GAS FLARING IN NIGERIA

BY

EZIAMAKA, THERESA EZUGWU

2019544016

A SEMINAR SUBMITTED

TO THE

DEPARTMENT OF PURE AND INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY

FACULTY OF PHYSICAL SCIENCES

NNAMDI AZIKIWE UNIVERSITY, AWKA

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

AWARD OF

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (B.Sc.) DEGREE

SUPERVISOR: DR. C. J. ANARADO

i
 DEDICATION

I dedicate this work to God Almighty. May His name be praised.

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I acknowledged my supervisor, DR. C.J. ANARADO for his support and

supervision during the course of this writing. I also acknowledged the Head of
Department Dr. N. H. Okoye for her support during my seminar writing. I
wouldn’t have achieved this also without the support of all the lecturers of the
department, I say thank you all.

My parents, Mr. and Mrs. EZUGWU, friends and siblings who supported me both
with prayers and financed, God bless you all.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title i

Dedication ii

Acknowledgement iii

Table Of Contents iv

CHAPTER ONE: GAS FLARING IN NIGERIA

1.1. Introduction 1

1.2. Origin Of Oil and Natural gas 3

1.3. Oil and Natural Gas Extraction 5

1.3.1. Oil and Natural Gas Formation 5

1.3.2. Oil and Natural Gas Exploration

5

1.4. Overview On Gas Flaring

7

1.5. History Of Gas Flaring In Nigeria 9

1.6. Composition Of Flare Gas

10
1.7. Classification Of Flaring 11
1.8. Types Of Flares 12
1.9. Companies That Does Gas Flaring In Nigeria
14

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 CHAPTER TWO

EFFECTS OF GAS FLARING AND NIGERIA POLICIES ON FLARE GAS

2.1. Gas Flaring In Nigeria 15

2.2. Environmental Effects Of Gas Flaring 16

2.2.1. Climate Change 16

2.2.2. Acid Rain 17

2.2.3. Effects On Vegetation 17

2.2.4. Effect On Water Quality 20

2.3. Health Effects Of Gas Flaring 22

2.4. Other Effects 23

2.4.1. Economic Loss 23

2.4.2. Pollution 23

2.5. Some Gas Flare Reduction Technologies

24

2.6. Nigeria Policies On Flare Gas 26

CHAPTER FOUR:CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

4.1. Conclusion 28

4.2. Recommendations 28

References 30

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 CHAPTER ONE

GAS FLARING IN NIGERIA

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Gas flaring is a combustion device to burn associated, unwanted or excess gases

and liquids released during normal or unplanned over-pressuring operation in
many industrial processes, such as oil-gas extraction, refineries, chemical plants,
coal industry and landfills. It can also be said to be the combustion of associated
gas produced with crude oil or from gas fields (Kahforoshan et al., 2008). Gas
flaring is a significant source of greenhouse gases emissions. It also generates
noise, heat and provided large areas uninhabitable (Emam, 2015).

Gas flaring is commonly used during petroleum refining and chemical processing
for safe disposal of waste gases during process upsets, plant start-up or shutdown
and process emergencies. Flaring is a high-temperature oxidation process used to
burn combustible components, mostly hydrocarbons, of waste gases from
industrial operations (Ismail and Umukoro, 2012).

The option to release gas to the atmosphere by flaring and venting is an essential
practice in oil and gas production, primarily for safety reasons. Flaring is the
controlled burning of natural gas produced in association with oil in the course of
routine oil and gas production operations. Venting is the controlled release of gases
into the atmosphere in the course of oil and gas production operations (Ismail and
Umukoro, 2012). Solving the problem of this “nuisance” called venting while
ensuring safe operation and to minimize undesirable venting, led to the
introduction of flaring (Akeredolu and Sonibare, 2004). Gas flares are the choice
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disposal option for handling waste hydrocarbon gases because of their ability to
burn efficiently.

Irrespective of the fact that gas flaring is being done primary for safety reasons, it
is still a typical catastrophe with varying implications for the nation (Nwanya,
2011). The negative consequences of releasing these undesired byproducts
associated with flaring into the environment cannot be overlooked. Natural gas
flaring has a severe environmental impact owing to carbon emissions, additionally
it results in a loss of financial resources. Oil corporations burned $1.24 billion
worth of natural gas in 2020, enough to supply power to 804 million Nigerians for
an entire year (Elehinafe et al., 2022). Not only that, Globally also, the annual
volume of natural gas being vented and flared worldwide, mainly from Nigeria,
Russia, Iraq, Indonesia and Kazakhstan, has risen to 200billion cubic meters
(BCM) from 110 BCM in 2004 (Nwanya, 2011). Of this global statistic, Nigeria
flares 2.5 billion cubic feet per day. More gas is flared in Nigeria than anywhere
else in the world (Nwanya, 2011).

