lubricants
Article
Monitoring the Conditions of Hydraulic Oil with Integrated Oil
Sensors in Construction Equipment
Sung-Ho Hong 1, * and Hong-Gyu Jeon 2
Citation: Hong, S.-H.; Jeon, H.-G.
Monitoring the Conditions of
Hydraulic Oil with Integrated Oil
Sensors in Construction Equipment.
Lubricants 2022, 10, 278. https://
doi.org/10.3390/lubricants10110278
Received: 14 September 2022
Accepted: 21 October 2022
Published: 25 October 2022
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Lubricants 2022, 10, 278. https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants10110278
1 Department of Mechanical System Engineering, Dongguk University-WISE Campus,
Gyeongju-si 38066, Korea
2 Department of Reliability Assessment, Hyundai Construction Equipment, Yongin-si 16891, Korea
* Correspondence: hongsh@dongguk.ac.kr; Tel.: +82-54-770-2211
Abstract: Maintenance and reliability are crucial aspects for operating construction equipment in
harsh environmental conditions. One of the methods used to improve the maintenance and reliability
of construction equipment is oil diagnosis. In this study, monitoring of conditions was performed
through the use of an integrated oil sensor for hydraulic oil in construction equipment. Hydraulic oil
in construction equipment is polluted by various materials such as moisture and dust. Therefore,
the present work investigated the change in the state of hydraulic oil caused by the presence of
major pollutants in construction equipment. The degree of contamination of the hydraulic oil was
evaluated using an integrated oil sensor that could measure absolute viscosity, density, temperature
and dielectric constant. It is difficult to determine the influence of each pollutant source on hydraulic
oil. Therefore, a simple experimental device and diagnostic program were constructed to effectively
measure variations in the properties of hydraulic oil caused by each contaminant source. In particular,
the focus was on the dielectric constant and examination of its usefulness. In addition to testing
various contaminant conditions in the laboratory, varnish-contaminated lubricants used in actual
construction equipment were verified. The results showed little change in the dielectric constant
when introducing dust and improper lubricants. However, the dielectric constant was affected by the
incorporation of water and the generation of varnish, which led to evident variations. In particular, a
direct correlation was found between varnish contamination and the dielectric constant measured by
the oil sensor, and the cause was explained based on the results of elemental component analysis.
Therefore, measuring absolute viscosity, density, and temperature when monitoring the condition
of hydraulic oil in construction equipment can provide useful information regarding lubricant and
machine condition; however, the dielectric constant is most useful in detecting moisture incorporation
and varnish contamination caused by oil deterioration.
Keywords: condition monitoring; construction equipment; dielectric constant; hydraulic oil; integrated
oil sensor
1. Introduction
Construction machinery is extensively used both in civil engineering works and in
construction sites, such as house construction and factory construction. Construction
equipment used in the construction industry makes an important contribution to both
productivity and efficiency [1]. Previous studies on construction equipment have been
conducted in various ways, so there has been no systematic classification. Regarding future
research directions, it is predicted that a machine maintenance strategy that can replace
parts in real time using a more complex predictive model than before will be developed.
Moreover, research on automated construction equipment is expected to proceed due to
the advantages of unmanned machines. It is also predicted that nanotechnology and con-
vergence technologies will contribute to the development of construction machinery [2–4].
Most construction equipment requires more energy to operate than industrial equipment,
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/lubricants
Lubricants 2022, 10, 278 2 of 20

so many researchers and manufacturers have to think hard about how hydraulic oil can
contribute to energy efficiency and how to properly manage the oil. The amount of hy-
draulic oil used exceeds the amounts of engine oil and gear oil. Hydraulic oil has critical
functions such as power transmission, maintaining pressure, transferring heat, preventing
wear and corrosion, etc. Therefore, it is very important to monitor the maintenance and
condition of hydraulic oil. The related research field is machine condition monitoring.
Machine condition monitoring is a field that contributes to improving machine reliabil-
ity by diagnosing machine faults or failures based on data and information measured using
various sensors and measuring devices. Machine condition monitoring prevents machine
failures and enhances the level of maintenance of the mechanical system. In diagnosing the
machine condition, compliance monitoring, which diagnoses the machine condition based
on reference values of physical quantities such as pressure or temperature, and structure
integrity monitoring, which involves diagnosing the machine condition by measuring
the stress and strain of the structure using a strain gauge, have been widely used in the
past.
Lubricants 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW
At present, in addition to these methods, machine state diagnosis using vibration
3 of 22
and noise, using thermography, using non-destructive techniques such as ultrasound, and
using lubricant and wear particle analysis are all widely used, as shown in Figure 1 [5,6].

Figure
Figure 1. Types
1. Types of machine
of machine condition
condition monitoring.
monitoring.

Diagnosis of the machine condition through lubricant analysis has been tested in
various fields. It is applied not only for monitoring the condition of important machine
parts, such as engines and gearboxes in automobiles, high speed-trains, and military
machines such as tanks and armored vehicles, but also in construction equipment, marine
engines, and chemical or power plants. It is also widely applied in wind turbines and
aircrafts [7].
The methods used to analyze lubricant in a mechanical system are shown in Figure 2.
These can be broadly divided into three methods: analyzing lubricant through oil sampling
is called the off-line method, analyzing directly where the main flow occurs is called the in-
line method, and the third method, the on-line method, utilizes a detour (by-pass) without
affecting the main flow or operation and performance in a representative spot. The biggest
disadvantage of analyzing lubricant via the off-line method is that real-time analysis is not
possible. To compensate
Figure 2. Methods of lubricant for this, an on-line method based on a lubricant sensor is typically
analysis.
applied. Compared to the off-line method, the on-line method can reduce human error
suchIn terms of condition in
as contamination monitoring technologies,
the oil sampling Figure
process, and3 can
shows theprevent
also market major
sharesfailure
in by
2021 for vibration monitoring, thermography, oil analysis, corrosion monitoring,
enabling the early detection of wear particles through wear particle sensors. Moreover, ultra-
sound
thereemission
are low monitoring,
maintenance and others.
costs andVibration
there is nomonitoring
need for still holds the skills
professional largesttomar-
analyze or
ketcontrol
share with
for measurement. Due to these advantages, the on-line methodoilusing
roughly 32%. Compared with the past, the market shares of analysis,
a lubricant
thermography, and ultrasound
sensor is preferred fields aremethod
over the off-line growing in the field of machine condition mon-
[8].
itoring [9]. In the near future, it is expected that the market share of oil analysis will ex-
pand further due to the continued development of oil sensors and diagnostic algorithms.
Lubricants 2022, 10, 278 3 of 20
Figure 1. Types of machine condition monitoring.
Figure 1. Types of machine condition monitoring.

