorough
examination of electricity needs of the
building helps determine:
- The size of the system needed
- How energy needs fluctuate
throughout the day and over the year
- Measures that can be taken to reduce
electricity use and increase the
efficiency
 6.6: WIND ENERGY SYSTEM windward is the direction from which the wind blows
leeward is the direction in which the wind is blowing.
The Wind wind vane, windsock, or wind sensor is used to detect
● a form of solar energy wind direction
● is air moving from an area of high pressure to
an area of low pressure and results chiefly ● A cup anemometer-has a vertical axis and
from natural convection driven by uneven three cups that catch the wind and cause it to
heating of the earth's surface and to a certain rotate about its-axis.
extent from the rotation of the earth. ● Wind speed is measured with an anemometer
or wind sensor
Wind Speed
● Ultrasonic sensors detect wind speed and
● is the velocity of the wind in relation to the
direction.
ground
● can be measured and recorded in units of
miles per hour (mph), nautical miles per hour
(knots), kilometers per hour (km/hr) and
meters per second (m/s).

Relationships between these units are:

Fluctuating Wind Speed and Direction

• Wind speed and direction are always fluctuating

Wind Direction
● the most commonly recorded of all weather
elements in historical nautical logbooks
● was expressed using the direction of a 32-
point compass, in 11.25 increments expressed
as an abbreviated direction (e.g., N, NbE,
NNE, NEBN, NE, NEBE, ENE, EbN, E, and so
on
• fluctuation depends both on weather conditions and
local surface surroundings • wind tends to change
direction more frequently and be more turbulent
during the daytime hour
• wind rose is a polar bar graph that illustrates the
distribution of winds at a specific location, showing
wind strength and frequency by direction over a
period of time
• a diagram showing the amount of wind energy
coming from different directions