Several toxic chemicals are released into the environment during flaring, which
have been related to gastrointestinal issues, Skin disorders, tumours, cerebral,
hormonal, and developmental impacts, as well as cytological and respiratory
problems atherosclerosis, and hypertension, among other diseases. It also generates
a lot of heat and pain. According to recent research, gas flaring modifies the
concentration of water ions (particularly sulfate, carbonate, and nitrate), pH, and
conductivity of heavy metals (such as lead and iron) in rainfall. Its impact on
vegetation as a result of variations in soil quality characteristics and temperature,
leads to a decrease in growth and production (Seiyaboh and Izah, 2017).

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Summarily, Gas flaring is the burning of natural gas that is associated with crude
oil when it is pumped up from the ground. In petroleum-producing areas where
insufficient investment was made in infrastructure to utilize natural gas, flaring is
employed to dispose of this associated gas (Ajugwo, 2013). Also chemical
factories, oil refineries, oil wells, rigs and landfills, gaseous waste products and
sometimes even non-waste gases produced are routed to an elevated vertical
chimney called a gas flare and burnt off at its tip. This is called gas flaring. Waste
gases are subjected to such a process either because the gases are waste or it is
difficult to store and transport them. Non-waste gases are burnt off to protect the
processing equipment when unexpected high pressure develops within them. Gas
flaring in oil rigs and wells contribute significantly to greenhouse gases in our
atmosphere as stated earlier (Ayoola, 2011).

1.2. ORIGIN OF OIL AND NATUAL GAS

Natural gas originates from any one or more of three major processes:
thermogenic, biogenic, and abiogenic processes (Gold, 1985).

1.2.1. Thermogenic process

This process involves the relatively slow decomposition of organic material that
occurs in sedimentary basins under the influence of the temperature and pressure
with associated increased depth. As a result of this decomposition reaction, natural
gas (also called thermogenic methane) and petroleum are presumed to be formed
(Speight, 2007).

Living organisms degrade debris from organisms. In an anaerobic environment, the

degradation is slow and incomplete. The residues accumulate in the sediments as
complex macromolecules structures known as kerogen. The thermal degradation of
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kerogen generates hydrocarbons, non-hydrocarbon compounds such as CO2, H2S,
H2, H2O and N2, and a residue called pyrobitumen, which is very rich in carbon
(Tissot and Welte, 1984). The process of kerogen conversion resulting in the
formation of oil followed by thermal gas is called maturation.

Gas is derived from two types of kerogen (Clayton, 1991):

Labile kerogen, which can generate both gas and oil with mass ratio of 0.2 in the
temperature range between 100 and 150 °C.

Refractory kerogen, which generates gas at temperatures between 150 and 220
°C.

1.2.2. Biogenic process

In this process, methane is formed by the action of living organisms (methanogenic

bacteria) on organic materials during the deposition of the sediments and in the
early part of their burial (Gold, 1985). The methanogens are abundant in habitats
where electron acceptors such as O2, NO 3−, Fe3+, and SO42− are limiting. Common
habitats of methanogens include anaerobic digesters, anoxic sediments, flooded
soils, and gastrointestinal tracts (Speight, 2007).

The methanogenesis from oil or coal involves different process through the action
of various groups of micro-organisms (Aitken et al., 2004):

Acidogenesis: through the action of the heterotrophic bacteria that hydrolyze the
large, complex organic polymers to produce smaller and simpler substrates, e.g.,
sugars, volatile fatty acids, and alcohols.

Acetogenesis: through the fermentation of the produced simple substrates by the

action of syntrophic bacteria to produce acetate, H2, and CO2.
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Methanogenesis: through the formation of methane from the fermented product by
the action of methanogenic Archaea.

For petroleum exploration; the distinction between thermal and bacterial gas is
necessary. In a thermal gas basin, oil must form at first, but this is not the case in a
bacterial gas basin. Therefore, the exploration techniques must be planned
differently.

1.2.3. Abiogenic process

In this process, the starting material is the volcanic gases (not the organic matter).
Methane is formed by the reduction of carbon dioxide during magma cooling,
commonly in hydrothermal systems during water-rock interaction (Sherwood
Lollar et al., 2002).

1.3. OIL AND NATURAL GAS EXTRACTION

1.3.1. Oil and natural gas formation

Oil is a dense liquid with an appearance that can range from black to brown to
amber. Oil is a complex combination of hydrocarbons made up of atoms or
molecules of carbon, hydrogen, sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen, and metals that developed
millions of years ago from animal and plant remnants accumulated in sand and silt
and crushed by sedimentary rock layers.Natural gas and oil are made up of dead
biological material that has collected on the bottoms of seas, lakes, and swamps
over hundreds of millions of years. Oil is generally made up of dead microalgae
(phytoplankton), whereas coal and natural gas are predominantly made up of land
plants (Elehinafe et al., 2022).