Figure 2. Methods of lubricant analysis.

Figure
Figure 2. Methods
2. Methods of lubricant
of lubricant analysis.
analysis.
InIn terms
termsof condition monitoring technologies, Figure 3 shows the market shares shares
in
2021 In
forterms of of
vibration
condition
condition
monitoring,
monitoring
monitoring
thermography,
technologies,
technologies,
oil Figure Figure
analysis,
3 shows
3corrosion
shows the market
themonitoring,
market shares in
ultra-
in
2021
2021 for vibration
foremission
vibration monitoring,
monitoring, thermography,
thermography, oil analysis,
oil analysis, corrosion
corrosion monitoring,
monitoring, ultrasound
sound monitoring, and others. Vibration monitoring still holds the largestultra-
mar-
emission
sound monitoring, andand
others. Vibration monitoring still holds the largest market
mar- share
ket share with roughly 32%. Compared with the past, the market shares of largest
emission monitoring, others. Vibration monitoring still holds the oil analysis,
ketwith roughly
share 32%. Compared
with roughly with the past,the
32%. Compared the market shares ofshares
oil analysis, thermography,
thermography, and ultrasound fields arewith
growingpast,in thethe market
field of machine of oil analysis,
condition mon-
and ultrasound
thermography, and fields are
ultrasoundgrowing in the field of machine condition monitoring [9]. In the
itoring [9]. In the near future, itfields are growing
is expected that thein the fieldshare
market of machine condition
of oil analysis mon-
will ex-
near
itoring future, it
[9]. In due is
the near expected that the market share of oil analysis will expand will ex- due to
further
pand further to thefuture, it is expected
continued developmentthat of
theoilmarket
sensors share
and of oil analysis
diagnostic algorithms.
the continued
pand further duedevelopment
to the continued of oil sensors and
development of diagnostic
oil sensors andalgorithms.
diagnostic algorithms.

Figure
Figure 3. 3. Machine
Machine condition
condition monitoring
monitoring market
market shareshare in 2021
in 2021 [9]. [9].
Figure 3. Machine condition monitoring market share in 2021 [9].
Lubricant sensors are used to measure various properties of lubricant, such as viscosity,
density, water content, etc. A sensor is used to measure viscosity, which is the most
basic property of lubricant. The main methods used by a lubricant sensor to measure
viscosity are displacement [10], acoustic wave [11,12] and vibration [13–15] methods. The
displacement method measures viscosity by measuring the time it takes for a ferromagnetic
piston to move in a small channel with electromagnetic coils installed above and below
it. The acoustic wave method measures viscosity through a resonance frequency shift
with a piezoelectric material and a quartz membrane. The vibration method measures
viscosity by checking the variation in the frequency or amplitude of resonance depending
on viscosity [16]. In addition to the viscosity sensor, a wear particle sensor is typically used.
Wear particle sensors mainly utilize a method using capacitance and inductance [17–24],
an acoustic method using an ultrasonic transducer [25,26], a method using optics [27–29],
or a method using a permanent magnet and an inductance together [16].
Sensors for measuring moisture content [30], sensors for measuring acid number
(AN) and base number (BN) [31,32], aeration sensors [33], and contamination sensors
have been developed and used in industrial fields. Moreover, studies have examined the
dielectric constant and electrical conductivity methods used to determine the properties of
lubricants [34–38].
By measuring the dielectric constant or electrical conductivity, variations in other
properties can also be estimated; that is, the tendencies of change are similar between the
dielectric constant and AN, and therefore any change in AN can be inferred by measuring
the dielectric constant, as shown in Figure 4.
 been developed and used in industrial fields. Moreover, studies have examined the die-
lectric constant and electrical conductivity methods used to determine the properties of
lubricants [34–38].
By measuring the dielectric constant or electrical conductivity, variations in other
properties can also be estimated; that is, the tendencies of change are similar between the
Lubricants 2022, 10, 278 4 of 20
dielectric constant and AN, and therefore any change in AN can be inferred by measuring
the dielectric constant, as shown in Figure 4.

Figure
Figure4.4.Interrelation
Interrelationofofdielectric constant
dielectric andand
constant ANAN
overover
timetime
[35].[35].

The
Thecontamination
contamination and
and deterioration
deteriorationof lubricants
of lubricantshavehave
complex causes,
complex ratherrather
causes, than than
being
being caused
causedby byoneonetype
typeofofpollutant.
pollutant.Therefore,
Therefore, toto
diagnose
diagnose thethe
condition
condition of aoflubricant
a lubricant or
or machine,
machine, it it
is isnecessary
necessarytotoevaluate
evaluate various
various physical
physical properties.
properties.As Asa aresult,
result,it it
is is
desir-
desirable
able to use an integrated sensor that can simultaneously measure several
to use an integrated sensor that can simultaneously measure several properties. With theproperties. With
the development
development of of MEMSororsensor
MEMS sensormanufacturing
manufacturing technologies,
technologies,the thereliability
reliabilityand andcostcost of
of integrated sensors have improved compared to past
integrated sensors have improved compared to past technologies [5].technologies [5].
The
Thecomplex
complexstructure
structureofof
construction
constructionequipment
equipment leads to various
leads fault fault
to various sources, and and
sources,
to predict fault occurrence, condition monitoring systems need to have
to predict fault occurrence, condition monitoring systems need to have various sensors various sensors
installed to accurately diagnose the health of construction machinery [39]. It is common
installed to accurately diagnose the health of construction machinery [39]. It is common for
for hydraulic or mechanical transmission failures to be caused by oil contamination, and
hydraulic or mechanical transmission failures to be caused by oil contamination, and oil
oil contamination is responsible for 70% of failures in hydraulic systems [40]. Past systems
contamination is responsible for 70% of failures in hydraulic systems [40]. Past systems
mainly monitored the pressure, viscosity and temperature of hydraulic oil, but various
mainly monitored the pressure, viscosity and temperature of hydraulic oil, but various other
other properties of lubricants are now monitored through oil sensors to diagnose the con-
properties of lubricants are now monitored through oil sensors to diagnose the condition.
In Hitachi systems, not only is a pollution level sensor installed but also an integrated oil
sensor (TE FPS 2000) to diagnose the condition of hydraulic oil [41,42]. Moreover, machine
learning and artificial intelligence approaches have also been used for condition monitoring
with oil analysis [43].
As mentioned above, oil diagnosis plays a very important role in achieving good main-
tenance of construction equipment. To diagnose the condition of hydraulic oil using an oil
sensor, some basic knowledge is needed to determine the main property or reference value
for the diagnostic standard. Although the results of a field test provide useful information,
it is difficult to create a guideline for diagnosing the condition of hydraulic oil because of
the results of various contamination sources. In other words, it is difficult to determine the
standard value or guideline for condition diagnosis when measuring hydraulic oil that has
been affected by various pollutants. It is more efficient to classify the pollutant sources in a
laboratory setting through a simple experimental device. This paper presents guidelines for
diagnosing the condition of hydraulic oil using an existing integrated oil sensor. Using a
simple experimental device with a monitoring program, variations in properties according
to temperature were investigated for several contamination conditions of hydraulic oil. In
particular, for construction equipment, the results effectively show a direct relationship
between varnish contamination and the dielectric constant of hydraulic oil when using an
oil sensor that can measure the dielectric constant via a simple experimental device.