Wind azimuth
- is a bearing from true north in degrees
clockwise in the direction from which the
wind is blowing
- expressed as an angle measured clockwise
from north. An azimuth of o° is north, 90° is
east, 180° is south, and 270° is west, and so
forth
 Effects of Surface Roughness and Elevation
• The roughness of the surface over which the wind
blows affects its speed
• Uneven surfaces, such as areas with trees and
buildings, create more friction and turbulence than
smooth surfaces such as lakes or open land.
• The approximate increase of speed with height for
different surfaces can be calculated from the following
equation, where v1 is the known (reference) wind
speed at height h1 above ground, v2 is the speed at a
second height h2, and p is the coefficient determining
the wind
Dutch windmill
- most familiar wind energy system
- was developed centuries ago and used in
Europe for grinding grain and pumping water
Wind turbine
- collects kinetic energy from the wind and
converts it to electricity with its sleek
aerodynamic blades and tall tower
● Small turbines are sometimes used in
connection with diesel generators, batteries,
and photovoltaic systems. These systems are
called hybrid wind systems
- used in remote, off-grid locations,
where a connection to the utility grid
is not available
TWO TYPES OF TURBINES
Horizontal-Axis Wind Turbines (HAWT)
● Has a rotor with an axis of rotation that is
horizontal with respect to the ground and
parallel to the wind stream
● Designed to operate in an upwind mode, with
the blades upwind of the tower.
● tail vane is usually used to keep the blades
facing into the wind
● Other HAWT designs operate downwind
mode so that the wind passes the tower before
striking the blades
● The machine rotor naturally tracks the wind
without a tail vane
Vertical-Axis Wind Turbines(VAWT)
● has blades with an axis of rotation that is
vertical with respect to the ground and
roughly perpendicular to the wind stream
● basic VAWT designs are the Darrieus,
Giromill, and Savonius
● Darrieus VAWT has a rotor section that has
multiple curved blades that look like an
eggbeater. It is named afer France inventor
Georges Darrieus, who submitted a patent in
1931
● Lift forces generated from a set of airfoil
blades power it. It uses an elliptical blade that
has a fixed angle of attack of 0° so it is not
self-starting
 ● Giromill is similar to the Darrieus VAWT
except that it has straight vertical axis blades
● Savonius VAWT has a rotor section that is
S-shaped when viewed from above. A well-
designed Savonius turbine can have a tip
speed ratio of slightly greater than 1
Wind Turbine Components
• basic components of a wind turbine include a blade
or rotor, which converts the energy in the wind to
rotational shaft energy
• a drive train, usually including a gearbox and a
generator
• tower that supports the rotor and drive train
controls, electrical cables, ground support equipment,
and interconnection equipment
Rotor
● collects energy from the wind
● consists of two or more wood, fiberglass or
metal blades that rotate about an axis
(horizontal or vertical) at a rate determined by
the wind speed and the shape of the blades
● blades are attached to the rotor hub, which in
turn is attached to the nacelle, which includes
the gearbox, low- and high- speed shafts,
generator, controller, and brake
● cover protects the components inside the
nacelle
● In drag design, the wind pushes the rotor
blades out of the way
● The lift design is aeronautically designed as
an airfoil or wing that makes use of the
principle that enables airplanes, kites, and
birds to fly
● Cut-in speed is the minimum wind speed at
which the blades will turn and generate
useable power
● The rated speed is the minimum wind speed at
which the wind turbine will generate its
designated rated power
● power curves, identify wind turbine output
versus wind speed.
● cut-out speed is the wind speed at which
shutdown occurs
● Tip speed ratio is the relationship between
rotational speed of the tips of the rotor blade
to the wind speed
Generator
- An electric generator is an electromechanical
device that converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy
- wind turbine generator converts the rotational
motion of the rotor into electricity
- A gearbox transmission is used to step up
rotational speed of the wind turbine to speeds
required for operation of the generator
- Some DC-power wind turbines do not use
transmissions but have a direct link between
the rotor and generator. These are known as
direct drive systems.
Batteries and Inverters
● A DC generator that is part of a wind turbine
is used in battery-charging applications and
for operating appliances and machinery
designed specifically to operate on DC power
● Battery systems are used to store energy
● They require DC power and usually are
configured at voltages of between 12 V and
120 V.
● DC generators can be configured to produce
AC power with the use of an inverter, a device
that converts DC to AC
Tower
● a structure that elevates the wind turbine so it
can reach stronger winds at higher elevations
and to provide blade-to-ground clearance.
● A freestanding tower is built on a stable and
substantial foundation and stands in place
without the use of guy wires
● A guyed tower is held in place with guy wires
anchored to the ground on three or four sides
of the tower
Wind Turbine Size
- Wind energy conversion system comes in
many sizes from very small micro systems to
utility-large scale turbines that can supply
energy to the electrical grid.
Most stand-alone systems fall into one of 3 categories:
● Micro systems (100 W or less)
● Mini systems (100 W to 10 kW)
● Small systems (10 kW to 50 kW)
● Single, small turbines, below 50 kW, are used
for individual homes, businesses, or small
facilities, on grid or off grid.
● Common size 10 kW wind turbine has a blade
diameter of about 7 to 25 ft (2 to 7.5 m) and
usually requires a tower about 100 ft (30 m)
tall.
● Can provide most of the electricity usage for
an average home at a moderate wind site.
● Utility-scale turbines range in size from 50 kW
to 7 megawatts.
● Larger turbines are grouped together like
windfarms which can provide a huge among
to the electrical grid.
● These machines require high-wind resources
because the must compete with conventional
generation (coal, natural gas oil, and nuclear)
at a wholesale level
● A commercial, utility-size HAWT (Horizantal
Axis Wind Turbine) stands 200 ft or more in
height and its blades can span up to 200 ft or
more.
● HAWTS are the most common type in use
today. Small HAWTS that is intended for small
businesses or in small residentials have rotor
that has a diameter of 8 m or less and would
be mounted on towers of 40 m in height or less
Wind Turbine Location
● Siting
- refers to the practice of selecting ideal
sites or locations for wind turbines.
● The main criterion for a good wind power site
is average speed.
● Wind speed are generally higher at a high
elevation of the building site. An ideal location
to site a wind turbine is to it on top of a hill,
mountain or ridge that has a wide view in
order to harvest more wind energy in the
vicinity.
Wind turbines should be located at least 30 ft above
any physical wind barriers (e.g., trees, buildings, or
bluffs) within 300 ft to avoid wind turbulence.
It is recommended for small wind turbines to mount
the turbines 65 ft high but, particular site conditions
should be the primary factor in determining the tower
height.
Common obstacles to wind
- Trees and human-made structures (e.g.,
buildings, bridges and towers) are the most
common obstacles to wind in the vicinity of a
potential wind turbine site.
- They act to disturb the air both upwind and
downwind of the obstruction by reducing
wind speed and increasing turbulence.
- Mainly they will decrease the windspeed
downstream from the obstacle.
● Zoning restrictions on the site may limit the
allowable tower height, requiring of a
conditional permit from your city planning
department.
● Local authorities have the discretion to issue a
zoning waivers for small turbines where
appropriate.
● Wind turbine extracts energy from the wind.
● Wind leaving the turbine must have a lower
energy content than the wind arriving in front
of the turbine.
 ● Shadow is the wake of a wind turbine. A wind Grid-connected systems
turbine will always cast a wind shade in the
● interface with the utility grid.
downward direction.
● It supplies surplus power back through the
● Thus, a wind turbine upwind from a second
grid to the utility and obtain power from the
turbine serves as an obstruction by reducing
utility grid when the buildings system's power
wind speed and increasing turbulence.
supply is low.
● Multiple turbines are usually spaced about 7
● These systems eliminate the for battery
rotor diameters apart from the prevailing
storage.
wind direction, and about 4 rotor diameters
apart in the direction perpendicular to the
● In this system, one side of a synchronous
prevailing winds.
inverter is typically connected to the DC
power source (e.g., WECS) and the other side
Wind Energy Conversion Systems
is connected through a meter to the
There are 2 generic types of wind energy conversion
panelboard. This configuration enables to
systems (WECS):
measure the amount of power produced.
● Stand-alone and;
● Grid-connected WECS.