1.3.2. Oil and natural gas exploration

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The multi-staged process of extracting petroleum from the Earth has been split into
three categories:

(1) Obtaining oil and natural gas from the earth,

(2) Securely transporting it over thousands of kilometers, and

(3) Transforming these resources into sources of energy and completed produce.

At various stages of the process, environmental pollutants are released into the
surrounding environment.

Crude oil is obtained from the reservoirs containing both gas and oil. Natural gas
has two major sources: “non-associated” gas, which comes from the fields that
exclusively generate gaseous hydrocarbons, and “associated ” gas, which comes
from the fields that also produce crude oil. The associated gas is isolated from the
unrefined petroleum at a Flow Station (Fawole et al., 2016).

Drilling a deep hole in the earth is the initial step in the extraction of oil.
Afterwards, a tubular steel casing is inserted in the hole, guaranteeing the solidity
of the construction. To improve the flow of crude oil, more holes are drilled. HCl
is used to solvate the pollutants in the drilled well. Hence, carbonate, lime, scale,
rust and carbonite deposits are effectively acidified. After drilling, HCl is also
utilized to dispose of remaining cement. Subsequently, a “Christmas tree ” is
installed at the head of the well to control the fluid pressure and flow rate
(Elehinafe et al., 2022)

The major recovery stage begins when the entire equipment has been connected.
Many natural mechanisms, such as gravity drainage, are exploited in this procedure
to extract oil. In the first stage, the recovery rate is frequently less than 15 per cent.

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As more oil is extracted, the subsurface pressure declines to the point where it can
no longer bring out oil from the earth. The second stage of recuperation begins at
this point. Secondary petroleum recovery can be accomplished using a variety of
methods. This usually entails injecting fluids underground to raise the pressure.
The typical recovery percentage after primary and secondary oil recovery
processes is rarely greater than 45 per cent. The final step of the extraction process
is the third-order recovery. This is accomplished in a variety of ways. The first
method uses thermal heating to lower the viscosity of the oil. The second method is
to introduce gas into the deposit. Chemical flood is the final method. It entails
combining thick, insoluble polymers and H2O, then infusing them underground.
Tertiary recovery provides for an extra fifteen per cent of the deposit ’s oil output
(Vishnyakov et al., 2020).

Since the stocks of land oil supplies are diminishing, the quest for their reserves
beneath the bottom of the sea begins. Drilling platforms are developed for this
purpose, which is a complex, costly, and time-taking procedure (It takes two years
to construct the mining platform). They can be indelibly attached to the bottom
(about ninety meters) or glide on floats secured with an anchor system. Deep-sea
mining rigs are connected to a network of wells that extract oil from permeable
rocks. Oil is obtained from the gas as well as from the drilling platform. The raw
material obtained is transported to a factory or drilling and transporting vessel
through a pipeline system. The oil and gas are subsequently transferred to a
container and brought onshore. The volume of oil obtained is not only determined
by the boring methods used. The geological features, such as rock permeability, the
power of natural forces, the deposit’s porosity, or the oil’s viscosity, are critical
(Elehinafe et al., 2022).

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1.4. OVERVIEW ON GAS FLARING

The definition of gas flaring according to Canadian Association of Petroleum

Producers is the controlled burning of natural gas that cannot be processed for sale
or use because of technical or economic reasons. Gas flaring can also be defined as
the combustion devices designed to safely and efficiently destroy waste gases
generated in a plant during normal operation. It is coming from different sources
such as associated gas, gas plants, well-tests and other places. It is collected in
piping headers and delivered to a flare system for safe disposal. A flare system has
multiple flares to treat the various sources for waste gases (Peterson et al.,
2007).Most flaring processes usually take place at the top of stack by burning of
gases with the visible flame. Height of the flame depends upon the volume of
released gas, while brightness and color depend upon composition.

Gas flaring systems are installed on onshore and offshore platforms production
fields, on transport ships and in port facilities, at storage tank farms and along
distribution pipelines. A complete flare system consists of the flare stack or boom
and pipes which collect the gases to be flared. The flare tip at the end of the stack
or boom is designed to assist entrainment of air into the flare to improve burn
efficiency. Seals installed in the stack prevent flashback of the flame, and a vessel
at the base of the stack removes and conserves any liquids from the gas passing to
the flare. Depending on the design, one or more flares may be required at a process
location (Emam, 2015).

A flare is normally visible and generates both noise and heat. During flaring, the
burned gas generates mainly water vapour and CO 2. Efficient combustion in the
flame depends on achieving good mixing between the fuel gas and air or steam
(Gzar and Kseer, 2009) and on the absence of liquids. Low pressure pipe flares are
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not intended to handle liquids and do not perform efficiently when hydrocarbon
liquids are released into the flare system.