2. Integrated Oil Sensor and Experimental Device

In this study, an integrated oil sensor (TE FPS 2000) was used for diagnosing the con-
dition of hydraulic oil in construction equipment, as shown in Figure 5. The measurement
parameters, measurement range, and accuracy of this sensor are listed in Table 1. This
sensor is based on a tuning fork flexural resonator. The resonator is made of quartz, a
piezoelectric material that is capable of deformation upon the application of a voltage
and reciprocal electrical polarization under mechanical stress. The two tines of the fork
 In this study, an integrated oil sensor (TE FPS 2000) was used for diagnosing the
condition of hydraulic oil in construction equipment, as shown in Figure 5. The measure-
ment parameters, measurement range, and accuracy of this sensor are listed in Table 1.
This sensor is based on a tuning fork flexural resonator. The resonator is made of quartz,
a piezoelectric material that is capable of deformation upon the application of a voltage
Lubricants 2022, 10, 278 5 of 20
and reciprocal electrical polarization under mechanical stress. The two tines of the fork
oscillate and generate a response indicative of the physicochemical and electrical proper-
ties of the lubricant in which the sensor is immersed. The application of a sinusoidal exci-
oscillate
tation and generate
voltage a response
to the tuning fork’s indicative of thecauses
thin electrodes physicochemical and electrical
mechanical stress properties
and periodic
of the lubricant
elastic in which
deformation. the sensor
This vibration is immersed.
produces The application
a corresponding current of through
a sinusoidal excitation
the elec-
trodes.
voltageThe impedance
to the tuning of the system
fork’s can be measured
thin electrodes based on thestress
causes mechanical ratio ofand
theperiodic
excitationelastic
voltage to the induced
deformation. current.produces
This vibration This process is dependent on
a corresponding the excitation
current through frequency, the The
the electrodes.
elastic properties
impedance of theofsystem
the piezoelectric material, and
can be measured basedtheon
properties
the ratioofofthe
thefluid [44]. Moreo-
excitation voltage to
ver,
the this sensorcurrent.
induced can be used
Thisunder
processpressure conditions
is dependent onofthe
up excitation
to 25 bar. Itfrequency,
is impossible thetoelastic
conduct measurements where there is no flow of fluid. Therefore, it is difficult
properties of the piezoelectric material, and the properties of the fluid [44]. Moreover, this to diagnose
oil condition
sensor can bewhen
usedthe machine
under is stopped
pressure or stagnant.
conditions of up to 25 bar. It is impossible to conduct
For the lubricating oil, VG46 oil
measurements where there is no flow of fluid. was used, which is used asitaishydraulic
Therefore, difficultoilto for con- oil
diagnose
struction equipment; its properties are listed
condition when the machine is stopped or stagnant. in Table 2.

Figure 5. Overview of quartz tuning fork sensor (TE FPS 2000).

Figure 5. Overview of quartz tuning fork sensor (TE FPS 2000).

Table 1. Specifications of TE FPS 2000.

Measurement Properties Measurement Range Accuracy

Absolute viscosity (cP) 0.5~50 ±2%
Temperature (◦ C) −40~150 ±0.1 ◦ C
Density (g/cm3 ) 0.65~1.5 ±1%
Dielectric constant 1.0~6.0 ±1%

For the lubricating oil, VG46 oil was used, which is used as a hydraulic oil for con-
struction equipment; its properties are listed in Table 2.

Table 2. Properties of hydraulic oil before testing.

Kinematic
Density Viscosity Flash Pour
Viscosity (cSt)
Index Point (◦ C) Point (◦ C)
(g/L @15 ◦ C) @ 40 ◦ C @ 100 ◦ C
845.7 46.37 7.97 144 253 −45

The present work developed a condition monitoring program that can diagnose the
condition of hydraulic oil, as shown in Figure 6. The program was developed using JAVA; it
can be executed once the reference values for properties such as temperature and dielectric
constant are set, and a communication port can be installed as shown in Figure 6a. The
reference values for the properties were determined based on the research experience of
the manufacturer. The sampling frequency used for digital processing of the measured
data was 0.033 Hz. When the program was executed, it showed variation in the measured
properties as both a graph and a digital value (Figure 6b). Moreover, depending on the
set reference values, the current state of the lubricant was displayed as one of three stages:
normal, caution, and danger. The oil condition was not only displayed as a traffic light
but also through an alert with a warning sound at a caution or danger level. Data that
exceeded the set reference value were automatically stored in a separate space for parts,
which facilitates analysis.
 Lubricants2022,
Lubricants 10,x FOR
2022,10, 278 PEER REVIEW 7 of 22 6 of 20

Lubricants 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 22

(a)

(a)

(b)
Figure 6. Monitoring
Figure program
6. Monitoring for integrated
program oil sensor:
for integrated (a) setting
oil sensor: screen;screen;
(a) setting (b) monitoring screen. screen.
(b) monitoring

Figure 7 shows the flow of the signal(b) and power supply in the monitoring system. The
integrated oil sensor communicates with CAN; therefore, Arduino and CAN shield were
Figure 6. Monitoring program for integrated oil sensor: (a) setting screen; (b) monitoring screen.
used for signal processing.