Stand-Alone Systems

● Produces power independently of the utility

grid.
● This system can be more cost-effective than
extending a power lone to the electricity grid.
● They are especially appropriate for remote, ● Some utilities only use a single meter where it

environmentally sensitive areas, such as turns backwards when the system is

national parks, cabins, and remote homes. producing more power than it is consuming.
This measuring technique is called net
metering.
● By law, public utilities allow net metering to
sell excess power back to the utility, but it's a
significantly reduced fee than what the utility
charges.
● Grid-connected system does not constitute
true storage, it provides power on demand at

● In rural areas, stand-alone WECS power farm any time, in any amount.

lighting, fences, and even water pumps.

Theoretical Wind Power

- Direct-coupled systems need no electrical ● is a measure of the energy available in the

storage because they operate only during wind over a period of time
daylight hours. ● By converting the kinetic energy equation into
- Battery systems can supply the owner with a flow equation, this equation can be used to
reserve power whenever energy demand find the raw power of the wind
exceeds delivered by the WECS But in
situation where storage capacity is beyond its
limits, a portable gasoline or diesel generator
may be necessary.
Example:
Approximate the theoretical power in wind
moving at a speed of 6 m/s with an air temperature of
4°C striking a wind turbine with a 3 m diameter rotor.
The theoretical power in wind is found by:
Wind Power Density
● is the unit power (W/m2) in moving air at a
specific speed (v), in mph or m/s
● can be computed by WPD theoretical = 1/2 pv3
• From this equation, it can be discerned that
wind power is related to the cube (third
power) of wind speed, which is known as the
law of the cube
Law of the Cube
- if wind speed is doubled, power in the wind
increases by a factor of 8 (23-8); if wind speed
is tripled, wind power increases by a factor of
3
27 (3 -27)
- even small differences in wind speed lead to
large differences in power
Example:
Approximate the theoretical power density in
wind with an air temperature of 60°F moving at
speeds of 8 mph, 10 mph, 15 mph, 20 mph, and 25
mph.
Betz Limit
● the maximum aerodynamic efficiency of a
wind turbine rotor is 0.593 (or 59.3%)
● this value is known as the Betz limit
● It means that, theoretically, the maximum
amount of energy that can be extracted by a
wind turbine rotor is 59.3%
Betz Limit Ranges for common types of rotors are:
High speed (propeller): 0.30 to 0.45
Darrieus: 0.25 to 0.35
Multiblade farm type: 0.20 to 0.25
Savonius: 0.10 to 0.15
The aerodynamic efficiency of a wind turbine rotor is
normally illustrated in coefficient of power curves,
Flat Curve: Able to maintain high efficiency
Sharp Curve: Experiences a drastic efficiency drop
● A complete wind energy system will produce
between 5 and 30% of the energy available in
the wind
● The actual energy produced is dictated by
system design
Wind Turbine Power
● The power available in the wind is related to
the speed of the wind and the density of the
air
● The theoretical wind power density equation
introduced above relates to the power in a
free-flowing stream of air at standard
conditions
air temperature correction factor (Ftemp)
and altitude correction factor (Falt)
Accounting for these factors, wind turbine power
density (WTPD) is found by:

For horizontal-axis wind turbines with a rotor

diameter (D), this can be further converted to wind
turbine power (WTP)

- These equations are based on the density of

dry air. Because air does contain some
moisture, air density is slightly higher. Wind Sizing
● Sizing a WECS is similar to sizing a
Wind Power Classification photovoltaic (PV) system.
● Wind power density (WPD) is a useful way to
assess the wind energy available at a potential
wind turbine site. Expressed in watts per
square meter (W/m2), it indicates how much
energy is available at the site for conversion by
a wind turbine.
- Estimates of wind resource at a
potential site are expressed in wind
power classes ranging from Class 1
(weakest) to Class 7 (strongest), with
each class representing a range of A 10-kw wind turbine can
mean wind power density (W/m2) at generate about 10 000 kWh
equivalent mean speed at specified annually at a site with wind
heights above the ground speeds averaging 12 mph, or
about enough to power a
typical household.
➤ The size of a WECS needed to meet a desired
electrical output depends on wind energy available at
the site and the efficiency of the WECS. A typical size
for a net metered system is at least 5 kW.
➤ Energy-efficient appliances and lighting should be
used to reduce the electrical load and thus the overall
system requirements.
Sizing Grid-Connected Systems
The generating capacity of a wind turbine for a
particular installation depends on the maximum
overall load and on the wind conditions at the site. It is
impracticable to presume that all energy needs can be
met economically by wind energy alone.
grid-connected wind system should be sized to supply
25% to 75% of the building's electrical energy
requirements.
✔ Most residential applications require a
wind turbine capacity of between 1 and 10
kW.
✔ Farm use requires 10 to 50 kW,
✔and commercial/small industrial
typically require 20 kW or larger.
The synchronous inverter to convert from DC to AC
power should be sized to match the maximum wind
energy produced by the wind turbine. Future
additional loads should also be considered. It is
generally less costly to purchase an inverter with
larger input and output ratings than is needed at
present, if expansion is likely in the future.
Sizing of Stand-Alone, Off Grid Systems
Sizing stand-alone, off-grid systems
substantially different than sizing a wind system for
utility interconnection because remote systems must
be designed to supply the entire electrical demand.
✓ Before one can size the components
of a remote system, one must determine the load
requirements of the site.
➤ The goal is to compare the amount of energy
needed at different times of the day and year to when
it is available on average from the wind.
➤ After taking into account the wind's intermittence,
you can determine the size and type of energy storage
or other energy sources needed to meet your total
demand.
✓ Battery storage should be sized large enough to
handle at least three windless days.
Backup generators are often included in remote
electrical systems as a supplemental backup. They help
to power large, infrequently used loads and to
preserve the life of the batteries by minimizing the
A number of times they are completely discharged.
generators are often sized larger than the average
expected load of the system so that they can also
charge the batteries at the same time, keeping run time
and fuel consumption to a minimum.
Wind Turbine Economics
Generally, annual average wind speeds of about 12
mph (about 6 m/s) are cost-effective for grid-connected
uses
applications. Annual average wind speeds of 7 to 9
mph (3 to 4 m/s) may be costeffective for nonconnected
electrical and mechanical applications such as battery
charging and pumping water. Wind resources
exceeding these speeds are available in many parts of
the world.
6.7: HYDROPOWER SYSTEMS
Basic Systems
- Hydropower involves hydraulic systems that
use the energy in flowing or falling water to
produce mechanical energy (motion), which
can then be converted to electricity.
Large-scale hydropower projects generate more than
is 30 MW
Small-scale hydropower systems - generate between
kW to 30 MW
Micro hydropower (microhydro) systems - generate up
to 100 kW
Pico hydropower systems - generate less than 5 kW
For comparison, 1 MW of electricity can power about
500 American households.
Most of the systems used by home and small business
owners would qualify as micro or Pico hydropower
systems.
A crude Pico hydropower system in Vietnam
- In the United States today, hydropower
projects provide 81% of the nation's renewable
electricity generation and about 10% of the
nation's total electricity, sufficient to power
37.8 million homes.
- Most large hydropower systems use storage
reservoirs, Water from these reservoirs flow
through a pressurized pipeline called a
penstock that delivers it to a waterwheel or
turbine.
Impoundment hydropower system uses a dam to store
river water in a reservoir. The water may be released
either to meet changing electricity needs or to maintain
a constant reservoir level.
When the demand for electricity is low, a pumped
storage hydropower system stores energy by pumping
water from a lower reservoir to an upper reservoir.
During periods of high electrical demand, the water is
released back to the lower reservoir to generate
electricity. These are typically used on large- or