Flaring processes can be classified into three groups: emergency flaring, process
flaring and production flaring (Emam, 2015)

Emergency flaring can occur during the case of fire, break of valves, or
compressor failures. So, in a short duration of time, a large volume of gas with
high velocity is burnt.

Process flaring usually comes with a lower rate, example, during petrochemical
process some waste gases are removed from the production stream and then flared.
Volumes of flared gas at such processes can vary during normal functionality and
plant failures from a few m3/hr to thousands m3/hr, respectively.

Production flaring occurs in the exploration and production sector of oil-gas

industry. Large volumes of gas will be combusted during the evaluation of a gas-
oil potential test as an indication of the capacity of the well for production.

1.5. HISTORY OF GAS FLARING IN NIGERIA

As outlined by Udok and Akpan (2017);

In Nigeria, Oil and Gas Law has a long and rich history dating back to the earliest
part of Nigeria’s colonial experience with the British. Precisely, exploration of oil
and gas in Nigeria began in 1908 with the very first discovery made in the Niger
Delta Region in 1956. The discovery was made by Shell British Petroleum (now
Royal Dutch Shell) at Oloibiri village in present day Bayelsa State located in the
Niger Delta. Ever since this discovery, oil has been found and explored by many
foreign oil companies like Chevron, ExxonMobil, Shell Petroleum Development

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Corporation (SPDC), Total, Eniagip, Addax Petroleum, Conoco Phillips,
Petrobras, Statoil hydro and others in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria.

Natural gas emerged in Nigeria as a key energy resource during exploration for
crude oil. Gas reserves in Nigeria grew as the government gave incentives to
increase the nation’s oil reserve base. The development of natural gas started in
1963 with the sale of gas to industries around the gas fields in Ughelli and Aba.
The volumes of gas produced in excess of industry requirement were consequently
flared. Ever since, many oil companies operating in the region have continued to
flare large volumes of gas. In 1975, the Nigerian Agip Oil Company (NAOF), a
subsidiary of Eni Exploration and Production established its oil and Gas processing
plant in Okpai-kwale. In 1987, the company established its Oil and Gas processing
plant in Okpau-Kwale. In 1987 the company established a gas recovery and
utilization project in response to the governments Gas Re-injection Act. By 2002,
the Italian oil company, Agip, had flared gas for about 30 years in the small fishing
village of Akaraolu in the Niger Delta region.

According to available evidence most of the flare sites are located within human
settlement areas. Most of the flare sites are found in the Niger Delta region. For
instance Rumola a community in PortHarcourt, Rivers State, Shell Company flares
gas in the area and is about 300 meters from the nearest dwelling house.
In petroleum-producing areas where insufficient investment is made in
infrastructure to utilise natural gas, flaring is employed to dispose of the associated
gas. Waste gases are subjected to such a process either because the gases are waste
or it is difficult to store and transport them. Non-waste gases are burnt off to
protect the processing equipment when unexpected high pressure develops within

xv
them. Gas flaring in oil rigs and wells contribute significantly to greenhouse gases
in our atmosphere.

1.6. COMPOSITION OF FLARE GAS

Flared gas is frequently composed of a mixture of gases. The gas supply for the
flare system determines the composition. The bulk of the related gases generated
during oil and gas production are composed of natural gas. Natural gas comprises
of 90% methane (CH4), a trace of ethane, and a few other hydrocarbons; inert gases
such as N2 and CO2 may also be present. Refineries and other process industries
often flare a combination of hydrocarbons and, in certain situations, H 2. In contrast,
landfill gas, biogas, and digester gas are a combination of CH 4 and CO2 with trace
quantities of other inert gases. The changes in gas composition impact both the
heat transmission capacities of the gas and the performance of the flowmeter
(Peterson et al., 2007).

1.7. CLASSIFICATION OF FLARING

According to (Elehinafe et al., 2022), flaring can be divided into the following
categories;

(A) Initial start-up flaring

During the dedication and early start-up phases of a plant or process unit, fluids are
injected to new facilities and equipment to test the production of goods for sale
(oil, LPG, condensate, etc.). Some associated gas may be flared through the early
stage of the plant’s operation, or for reservoir management reasons before all of the
gas compressors are commissioned.

(B) Continuous production flaring

After the plant or process unit has been operational for a while, this type of flaring
xvi
happens. Continuous production flaring is defined as a regular, uninterrupted gas
stream sent to a flare stack because there is no cost-effective way to enhance the
value of gas for a routine flash gas venting in upstream production.

(C) Operational/non-continuous production flaring

This type of flaring can happen for a number of reasons, both intentional and
unplanned. Planned non-continuous production flaring can occur as a result of
routine checks, facility closures, well completions, workovers, and fluids
unloading, etc. Unplanned non-continuous production flaring includes mechanical
equipment faults, instrument failures, and difficulties in restarting well production.