Figure 7. Power and signal circuits.

Power
Figure7.7.Power
Figure and
and signal
signal circuits.
circuits.

Figure 8 shows the experimental setup. The amount of lubricant used in the experi-
ment was 400 mL, which is approximately half the volume of one beaker. The temperature
of the lubricant was controlled by a heater and temperature probe. The temperature of the
heater could be adjusted in 1 ◦ C increments. A cross-shaped magnetic bar was rotated at
250 rpm to stir of the lubricant. At a rotation of 250 rpm or more, a large vortex is generated
near the center of the beaker, which interferes with the measurements obtained by the
sensor.
Lubricants 2022,
Lubricants 10,10,
2022, 278x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 227 of 20

Figure 8.
Figure 8. Experimental
Experimentaldevice.
device.

Contamination of
Contamination ofhydraulic
hydraulicoiloilcan
canresult from
result fromvarious sources.
various In addition
sources. to mixing
In addition to mixing
with the wrong lubricant, there can also be infiltration of moisture and
with the wrong lubricant, there can also be infiltration of moisture and dust, along dust, along with with
the generation of wear particles. In fact, the possibility of moisture and dust infiltration
the generation of wear particles. In fact, the possibility of moisture and dust infiltration is
higher than that of other machines. Sludge may be generated due to processes
is higher than that of other machines. Sludge may be generated due to processes such as such as
oxidation, and
oxidation, and often
oftenleads
leadstotovarnish
varnishcontamination.
contamination. TheTheexperiments
experiments in the
in study werewere
the study
conducted under the conditions of mixing with the wrong lubricant, infiltration of dust
conducted under the conditions of mixing with the wrong lubricant, infiltration of dust and
and moisture, and varnish contamination. Wear particles could also occur, but the gener-
moisture, and varnish contamination. Wear particles could also occur, but the generation
ation of ferrous particles was excluded. This was because a magnetic bar was used to stir
of ferrous particles was excluded. This was because a magnetic bar was used to stir the
the lubricant when introducing foreign materials, and therefore, artificial ferrous particles
lubricant when introducing foreign materials, and therefore, artificial ferrous particles were
were collected at the magnetic bar rather than being dispersed in the lubricant. Distilled
collected at the magnetic bar rather than being dispersed in the lubricant. Distilled water
water was used for moisture and VG 64 hydraulic oil with high viscosity was used as the
was used for moisture
wrong lubricant. and VGdust
The artificial 64 hydraulic
used in theoil with highwas
experiment viscosity was used
ISO 12103-1 as the
Arizona wrong
Test
lubricant.
Dust from PTI, which consists of the components presented in Table 3. As can be seen inDust
The artificial dust used in the experiment was ISO 12103-1 Arizona Test
from
TablePTI, which
3, the dust consists of theofcomponents
is comprised SiO2 and Al2presented
O3, which arein Table 3. Ascomponents
the main can be seenofinsoilTable 3,
the dust
dust. is comprised of SiO 2 and Al O
2 3 , which are the main components of soil dust.

Table 3. Components
Table3. ofartificial
Components of artificialdust.
dust.

Ingredients
Ingredients %%ofof Weight
Weight Ingredients
Ingredients % of %
Weight
of Weight
SiO
SiO22 69.0~77.0
69.0~77.0 CaOCaO 2.5~5.5
2.5~5.5
Al22O
Al O33 8.0~14.0
8.0~14.0 MgO MgO 1.0~2.0
1.0~2.0
Fe22O33 4.0~7.0
4.0~7.0 TiOTiO
2
2 0~1.00~1.0
Na2O O 1.0~4.0
1.0~4.0 K2OK2 O 2.0~5.0
2.0~5.0

3. Results
3. Results
First, an
First, an experiment
experiment testing
testing uncontaminated
uncontaminatedoil
oilwas
wasconducted
conductedininorder
ordertotoinvesti-
investigate
gate the different properties depending on temperature before conducting experiments
the different properties depending on temperature before conducting experiments on the
on the effect of contamination. Measurement was conducted by starting from 20◦°C, grad-
effect of contamination. Measurement was conducted by starting from 20 C, gradually
ually increasing the temperature to 85 °C, and then lowering the temperature to 20 °C
increasing the temperature to 85 ◦ C, and then lowering the temperature to 20 ◦ C again.
again. This process took approximately 3 h. The tests on contamination conditions were
This process took approximately 3 h. The tests on contamination conditions were carried
carried out in the same way, and compared with the test results for uncontaminated oil.
out in the same way, and compared with the test results for uncontaminated oil.
 of data obtained was 1946. The red solid line was obtained through linear regression.
Equation (2) (red solid line) shows the relationship between the dielectric constant and
temperature. In the formula, DC is the dielectric constant and T is the temperature in de-
grees Celsius. The root mean square associated with error is 0.00538. The dielectric con-
stant data had an almost constant width, and the width of the variation was expressed as
Lubricants 2022, 10, 278 8 of 20
equations using the regression method. Moreover, the width of the variation indicates the
range allowable due to measurement error. The lower and upper limits were drawn using
Linear fitting-2 (Equation (3)) and Linear fitting-3 (Equation (4)) in Figure 9b.
3.1. Test on Uncontaminated Oil
AV = 9.58 + 416.11 × e(−T/15.84) (1)
Figure 9a shows the results for absolute viscosity given varying temperature. The
number of data = −0.0022 ×inTthe
DC obtained + 2.34
experiment was 2699. Each square (2) block dot is an experi-
mental datum DCobtained
= −0.0022from
× T + the
2.32sensor, while the red solid line
(3) is the curve fitting. The
root mean square of the curve fitting was 0.985. The relationship between temperature and
DC = −0.0022 × T + 2.35 (4)
absolute viscosity obtained via regression could be expressed as shown in Equation (1).
Figure 9c shows In the formula,
density AV and
given varying T are absolute
temperature. viscosity
The densities and temperature
obtained from the in degrees Celsius, re-
sensor had a large dispersion,
spectively.so there was no
Typically, need forallows
viscosity regression
for aanalysis.
range of −20% tothe
Moreover, 30% relative to the value of
measured density values were not used when testing changes in the properties of the lub-
uncontaminated oil. Therefore, using curve fitting, the upper and lower limits are indicated
ricant in response to the incorporation
by brown dottedof foreign
lines andmaterials.
green lines with triangles for the allowable range.