medium-scale hydropower projects.
Run-of-the-River Systems
Run-of-the-river or Diversion Hydropower Systems
do not require large storage reservoirs, but use a
portion of a river's water, which is diverted to a
channel, pipeline, or pressurized penstock. The
moving water rotates the wheel or turbine, which
spins a shaft. The motion of the shaft can be used for
mechanical processes, such as pumping water, or it
can be used to power an alternator or generator to
generate electricity
Small run-of-the-river hydropower systems consist of
these basic components:
Water conveyance
Turbine or waterwheel
Alternator or generator
Regulator
Wiring
● Water conveyance a channel, pipeline, or
pressurized pipeline (penstock) that delivers
the water
● Turbine or waterwheel transforms the energy
of flowing water into rotational energy
● Alternator or generator -transforms the
rotational energy into electricity.
● Regulator - controls the generator
● Wiring - delivers the electricity
Waterwheels
The oldest hydropower system component.
Waterwheels are still available, but they are
not very practical for generating electricity
because of their slow speed and bulky
structure.
Turbines
- Turbines have hydraulically designed blades
that are fixed to a shaft (much like a
waterwheel). They are designed so that when
moving water strikes the surfaces of the
turbine blades, they spin a shaft.
- The rotating part of a turbine is called the
runner.
- Turbines are more efficient and compact in
relation to waterwheels; they have fewer gears
and require less material for construction.
There are two general classes of turbines:
Impulse Turbines
Reaction Turbines
Impulse Turbines
➢ Impulse turbines have the least complex
design and are most commonly used for high
head pico hydropower systems. They rely on
the velocity of water to move the turbine
runner.
➢ Pelton Wheel
➢ Turgo Impulse Wheel
➢ Jack Rabbit
Pelton Wheel
- The Pelton wheel uses the concept of jet force to
create energy. Water is funneled into a
pressurized pipeline with a narrow nozzle at
 one end. The water sprays out of the nozzle in
a jet, striking the double-cupped buckets
attached to the wheel
- The impact of the jet spray on the curved
buckets creates force that rotates the wheel at
high efficiency rates of 70 to 90%. Pelton wheel
turbines are available in various sizes and
operate best under low-flow and high-head
conditions
Turgo Impulse Wheel
- Advanced version of the Pelton wheel
- It uses the same jet spray concept, but the
Turgo jet, which is half the size of the Pelton, is
angled so that the spray hits three buckets at
once. As a result, the Turgo wheel moves twice
as fast.
- Less bulky, needs few or no gears, and is
generally trouble free. The Turgo can operate
under low-flow conditions but requires a
medium or high head.
Jack Rabbit
- Referred to by its trade name as the Aquair
UW Submersible Hydro Generator, is a
drop-in-thecreek turbine that can generate
power from a stream with as little as 13 in of
water and no head.
- Output from the Jack Rabbit is a maximum of
100 W, so daily output averages 1.5 to 2.4
kWh, depending on the site.
Reaction Turbines
- Highly efficient and are generally used in
large-scale hydropower applications. They
depend on pressure rather than velocity to
produce energy.
- All blades of the reaction turbine maintain
constant contact with the water.
- Because of their complexity and high cost,
they are not usually used on pico hydropower
projects. An exception is the propeller turbine,
which works much like a boat's propeller and
typically has three to six usually fixed blades
set at different angles aligned on the runner.
- The propeller turbine comes in many different
designs
- The bulb, tubular, and Kaplan tubular are
variations of the propeller turbine. The Kaplan
turbine, which is a highly adaptable propeller
system, can be used for pico hydropower sites.
Conventional Pumps
- Conventional pumps can be used as
substitutes for hydraulic turbines because,
when the action of a pump is reversed, a
pump operates like a turbine.
- Because pumps are mass produced, they are
readily available and less expensive than
turbines.
- However, adequate pump performance at a
pico hydropower site requires fairly constant
head and flow. Pumps are also less efficient
and more prone to damage. Because of these
disadvantages, pumps are rarely used for pico
hydropower
Channels, Storage, and Filters
➢ Before water enters the turbine or waterwheel,
it is first funneled through a series of
components that control its flow and filter out
debris. These components are the:
○ Headrace
○ Forebay
○ Water conveyance
➢ Headrace is a waterway running parallel to the
water source. A headrace is sometimes
necessary for hydropower systems when
insufficient head is provided. It often is
constructed of cement or masonry.
➢ The headrace leads to the forebay, which also
is made of concrete or masonry. It functions as
a settling pond for large debris that would
otherwise flow into the system and damage
the turbine.
➢ Water from the forebay is fed through the
trash rack, a grill that removes additional
debris. The filtered water then enters through
the controlled gates of the spillway into the
water conveyance, which funnels water
directly to the turbine or waterwheel.
Dams or Diversion Structures
- Dams or diversion structures are rarely used
in pico hydropower projects. They are an