1.8. TYPES OF FLARES

There are many different types of gas flares. The three main types of flares include:

1. Ground flares
2. Pit flares
3. Elevated flares.
 Ground Flares

This can either be closed or open pit. Ground flares are intended to conceal the
flame while also reducing radiant energy and noise. They are made up of a
refractory material-lined steel box or cylinder. They feature apertures around the
base and are open at the top to allow combustion air to enter and could feature a
variety of flare tips to enable turndown capabilities and flame distribution over the
flare’s area. They have been employed offshore on floating production storage and
offloading complexes, and they are commonly used onshore in environmentally
sensitive places (FPSOs). Majority of enclosed high-capacity flares are rectangular.

xvii
Some of the benefits of using this type of flare are that it releases little radiation
and produces less noise (Dey, 2021).

 Pit Flares

Pit flares also known as pilot burners, are often parallel to the ground and visible
through a fire brick wall, earthen wall, and/or fence that surrounds the flare pit. A
burn pit should be placed away from all common work areas and operating plants,
where the smoke and associated thermal plume will not threaten personnel or
damage equipment. It should be at least 1,000 feet (305 m) long, clear of all
structures and public car parks, households, and not be obstructed by local or
general environmental conditions.

 Elevated Flares

The waste gas is channeled through a vertical chimney and subsequently

combusted at the stack top. A flare header, knock out drum, and flare stack make
up the elevated flare system. The flare header collects waste gas and condensate
from the entire plant, the condensate is separated in the knockout drum, and the gas
is finally burned in a high-elevation stack. The elevated flares system is named
from the fact that poisonous gases are burned at the flare tip at a high elevation
(Dey, 2021).

xviii
Fig 1. Closed ground flare Fig 2. Elevated flare` Fig 3. Pit flare

1.9. COMPANIES THAT DOES GAS FLARING IN NIGERIA

In 2005, a gas flaring lawsuit was filed against gas flaring companies. Gas flaring
(the practice of burning off natural gas associated with oil production) has been
illegal in Nigeria since 1984. Companies may only flare if they have ministerial
consent. The Nigerian Government has imposed a number of deadlines for
phasing out the practice, none of which have been met.

On 20th June 2005, local communities from the Niger Delta filed lawsuits in
Nigeria against the Nigerian Government and oil companies - Nigerian National
Petroleum Company (NNPC), Total, and local subsidiaries of Shell, Chevron and
Agip, alleging that the companies' continued practice of gas flaring (burning off
natural gas in oil production) caused environmental damages and violated their
right to life and human dignity. The lawsuits adopted different strategies. This case
profile looks at lawsuits filed against SPDC, Total, Agip, Chevron and NNPC ithe
High Court in Nigeria. Though, there may be other oil companies associated with
this practice, the above scenerio was the example and names of oil company that
still practice gas flaring in Nigeria.

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 CHAPTER TWO

EFFECTS OF GAS FLARING AND NIGERIA POLICIES ON FLARE GAS

2.1. GAS FLARING IN NIGERIA

Nigeria flares 17.2 billion m3 of natural gas per year in conjunction with the
exploration of crude oil in the Niger Delta. This high level of gas flaring is equal to
approximately one quarter of the current power consumption of the African
continent (Ajugwo, 2013). Even though we have grown to be fairly dependent on
oil and it has become the center of current industrial development and economic
activities, we rarely consider how oil exploration and exploitation processes create
environmental, health, and social problems in local communities near oil
producing fields.

From an economic perspective, the Nigerian government’s main interest in the oil
industry is to maximize its monetary profits from oil production (Ajugwo, 2013).
Oil companies find it more economically expedient to flare the natural gas and pay
the insignificant fine than to re-inject the gas back into the oil wells. Additionally,
because there is an insufficient energy market especially in rural areas, oil
companies do not see an economic incentive to collect the gas.

From a social perspective, the oil-producing communities have experienced severe

marginalization and neglect. The environment and human health have frequently
been a secondary consideration for oil companies and the Nigerian government.
However, although there may be reasons for the continuous gas flaring, there are
many strong arguments suggesting that it should be stopped. Corporations’
accountability to the people and environment surrounding them imply that oil
companies should be required to re-inject the gas, to recover it, or to shut down any
xx
extraction facilities in which the gas flaring is occurring. Because of this massive
oil exploration in the Niger Delta, the ramifications for human health, local culture,
indigenous self-determination, and the environment are severe. As is the case in
most oil producing regions of less developed countries, the economic and political
benefits are given significantly more weight by the government than the resulting
damage to the environment and human health (Ajugwo, 2013).