2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 22

(a)

(b)

(c)
Figure 9. Variation inFigure
properties of uncontaminated
9. Variation oil of
in properties with changes in temperature:
uncontaminated (a) absolute
oil with changes in temperature: (a) absolute
viscosity; (b) dielectric constant;(b)
viscosity; (c) dielectric
density. constant; (c) density.

Figure 10 shows the relationship between density and temperature using data ob-
tained from a lubricant manufacturer. The red solid line was obtained through linear re-
gression. Equation (5) shows the relationship between density and temperature; ρ is den-
sity and T is temperature in degrees Celsius.
Lubricants 2022, 10, 278 9 of 20

Figure 9b shows the dielectric constant given varying temperature, and the number
of data obtained was 1946. The red solid line was obtained through linear regression.
Equation (2) (red solid line) shows the relationship between the dielectric constant and
temperature. In the formula, DC is the dielectric constant and T is the temperature in
degrees Celsius. The root mean square associated with error is 0.00538. The dielectric
(b)
constant data had an almost constant width, and the width of the variation was expressed
as equations using the regression method. Moreover, the width of the variation indicates
the range allowable due to measurement error. The lower and upper limits were drawn
using Linear fitting-2 (Equation (3)) and Linear fitting-3 (Equation (4)) in Figure 9b.

AV = 9.58 + 416.11 × e(−T/15.84) (1)

DC = −0.0022 × T + 2.34 (2)

DC = −0.0022 × T + 2.32 (3)
DC = −0.0022 × T + 2.35 (4)
Figure 9c shows density given varying temperature. The densities obtained from the
sensor had a large dispersion, so there was no need for regression analysis. Moreover,
(c)
the measured density values were not used when testing changes in the properties of the
Figure 9. Variation
lubricant in response to the incorporation
in properties of foreign
of uncontaminated materials.
oil with changes in temperature: (a) absolute
viscosity; (b) dielectric
Figure 10 shows constant; (c) density.between density and temperature using data obtained
the relationship
from a lubricant manufacturer. The red solid line was obtained through linear regression.
Figure(5)10shows
Equation showsthe therelationship
relationshipbetween
betweendensity
densityandandtemperature;
temperature using data ob-
ρ is density and T is
tained from a lubricant manufacturer. The red solid line was obtained through linear re-
temperature in degrees Celsius.
gression. Equation (5) shows the relationship between density and temperature; ρ is den-
sity and T is temperature in degrees
ρ = Celsius.
−6.03 × 10−4 × T + 0.85 (5)

Figure
Figure10.
10.Variation
Variationinindensity
densityofof
uncontaminated oiloil
uncontaminated with changes
with in temperature
changes (obtained
in temperature fromfrom oil
(obtained
oil manufacturer).
manufacturer).

3.2. Influence of Incorporation of Dust and Improper Lubricant

ρ = −6.03 × 10 × T + 0.85
−4 (5)
Figure 11 presents the absolute viscosity and dielectric constant given varying temper-
ature when artificial dust was introduced into uncontaminated oil at quantities ranging
from 60 mg to 400 mg. Figure 12 shows the absolute viscosity and dielectric constant
given varying temperature when improper oil was introduced into uncontaminated oil at
quantities ranging from 0.4 mL (1000 ppm) to 4.0 mL (10,000 ppm). VG 64 hydraulic oil was
used as the improper oil. In Figures 11 and 12, it can be seen that the amounts of artificial
dust and improper oil used in the experiment did not significantly affect the variation in
the properties of the lubricant as a whole. Of course, it is believed that the incorporation of
very large amounts would alter the variations in the properties of lubricating oil. Moreover,
tests were not carried out under mechanical operating conditions after introducing dust
or improper oil, and sufficient time was not given for the oxidation and deterioration of
 given varying temperature when improper oil was introduced into uncontaminated oil at
quantities ranging from 0.4 mL (1000 ppm) to 4.0 mL (10,000 ppm). VG 64 hydraulic oil
was used as the improper oil. In Figures 11 and 12, it can be seen that the amounts of
artificial dust and improper oil used in the experiment did not significantly affect the var-
iation in the properties of the lubricant as a whole. Of course, it is believed that the incor-
poration
Lubricants 2022, 10, 278 of very large amounts would alter the variations in the properties of lubricating 10 of 20
oil. Moreover, tests were not carried out under mechanical operating conditions after in-
troducing dust or improper oil, and sufficient time was not given for the oxidation and
deterioration of lubricant. To compensate for this, field experiments on actual construction
lubricant. To compensate for this, field experiments on actual construction machines were
machines were conducted, as shown in Figure 13, and additional research results will be
conducted, as shown in Figure 13, and additional research results will be presented in
presented in another paper.
another paper.

(a)

(b)
022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Figure 11. Variation inFigure
properties after dustin
11. Variation introduction
properties with
afterchanges in temperature:
dust introduction with(a) 12 of 22
absolute
changes in temperature: (a) absolute
viscosity; (b) dielectricviscosity;
constant.(b) dielectric constant.

(a)

Figure 12. Cont.

Lubricants 2022, 10, 278 11 of 20

(a)

(b)
Figure 12. Variation inFigure
properties after improper
12. Variation lubricant
in properties introduction
after improper with changes
lubricant in tempera-
introduction with changes in temperature:
ture: (a) absolute viscosity; (b) dielectric
(a) absolute constant
viscosity; (b) dielectric constant.

Figure 13. Data acquisition using the integrated oil sensor in field tests.

3.3. Influence of Incorporation of Moisture

The influence of the incorporation of moisture was investigated via categorizing
levels of introduced moisture into two groups: 3000 ppm or less, or more than 3000 ppm.
Figure 14 shows the variation in absolute viscosity and dielectric constant given varying
temperature and amount of moisture when mixing with water at levels of 3000 ppm or
less. As the amount of introduced moisture increased, absolute viscosity decreased slightly,
but the variation was not large. Meanwhile, dielectric constant increased with increased
moisture amounts, and the variation was relatively large. Figure 15 shows the variation in
absolute viscosity and dielectric constant given varying temperature when mixing with
water at levels of 3000 ppm or more. The results in Figure 15 indicate the same tendency as
 Lubricants 2022, 10, 278 12 of 20

2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW
shown in Figure 14, but the variation in the dielectric constant was much larger because
there was a larger amount of introduced moisture. It can be seen that the incorporation
of moisture reacted sensitively to changes in the dielectric constant, unlike the previous
results for the introduction of dust and improper lubricant. To22analyze the results, it is
14 of
necessary to understand the dielectric constant. The basic concepts and properties of the
dielectric constant are as follows.