added expense and require professional
assistance from a civil engineer.
 - In addition, dams increase the potential for
environmental and maintenance problems.
Hydraulics
- Head is related to the pressure at the base of a
vertical column of water. It is usually
measured in feet, meters, or units of pressure
such as lb/in2 or Pa. The relationship between
2
feet of head and lb/in is:
● Most small hydropower sites are categorized
as low head or high head. A high head system
has a change in elevation of more than 10 m (3
m). A low head system refers to a change in
elevation of less than 10 m (3 m).
Hydraulics
- A high head system requires less water to
produce a given amount of power, so smaller,
less expensive equipment is required. A
vertical drop of less than 3 ft (1 m) will
probably make a small-scale hydropower
system unfeasible.
- For extremely small power generation
amounts, a flowing stream with as little as 12
in (300 mm) of water can support a
submersible turbine, like the type used
originally to power scientific instruments
towed behind oil exploration ships.
- Head also is a function of the characteristics of
the channel or pipe through which it flows.
When determining head, the difference
between gross head and net head must be
considered.
● Static head is the vertical
distance between the top of
the penstock that conveys the
water under pressure and the
point where the water
discharges from the turbine.
● Dynamic head is the static
head less losses from friction
and turbulence in the piping;
thus, it is a fraction of static
head.
Approximating Static Head
● Static head of a hydropower site is determined
by finding the vertical distance between the
point where water will enter the penstock and
the point where water will discharge from the
turbine.
● For an elevation drop of several hundred feet,
another technique is to use an altimeter.
● The hose-tube measurement method can be
used to establish a rough estimate of the static
head (vertical distance) of a small hydropower
site. It involves taking measurements across
the stream from the penstock intake (upstream
location) to the turbine outflow (downstream
location).
● A hose-tube measurement requires a 20 to 30
ft (6 to 9 m) length of small-diameter garden
hose or other flexible tubing, a funnel at one
end of the hose, and a measuring stick or tape
Volumetric Flow Rate
- The quantity of water flowing past a point in
the stream per unit time.
It is measured in
Gallons per minute (gpm)
Cubic feet per second (ft3/s)
Liters per second (L/s)
Volumetric Flow Rate
● A common method for measuring flow on
very small streams is the bucket measurement
method.
● The lowest average flow of the year should be
used as the basis of the system design, unless a
storage reservoir will be used
Determining Flow
The bucket measurement method involves
damming the stream with logs or boards to divert the
stream flow into a bucket or container. The rate that
the container fills is the flow rate.
The cross-sectional flow method is a more
accurate method used to approximate volumetric flow
at the narrowest point in the stream.
Performing cross-sectional flow method
1. Calculate the cross-sectional area of the streambed
during the time of lowest water flow.
● Select a stretch of the stream with the
straightest channel and most uniform depth
and width as possible, then measure the width
 and at depth of the stream at equal increments water depth and recalculate the cross-sectional
across the stream that are perpendicular to area of the stream. You will need to repeat the
water flow. flow velocity procedure each time.
● Determine the cross-sectional area of each Estimating Power Output
section of stream and sum the section areas to
The power available at any instant in a stream is
find the total cross-sectional area.
primarily a product of the volumetric flow rate and
head. Turbine and generator efficiencies also affect
2. Establish a distance downstream of of where
power output.
measurements of the stream depth were made.
These characteristics depend on operating conditions
● Determine the velocity of each section of
(head and flow).
stream by recording the time it takes a
- The higher the head the better,
weighted float to travel the specific distance
because less water is necessary to
downstream. The float should not hit or drag
produce a given amount of power,
on the bottom of the stream. Repeat this
and smaller, more efficient, and less
procedure several times to get an average
costly turbines and piping can be
velocity for each section of stream.
used.
● Repeat this procedure several times to get an
- The overall efficiency of a system will
average velocity for each section of stream.
range between 40% and 70%. A
● Then, divide the distance between the two
well-designed system will achieve an
points by the float time in seconds to
efficiency of 50 to 55%.
determine the velocity for each section of
The power output (watts) for a small hydropower
stream, in ft/s (or m/s).
system can be approximated based on dynamic head
● Multiply the average velocity of each section
(fthead); the vertical distance available after
by the cross- sectional area for the same
subtracting losses from pipe friction and flow rate
section of stream to determine the flow rate for
(gpm); and a 55% efficiency:
that section.
● Add the measured flow rates for each section
to determine the measured flow rate.