2.2. ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF GAS FLARING

2.2.1. Climate change

Gas flaring contributes to climate change, which has serious implications for both
Nigeria and the rest of the world. The burning of fossil fuel, mainly coal, oil and
gas (greenhouse gases) has led to warming up the world and is projected to get
much, much worse during the course of this 21st century according to the
intergovernmental panel on climate change (IPCC). This scientific body was set up
in 1988 by the UN and the World Meteorological Organization to consider climate
change. Climate change is particularly serious for developing countries, and Africa
as a continent is regarded as highly vulnerable with limited ability to adapt

Gas flaring contributes to climate change by emission of carbon dioxide, the main
greenhouse gas. Venting of the gas without burning, a practice for which flaring
seems often to be treated as a synononym, releases methane, the second main
greenhouse gas. Together and crudely, these gases make up about 80% of global
warming to date (Ajugwo, 2013).

Furthermore, according to Elehinafe et al., (2022), the complete combustion of

natural gas, in an ideal world, would react with all of the carbon in the fuel and
convert it to atmospheric carbon dioxide. However, under certain conditions, the
xxi
carbon conversion efficiency is lowered and the fraction of incomplete combustion
or partially reacted species leaving the flare increases. The possible emission of
unburned methane 1 and black carbon, both significant short-lived climate forcing
agents, is of particular interest. (Corbin and Johnson, 2014). Black carbon,
according to some estimates, is only next to carbon dioxide based on global
warming effects.

Furthermore, black carbon is a component of fine particulate matter, which has

harmful effects on human health and is responsible for about 7,000,000 deaths
annually due to air pollution (Okedere and Elehinafe, 2022).

2.2.2. Acid Rain

Acid rains have been linked to the activities of gas flaring. Corrugated roofs in the
Delta region of Nigeria have been corroded by the composition of the rain that falls
as a result of flaring.The primary causes of acid rain are emissions of sulphur
dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NO) which combine with atmospheric moisture
to form sulfuric acid and nitric acid respectively (Ajugwo, 2013). Size and
environmental philosophy in the industry have very strong positive impact on the
gas-flaring-related CO2 emission (Hassan and Kouhy, 2013).

Acid rain acidifies lakes and streams and damages vegetation. In addition, acid rain
accelerates the decay of building materials and paints. Prior to falling to the
earth,SO2 and NO2 gases and their particulate matter derivatives, sulfates and
nitrates, contribute to visibility degradation and harm public health (Ajugwo,
2013).

xxii
2.2.3. Effects on vegetation

Plants are a major source of active nutrients required by the body. Plants are source
of carbohydrate, protein, lipid and other minerals and vitamins depending on
species. Vegetation is also source of food for livestock especially omnivorous
animals such as goat, cow, grass cutter, rabbits etc. Vegetation cover is also a
source of habitat to several wildlife species especially bushmeat that do not
burrow. Some notable vegetation is found close to farmland and residential area
such as cassava and oil palm. These are two predominant vegetation cover used as
food found close to gas flaring location in the Niger Delta.

Gas flaring has the tendency to affect several plant species (Celestine, 2003)
especially productivity and growth (Ozabor and Obisesan, 2015). For instance,
Lawanson et al., (1991) reported that gas flaring decreases the length and weight of
cassava and increase its amino acid and total sugar contents as the distance from
the flares decreases. The authors furthered reported that such decreases were also
correlated with decreases in the content of starch and ascorbic acid (vitamin C) in
the tubers. Based on survey study in the Niger Delta region, 77% of the resident is
with the opinion that gas flaring affect vegetation and agricultural activities
(Adewale and Mustapha, 2015). In a similar study, the resident of Ebedei
community in Delta state is with the opinion that gas flaring affect food such as
yam, cassava, okra, plantain and potatoes (Ozabor and Obisesan, 2015)

Gas flaring can also cause deforestation and acid rain (Ozabor and Obisesan,
2015). Acid rain could lead to loss of vegetation and several symptoms in plants
that could lead to their death. Some of the notable symptoms include chlorosis,
abscission and yellowing of leaves, wilting of the leaf tips and accelerated

xxiii
senescence. The impacts of acid rain on vegetation structures and cover is most
severe close to gas flaring stack.

Acid rain result in the decline in productivity and growth of some major food crops
such as cassava, sweet potatoes, maize, melon, plantain, and cash crop like rubber
(Efe, 2012). The impacts in the growth and productivity of crops could also be an
indication that the soil fertility have been impacted upon. This may lead to loss of
vital soil nutrients that encourage the growth of plants.

Plants are known to have some pharmacological and bioactive composition. The
composition of the bioactive constitutes play a significant role in determining their
medicinal properties. The effect of gas flaring on the nutritional and bioactive
component of vegetation has been established. For instance, Ifemeje (2015)
reported gas flaring could change the anti-nutrient compositions (alkaloid, phytate,
oxalate, Saponin, tannin and cyanogenic glycosides) in some common vegetables
used for food purposes such as scent leaf, bitter leaf, water leaf and fluted pumpkin
leaf. Ujowundu et al. (2013) also reported impacts in phytochemical (alkaloid,
tannin, cyanogenic glycoside, phytate), proximate composition (moisture, ash,
protein and carbohydrate), micronutrients (calcium, sodium, magnesium,
potassium and phosphorus) and vitamins (riboflavin, vitamin E and C) in African
breadfruit and Bambara groundnuts planted close to gas flaring stack. Anacletus et
al. (2014) also reported that phytochemical (alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins and
tannins) and trace metal (iron, lead, cadmium and zinc) constituents of fluted
pumpkin could be affected by gas flaring.