(a)

(b)
2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 22
Figure 14. Variation in properties
Figure when introducing
14. Variation 3000 when
in properties ppm orintroducing
less of moisture
3000with
ppmchanges in moisture with changes in
or less of
temperature: (a) absolute viscosity; (b) dielectric constant.
temperature: (a) absolute viscosity; (b) dielectric constant.

(a)

Figure 15. Cont.

Lubricants 2022, 10, 278 13 of 20

(a)

(b)
Figure 15. Variation in properties
Figure when introducing
15. Variation morewhen
in properties than 3000 ppm of moisture
introducing more thanwith changes
3000 ppm of moisture with changes
in temperature: (a) absolute viscosity; (b) dielectric constant.
in temperature: (a) absolute viscosity; (b) dielectric constant.

The dielectric constant

The(DC) is a term
dielectric for relative
constant (DC)permittivity;
is a term foritrelative
provides information it provides information
permittivity;
on variations in the on variations in the physical properties of a lubricant. It also on
physical properties of a lubricant. It also provides information provides information on
chemical changes in lubricants,
chemical such asinoxidation
changes or depletion
lubricants, of additives.
such as oxidation The dielectric
or depletion of additives. The dielectric
constant is expressed as a ratio
constant of permittivity
is expressed or a ratio
as a ratio of capacitance,
of permittivity or aasratio
can be
of seen in
capacitance, as can be seen in
Equation (6). Permittivity refers to the degree that a material transmits an electric field,
Equation (6). Permittivity refers to the degree that a material transmits an electric field,
while capacitance means the ability of a capacitor or ability to store an electric charge. That
while capacitance means the ability of a capacitor or ability to store an electric charge. That
is, the dielectric constant represents the ratio of the capacitance (C’) or permittivity (εm) of
is, the dielectric constant represents the ratio of the capacitance (C’) or permittivity (εm ) of
a material to capacitance (Co) or permittivity (ε0) in a vacuum.
a material to capacitance (Co ) or permittivity (ε0 ) in a vacuum.
DC = εm/ε0 = C’/C0 (6)
DC = εm /ε0 = C’/C0 (6)
μ1 =αE (7)
µ1 = αE
(ε−1)/(ε + 2) = (α + μ12/(3kT1))(Lρ/(3MW) (8) (7)
2
(ε−1)/(ε
The dielectric constant is largely expressed as the+ 2) = (α
sum + µ1types
of two /(3kTof1 ))(Lρ/(3MW)
polarizability (8)
(α) and the dipole moment (μ1). Polarization is the interaction of electrons in a molecule
The dielectric constant is largely expressed as the sum of two types of polarizability (α)
with an electric field, while the dipole moment is evaluated by measuring the center of
and the dipole moment (µ1 ). Polarization is the interaction of electrons in a molecule with
gravity of the positive and negative charges in the molecule. If the two centers do not
an electric field, while the dipole moment is evaluated by measuring the center of gravity of
coincide, then the molecule is electrically asymmetric, in which case it has a net polarity
the positive and negative charges in the molecule. If the two centers do not coincide, then
and therefore a permanent dipole. Equation (7) shows the relationship between dipole
the molecule is electrically asymmetric, in which case it has a net polarity and therefore a
moment (α), electric field (E), and polarization (μ1). Equation (8) shows the Debye formula
permanent dipole. Equation (7) shows the relationship between dipole moment (α), electric
for permittivity, where ε is the permittivity of oil, k is the Boltzmann constant, T1 is tem-
field (E), and polarization (µ1 ). Equation (8) shows the Debye formula for permittivity,
where ε is the permittivity of oil, k is the Boltzmann constant, T1 is temperature in Kelvin,
L is the Avogadro number, ρ is the density of oil, and MW is the molecular weight of
oil. The (Lρ/3MW) term represents the volume of a single molecule, and kT1 means the
amount of thermal energy available [45–47]. These formulas for permittivity help materially
understand the experimental dielectric constant results.
Lubricant typically has a dielectric constant ranging from 2.1 to 2.4. This depends on
the viscosity of the oil, the oil density, the relative paraffinic, naphthenic, and aromatic
contents, the temperature, the frequency of the electric field, and the additive content of the
oil. Higher additive levels tend to increase the dielectric constant of uncontaminated oil
because additives themselves have higher dielectric constants than base oil, and there is
no dipole moment contribution in the base oil [48]. Looking at the results of the dielectric
constant in Figures 14 and 15, the influence of moisture incorporation is obvious. The
incorporation of moisture was relatively sensitive to variations in dielectric constant. This
is because water has a relatively large and temperature-dependent dielectric constant due
to its permanent electric dipole and the resultant effects of hydrogen bonding. Therefore, it
is useful to utilize a lubricant sensor that can measure dielectric constant to determine the
degree of moisture contamination in hydraulic oil.
 oil because additives themselves have higher dielectric constants than base oil, and there
is no dipole moment contribution in the base oil [48]. Looking at the results of the dielec-
tric constant in Figures 14 and 15, the influence of moisture incorporation is obvious. The
incorporation of moisture was relatively sensitive to variations in dielectric constant. This
is because water has a relatively large and temperature-dependent dielectric constant due
Lubricants 2022, 10, 278 14 of 20
to its permanent electric dipole and the resultant effects of hydrogen bonding. Therefore,
it is useful to utilize a lubricant sensor that can measure dielectric constant to determine
the degree of moisture contamination in hydraulic oil.
Eachmechanical
Each mechanicalsystem
systemhashasaadifferent
differentmoisture
moisturetolerance
toleranceforforitsitslubricants.
lubricants.
In In general,
gen-
eral, the allowable
the allowable moisture
moisture capacity
capacity of hydraulic
of hydraulic oiloil
forfor constructionmachinery
construction machinery isis 2000
2000 ppm.
ppm. Therefore,
Therefore, FigureFigure 16 shows
16 shows the allowable
the allowable range
range of theof the dielectric
dielectric constant
constant when
when 2000
2000 ppm of
ppm of moisture
moisture was introduced.
was introduced. Thesolid
The red red solid
line line is the
is the result
result of linear
of linear regression.Equation
regression. Equa- (9)
tion
shows (9) the
shows the relationship
relationship between between dielectric
dielectric constant
constant and temperature
and temperature whenwhen
addingadding
2000 ppm
2000 ppm of moisture.
of moisture. Since the Since the dielectric
dielectric constant
constant data data
had had an almost
an almost constant
constant width,the
width, thelower
lower
and upper limits were drawn with Linear fitting-2 (Equation (10)) and Linear fit-
and upper limits were drawn with Linear fitting-2 (Equation (10)) and Linear fitting-3
ting-3
(Equation(Equation (11)), exhibited
(11)), exhibited in Figure
in Figure 16. In16. In Equations
Equations (9)–(11),
(9)–(11), temperature
temperature (T) (T) is
is given in
given in degrees
degrees Celsius. Celsius.
DC = −0.0018 × T + 2.33 (9)
DC = −0.0018 × T + 2.33 (9)
DC = −0.0018 × T + 2.32 (10)
DC = −0.0018 × T + 2.32 (10)
DC = −0.0018 × T + 2.34 (11)
DC = −0.0018 × T + 2.34 (11)