Small-Scale Turbines and Generators

3. Multiply the measured flow rate by a factor that
accounts for the roughness of the stream channel (0.8
Commercially available turbines and
for a sandy stream bed, 0.7 for a bed with small- to
generators are usually sold as a package. Only
medium- sized stones, and 0.6 for a bed with many
a few companies make pico hydropower
large stones).
turbines. Most are high-head turbines.
● The result will be a fair estimate of the
Low-head, low-flow turbines are difficult to
volumetric flow rate, in ft3/s (or m3/s), at the
find, and may have to be custom-made.
time of measurement
● Pico hydropower turbines can
produce anywhere from 20 to 2500 W.
4. Repeat the procedure several times during the low
flow season to more accurately estimate the average
low water flow.
● To make cross-sectional area measurements
easier, measure the water depth above or
below the water level when you first measured
the stream, and calculate the area of greater or
less water, and add or subtract this from the
benchmark area.
● Alternatively, install a gauge (made from a
calibrated rod or post) on the bank to read the
 ○ The piping must have adequate
support to keep it from breaking apart
or moving under the weight and
Small-Scale Turbines and Generators pressure of the water
- The turbine/generator should be above the
- Each hydropower system is custom-built to
stream's flood stage. A power line from the
match site specifications based on head, flow,
generator could be expensive.
pipe size and length, electrical transmission
-
line length, and battery voltage.
6.8: RAINWATER HARVESTING
- For a static head range of 20 to 600 ft and
volumetric flow rates of 4 to 450 gpm, they Rainwater
produce a maximum of 700 W (at 12 V), a - can provide clean, safe, and reliable water
maximum of 1400 W (at 24 V), and a through properly constructed maintained
maximum of 2500 W (at 48 V) catchment. and
- it is one of the purest sources of water
System Performance available, nearly always exceeding the quality
- Low-head, low-speed water wheels are less of ground or surface water.
efficient than high-head, high-speed turbines.
The overall efficiency of a system will range Rainwater Collection/Harvesting
between 40% and 70%. - intercepts and collects storm water runoff and
- A well-designed system will achieve an detain or retain it for later use.
average efficiency of 55%. Turbine - used for livestock and other daily activities
manufacturers provide a close estimate of that needs water.
potential power output for their turbine for the
Rainwater Harvesting Systems
head and flow conditions at a site.
- are made of a catchment area, conveyance
devices (e.g., gutters, conductors, and
Selling Power to a Utility
downspouts), filters, storage tanks, and
- The utility will require that you insure the
distribution systems.
system. The interconnect requirements and
insurance premiums may cost more than what
Roof Catchment Area
you earn from selling the power.
- wherein_rainwater is collected usually
- An alternative to selling power is "net
rooftop, patio, terrace or driveways.
metering or billing," where your system offsets
- they are made of a variety of materials
the amount of power you purchase from a
including wood, ceramic, cementitious, and
utility.
metal.
- Many states in the United States have net
metering provisions; however, you will still
Varieties of Roof Catchment Area
have to negotiate with the utility concerning
their interconnection requirements.
Wood shakes, wood shingles, and asphalt
composition shingles
Other Considerations
Many other factors will determine whether developing are more likely than other materials to support the
the site is practical. growth of mold, algae, bacteria, and moss, which can
● Penstock routing and placement is important. contaminate water supplies.
○ You will need to inspect and clean the
Metal roofs
penstock intake regularly. Freezing
weather, livestock, and vandals can are relatively smooth and are therefore less susceptible
damage exposed piping, but burying to contamination.
it may not be practical or cost-effective
Stainless steel
is an exceptionally inert metal that works well, but it is is a horizontal pipe that carries water.
expensive.