Vegetation plays several ecological roles, for instance, vegetation prevents soil
erosion. Gas flaring is known to cause physical damage to plant close to the flare
stack. This could lead to other downstream impacts. In addition, gas flaring could
xxiv
alter soil quality parameters (Okeke and Okpala, 2014) including physiochemical
and microbial characteristics. Some notable soil quality parameters such as pH,
temperature, soil moisture, soil microbial population are commonly impacted by
gas flaring (Ubani and Onyejekwe, 2013). Okeke and Okpala (2014) reported that
soil quality parameters from flaring sites such as temperature and bulk density
decreased with distance from the flare point while other such as organic matter,
moisture content etc, increases with distance.

2.2.4. Effect on water quality

Water resources are typically needed for the sustenance of life, growth and
development. Water serves as habitant to several biodiversity especially fisheries
(shelled and finfish), aquatic reptiles, mammals, birds and breeding ground for
several other diversity such as frog, parasite of medical importance such as
Schistome, and vectors transmitting diseases such as mosquitoes. As such water
has a unique place for life to thrive.

Water is also used for domestic purposes such as washing, cooking, bathing etc.
Most water resources are from surface water, groundwater and rainwater. Izah et
al. (2016) is with the opinion that groundwater is mostly consumed in the Niger
Delta and surface water and rainwater also serve as potable water sources in
regions that groundwater/ borehole water is unavailable.

Water is typically impacted by gas flaring activities. Authors have variously

reported that some water quality parameters of surface water, ground water and
rain water are affected in gas flaring locations in the Niger Delta. For instance,
Dami et al. (2012) studied the impacts gas flaring and oil spillage on rainwater
quality for domestic use in Okpai and Beneku areas of Delta State and reported

xxv
that temperature, taste, color, conductivity, total dissolved, salts and alkalinity were
altered when compared to the permissible limits specified by National Agency for
Food and Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC), United State
Environmental Protection Agency and World Health Organization for drinking
water. Dami et al. (2013) studied the impacts of gas flaring and oil spillage on
groundwater quality for domestic use in Okpai and Beneku areas of Delta State and
reported that color is majorly impacted and to lesser extent conductivity were
affected in some locations due to accumulation of dissolved salts and other organic
materials when compared to World Health Organization standard. Nwankwo and
Ogagarue (2011) studied the effect of gas flaring in surface and groundwater
quality in Delta state and reported that water from gas flaring area contain higher
concentrations of metals such as barium, cyanide, selenium, cadmium, chromium,
iron, manganese and copper, conductivity, color and taste when compared to non-
flaring location. Emumejaye (2012) studied the effects of gas flaring on surface
and ground water in Irri town and environs and reported that high content of iron
and lead in the water which the author attributed to gas flaring in the area.
Ezenwaji et al. (2013) studied the effects of gas flaring on rainwater quality in
Bayelsa State and reported that all the parameters studied including temperature,
lead, conductivity, total dissolved solid, nitrate, carbonate, sulphate and pH had
values above World Health Organization permissible limits.

In another report, Amadi (2014) reported that concentration of the major anions
(bicarbonate, sulphate and nitrate), temperature, conductivity, heavy metal content
and total hydrocarbon content increase significantly in the vicinity of the gas
flaring location and steadily declined in surface water, groundwater and rainwater
away from the flaring location.

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Among the water quality parameters commonly affected by gas flaring is nitrate,
carbonate, sulphate, nitrate, lead etc. Amadi (2014) reported that gas flaring
reduces pH (pH tending toward acidity), moisture content and bacteria
density/population. The intensity of the flare with regards to microbial density in
water is usually higher in horizontal flare compared to the vertical flare stack. The
heat from the flare could enhance the temperature of the environment including
water. High occurrence of sulphate and nitrate ions may be connected to the
emission of carbon, sulphur and nitrogen oxide during flaring activities. The
occurrence of ions in the water could lead to high conductivity level in water close
to gas flaring location.