Figure
Figure16.
16.Variation
Variationin in
dielectric constant
dielectric with with
constant changes in temperature
changes at 2000 ppm
in temperature introduced
at 2000 ppm introduced
moisture.
moisture.

3.4. Influence of Varnish

Various lubricant deterioration issues can affect lubrication systems. One of the serious
problems in such systems is the presence of sludge and varnish. These products enter the
lubricant in a dissolved form and accumulate until the lubricant reaches its capacity, which
is referred to as the saturating point, where any excess is forced to convert into insoluble
degradation products. Over time, some deposits can thermally cure to a tough enamel-like
coating. Deposits that form on sensitive machines interfere with the flow of lubricant and
the mechanical movements. The deposits can also contribute to wear and corrosion or
impair heat transfer by clinging to surfaces [49]. Construction equipment also faces issues
with varnish.
An experiment was conducted on hydraulic oil used in construction equipment for
4156 h. At this time, the degree of contamination with varnish was identified using MPC
(Membrane Patch Colorimetry). MPC testing was performed using RM200 of FLUITEC.
Figure 17 shows the sludge filtered onto the membrane patch by the MPC test. The
MPC result was 95.1. Unfortunately, there is no MPC test criterion for hydraulic oil in
construction equipment. Therefore, the MPC criterion provided by NORIA (company) for
turbine oil was used as a baseline. When the result of the MPC test is less than 15, NORIA
considers it to be normal; when it is 30 or more, it is considered abnormal; and when it
exceeds 40, the varnish contamination is judged to be serious [49].
Lubricants 2022, 10, 278 15 of 20

Figure 17. MPC test of used oil (4156 h).

Table 4 shows the results of off-line analysis comparing unused oil to the oil used
in the experiment. Elemental analysis was performed using ICP (Inductively Coupled
Plasma). The kinematic viscosity of the used oil was lower than that of unused oil. This
was because of the decrease in viscosity that occurred due to shear during operation. The
increase in aluminum and silicon in used oil was attributed to the incorporation of soil
dust. The reason for this is that the main components of soil are aluminum and silicon.
The decrease in phosphorus and zinc in used oil occurred because anti-wear additives
disappeared due to abrasion resistance and friction reduction action; the increase in iron,
copper, and antimony was considered to be a phenomenon caused by wear.

Table 4. Results of off-line oil analysis.

Measurement Items Unused Oil Used Oil (4156 h)

Viscosity @ 40 °C (cSt) 48.28 46.36
Viscosity @ 100 °C (cSt) 8.23 7.90
Viscosity Index 145.0 141.0
Magnesium, Mg (ppm) 0.9 0.3
Calcium, Ca (ppm) 74.5 67.6
Phosphorus, P (ppm) 463.2 400.0
Zinc, Zn (ppm) 725.8 566.3
Silicon, Si (ppm) 0.0 1.5
Boron, B (ppm) 0.0 0.1
Sodium, Na (ppm) 0.1 2.2
Potassium, K (ppm) 0.0 0.3
Iron, Fe (ppm) 0.1 32.2
Lead, Pb (ppm) 0.1 0.3
Copper, Cu (ppm) 0.0 3.8
Tin, Sn (ppm) 0.0 1.0
Aluminum, Al (ppm) 0.0 0.6
Molybdenum, Mo (ppm) 0.2 0.4
Titanium, Ti (ppm) 0.0 0.2
Antimony, Sb (ppm) 1.3 2.0
Manganese, Mn (ppm) 0.0 0.8

Figure 18 shows the variation in absolute viscosity with changes in temperature for
unused and used oil. The block square dots indicate the results for unused oil, and the red
circle dots indicate those for used oil. The area between the upper guideline and the lower
guideline indicates the allowable range of absolute viscosity, as shown in Figure 9a. The
viscosity of the used oil was lower than that of unused oil. This is a phenomenon caused by
shear, as mentioned earlier in the results of the off-line oil analysis. However, the viscosities
of the used oil were within the allowable range. In this way, it is possible to diagnose the
condition of the lubricant and the machine through real-time viscosity monitoring after
setting the allowable range of viscosity.
 these results are expected to serve as a basis for analyzing the results of field tests and to
be useful for establishing oil diagnostic standards. Each manufacturer of construction
equipment has its own management standards for hydraulic oil. When important proper-
ties and values corresponding to these management standards are found using integrated
oil sensors, oil condition diagnosis using the sensors is possible. In that respect, this study
Lubricants 2022, 10, 278 shows that it is possible to diagnose varnish and moisture contamination by obtaining 16 of 20
Lubricants 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 ofthe
22
dielectric constant through an integrated oil sensor.