Seamless Gutter
Aluminum
custom made in one piece without seams and are
is also relatively inert, but the health effects of
preferred to use for it only have few joints.
ingesting small amounts of aluminum are somewhat
controversial in connection to Alzheimer's Disease.
Example of a Simple Rainwater Harvesting System

Cisterns
are storage systems make use of above- ground
containers (e.g., barrel or fiberglass tank).
are the single largest investment for most rainwater
harvesting systems and are mostly cylindrical.
Quality of Harvested Water
● Rainwater captured in a sanitized system is
good for drinking.
● Contaminants on the catchment area surface
can include pollen, dust, mold, bacteria, algae,
animal droppings, dead insects, smoky
condensate residues from heaters, atmospheric
pollutants, and chemicals from painted or
waterproofed surfaces.
First-flush Washing
● prevents the initial flow of rainwater with
pollen, mold spores, and other contaminants
● in cold climates, the cistern must be protected
from draining into the storage tank, thereby
from freezing by burying underground or
preventing large concentrations of surface
incorporating it into a basement.
contamination from being collected in the
● can be made of galvanized steel, concrete,
storage tank.
wood, fiberglass, or plastic (polyethylene)
● is not needed for water used solely for
irrigation purposes.
Gutter
Is a horizontal trough or channel that runs along the
Example of a Dirty Storage Container
eaves of a building roof to capture and divert
● Dirty storage containers may become a health
rainwater.
hazard or a breeding ground for mosquitoes
and other pests (e.g., insects, lizards, and other
small animals, which may enter the tank).

Design of a Rainwater Harvesting System

● The design of the system should take into
account the intended use (potable or non
potable) of the system, water consumption
rates, local rainfall data and weather patterns,
and the size and type catchment area and
Downspout
cistern.
which is a vertical pipe that carries the water collected
by gutter pipes away from the roof gutter
Water Consumption Rate

Conductor
 ● The design of a rainwater harvesting system
must take into account how much water is
needed and when.
● Consumption rates for irrigation systems vary
significantly based on type and maturity of
vegetation.

In semiarid climates, turf grass requires irrigation rates

ranging from 5 in/ft2 (26 gal/ft2), for Buffalo grass to 24
in/ft2 (125 gal/ft2), for Kentucky bluegrass over the
growing season.

With prudent use, low-flow, water-conserving

plumbing fixtures and little outdoor water use,
residential consumption can be reduced to a range
from 40 to 70 gal (160 to 280 L) per person per day.

Amount of Rainfall
- The amount of rainfall in a particular period is
very unpredictable, especially in arid and
semiarid climates where annual precipitation
is less than 20 in (500 mm).

Rainfall Intensity
- is the precipitation rate at which rain
falls over a short duration of time
(usually based on 15 min of
precipitation) in in/hr and mm/hr.

Rainwater Collected
- The catchment area (A) is computed using the
footprint of the building plus the length of the
overhangs. One inch of rain typically produces
about 0.60 gal/ft2 of catchment area. (metal),
- The efficiency is usually assumed to be
between 75% (rough concrete) and 90%
depending on system design and capacity.