In this study, various experiments were conducted on various sources of contamina-

tion of hydraulic oil for construction equipment. In actual hydraulic oil in the field, vari-
ous types of pollution, such as oxidation and infiltration of dust or moisture, may proceed
simultaneously. In other words, it is difficult to analyze the conditions of hydraulic oil
solely by monitoring the properties obtained by an integrated oil sensor without research
results on the variation in properties caused by each pollutant. It is also difficult to analyze
data obtained in the field because such data contain noise. Furthermore, precise analysis
in the laboratory, such as elemental analysis, is needed to understand the causes. There-
fore, this study provides basic data necessary for diagnosing the condition of hydraulic
oil in construction equipment. In particular, it suggests the possibility of using the dielec-
tric constant, which is sensitive to contamination with moisture and varnish. In addition,
these results are expected to serve as a basis for analyzing the results of field tests and to
be useful for establishing oil diagnostic standards. Each manufacturer of construction
equipment has its own management standards for hydraulic oil. When important proper-
ties and
Figure
Figure values
18.
18. corresponding
Variation
Variation inin absolute
absolute to thesewith
viscosity management
viscosity with changes
changes standards are
forfound
in temperature
in temperature using
for unused
unused integrated
and oil.
and used used oil.
oil sensors, oil condition diagnosis using the sensors is possible. In that respect, this study
showsFigure
that it 19 represents
is possible the variation
to diagnose varnishinand
dielectric
moistureconstant with changes
contamination in temperature
by obtaining the
for unused and used oil. The block square
dielectric constant through an integrated oil sensor. dots indicate the results for unused oil and
the red circle dots indicate those for used oil. The blue triangle dots are the results when
2000 ppm of moisture was mixed with the unused oil, and the data are the same as shown
in Figure 14a. The range of measured values is indicated by the upper and lower limit lines.
The dielectric constant exhibited by the used oil with its varnish contamination was larger
than that of the unused oil contaminated with 2000 ppm of moisture. As oxidation proceeds,
AN also increases, and residues such as sludge form, causing varnish contamination. This
phenomenon can also be understood via the Debye formula (Equation (8)). An explanation
of the reason for this is as follows. When lubricant is contaminated with varnish, the
dielectric constant increases substantially, because of increases in molecular weight and
AN due to oxidation and deterioration [49]. Furthermore, metal elements such as iron
and copper were increased in used oil according to the off-line oil analysis. Metals have
an infinite dielectric constant because they are conductors. As a result, the increased
metal elements in used oil contribute to increases in the dielectric constant [48]. This
Figure
result19. Variationthat,
indicates in dielectric
when the constant with changes
allowable levelsinoftemperature for unused and used
varnish contamination oil.
are determined,
the varnish contamination of hydraulic oil can be diagnosed by measuring the dielectric
constant. The variation in dielectric constant caused by varnish contamination is clearly
Figure 18. Variation in absolute viscosity with changes in temperature for unused and used oil.
visible and can be identified.

Figure
Figure19.
19.Variation
Variationinindielectric constant
dielectric with
constant changes
with in temperature
changes for unused
in temperature and used
for unused and oil.
used oil.

In this study, various experiments were conducted on various sources of contamination

of hydraulic oil for construction equipment. In actual hydraulic oil in the field, various
types of pollution, such as oxidation and infiltration of dust or moisture, may proceed
simultaneously. In other words, it is difficult to analyze the conditions of hydraulic oil
Lubricants 2022, 10, 278 17 of 20

solely by monitoring the properties obtained by an integrated oil sensor without research
results on the variation in properties caused by each pollutant. It is also difficult to analyze
data obtained in the field because such data contain noise. Furthermore, precise analysis in
the laboratory, such as elemental analysis, is needed to understand the causes. Therefore,
this study provides basic data necessary for diagnosing the condition of hydraulic oil in
construction equipment. In particular, it suggests the possibility of using the dielectric
constant, which is sensitive to contamination with moisture and varnish. In addition, these
results are expected to serve as a basis for analyzing the results of field tests and to be useful
for establishing oil diagnostic standards. Each manufacturer of construction equipment has
its own management standards for hydraulic oil. When important properties and values
corresponding to these management standards are found using integrated oil sensors, oil
condition diagnosis using the sensors is possible. In that respect, this study shows that
it is possible to diagnose varnish and moisture contamination by obtaining the dielectric
constant through an integrated oil sensor.

4. Conclusions
In this study, experiments were conducted related to diagnosing the condition of
hydraulic oil for construction equipment. These results provide guidelines for condition
monitoring via integrated oil sensors, and are useful for assessing the practicality of condi-
tion diagnosis using oil analysis. The integrated oil sensor that was used could measure
the absolute viscosity, density, temperature, and dielectric constant of hydraulic oil. The
experimental results obtained in field tests are useful, but it is difficult to estimate variations
in the properties of hydraulic oil caused by the influence of each pollutant. By contrast, in
this study, the influence of each pollutant could be efficiently estimated, and the degree of
variation in the main properties could be easily grasped. It was also possible to find the
main variations in properties related to major contaminants in construction equipment. To
achieve this, a simple experimental device was constructed, and a condition monitoring pro-
gram was used to investigate the influence of foreign materials and varnish contamination.
There was little variation in the properties of the lubricant when introducing small amounts
of dust or improper oil. On the other hand, a distinct variation in properties appeared when
a small amount of moisture was introduced. Absolute viscosity was minimally reduced due
to the incorporation of moisture, but dielectric constant was reflected relatively sensitively.
Moreover, when varnish contamination occurred, the dielectric constant showed distinct
variation compared to that of uncontaminated oil. This was because the incorporation
of moisture substantially affected the dipole moment, and the generation of varnish also
affected the dipole moment due to oxidation. Through these experimental results, it can
be seen that measuring the dielectric constant was an effective means for diagnosing the
condition of hydraulic oil. By comparison, because the incorporation of a small amount
of dust and improper oil did not have a large effect on the variation in dielectric constant,
condition diagnosis through the electric constant was not useful in such cases. Following
this experiment, additional confirmation work through field tests is required. Moreover, in
order to analyze the results of chemical reactions induced by the foreign materials, tests of
longer time period must be performed after the incorporation of foreign materials.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, S.-H.H. and H.-G.J.; literature review and formal analysis,
S.-H.H.; writing—original draft preparation, methodology. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: This work was supported by the Dongguk University Research Fund of 2021.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Lubricants 2022, 10, 278 18 of 20

Nomenclature

AV Absolute viscosity (cP)

Co Capacitance in a vacuum
C’ Capacitance of a material (lubricant)
DC Dielectric constant of fluid
E Electric field
L Avogadro Number (6.02 × 1023 molecules of oil /mole)
MW Molecular weight (g/mole)
T Temperature in degrees Celsius (◦ C)
T1 Temperature Kelvin
k Boltzmann constant (1.31 × 10−23 joules/degree Kelvin)
α Polarizability
ε Permittivity
εo Permittivity in a vacuum
εm Permittivity of a material(lubricant)
µ1 Dipole moment
ρ Density of fluid (g/m3 )

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