2.3. HEALTH EFFECTS OF GAS FLARING

The implication of gas flaring on human health are all related to the exposure of
those hazardous air pollutants emitted during incomplete combustion of gas flare.
These pollutants are associated with a variety of adverse health impacts, including
cancer, neurological, reproductive and developmental effects. Deformities in
children, lung damage and skin problems have also been reported (Ovuakporaye et
al., 2012)

Within 15 kilometers of the flare site in the Niger Delta, which has over 45 active
gas flare sites, these hydrocarbon emissions; carcinogens like benzopyrene,
benzene, carbon disulfide (CS2), carbonyl sulfide (COS), and toluene; metals like
mercury, arsenic, and chromium; sour gas including hydrogen sulfide H2S and
sulfur dioxide (SO2); and nitrogen oxides (NOx), has been discovered (Okedere et
al., 2021). Renal failure, central nervous system depression, chills, fever, myalgia,
respiratory irritation, nausea, vomiting, and headaches, myalgia, cardiovascular
failure and altered neurobehavioral function, multiple airways and lung injury,

xxvii
cancer, alveolar damage, emphysema, and respiratory problems, endocrine
dysfunction, low immunity, infertility, and autistic disorders are all known health
effects cause by flaring gas (Elehinafe et al., 2022 ). Today Niger Delta has the
lowest life expectancy in Nigeria, at around 40 years which is definitely a result of
gas flare-ups in the state (Ejiogu, 2013).

2.4. OTHER EFFECTS

2.4.1. Economic Loss

Aside from the health and environmental consequences of gas flaring, the nation
also loses billions of dollars worth of gas which is literally burnt off daily in the
atmosphere. Much of this can be converted for domestic use and for electricity
generation. By so doing the level of electricity generation in the country could be
raised to meet national demand. Nigeria has recorded a huge revenue loss due to
gas flaring and oil spillage (Effiong and Etowa, 2012)
Though more than 65% of governmental revenue is from oil (Arowolo and Adaja,
2011), it is estimated that about $2.5 billion is lost annually through gas flaring in
government revenues.

2.4.2. POLLUTION

Drilling mud and oil sometimes find their way to the streams, surface waters and
land thus making them neither unfit for consumption nor habitable by man or
animal. This problem has been produced by a range of international oil companies
which have been in operation for over four decades. The economic and
environmental ramifications of this high level of gas flaring are serious because
this process is a significant waste of potential fuel which is simultaneously
polluting water, air, and soil in the Niger Delta.

xxviii
2.5. SOME GAS FLARE REDUCTION TECHNOLOGIES

2.5.1. Flare gas power generation

Electricity can be generated from natural gas. According to Elehinafe et al.
(2022), flare gas may be used to generate electricity in a variety of methods,
including:

1. Natural gas-powered micro and large turbines,

2. Turbines powered by steam,
3. Internal combustion engines that reciprocate.

Flare gas can also be used to generate heat and power in a cogeneration system.

2.5.2. Secondary oil recovery using flare gas reinjection

Existing wells can be refilled with natural gas from natural gas wells to sustain
production outputs and restore declining natural formation pressure. Since waste is
eliminated, this self-sustaining system is cost-effective as well as the general
efficiency is enhanced (Robinson, 2013).

2.5.3. Petrochemical Plant Feedstock

Biogas is the most often utilized raw ingredient in the production of

petrochemicals. Flaring associated gas from oil and gas wells can be used to make
syngas, ammonia, hydrogen fuel for vehicles, or rubber, glass, steel, and paint
instead of associated gas from oil and gas wells (Elehinafe et al., 2022)

xxix
2.5.4. Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)
LNG liquefaction and storage is a more environmentally friendly and budget
alternative to gas flaring. Liquefied natural gas can be utilized on a large scale or at
home after treatment (McFarlan, 2020).

2.5.5. Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)

This is methane that has been compressed to high pressure. At a pressure of 20 –25
MPa, methane can be compressed and stored in cylinders retrieved from landfills
and oil wells. Natural gas-powered vehicles can be fueled (Beigiparast et al.,
2021).

2.5.6. Gas to liquid (GTL)

This involves the conversion of natural gas or other forms of gaseous hydrocarbons
into longer-chain hydrocarbons like diesel fuel or gasoline. This process produces
diesel fuel with almost same energy density to the conventional diesel, but
possesses ahigher cetane number, and thereby permits better performance engine
design (Odumugbo, 2010). This is achieved through the Fischer-Tropsch (F-T)
process, which involves a chemical process whereby catalysts (like cobalt or iron)
are used to synthesize complex hydrocarbons from simpler organic chemicals. The
F-T process takes place between temperature ranges from 200 to 350 C.

However, this technology is still at primordial stage and is capital intensive to

manage. Another challenge it faces is the fact that the raw materials for conversion
to commodity (silica sand, limestone) might prove difficult to import to site
(Thomas and Dawe, 2003)

2.5.7. Pipeline to transport natural gas

This is a good means of transporting natural gas globally to the end users; and it is

xxx
still in practice till date (responsible for about 75% of globally transported gas).
This technology is also convenient and economical for onshore purposes
(Ojijiagwo et al., 2016).

Pipeline is the principal and most convenient method of transporting gas: either
from an offshore location to onshore for processing or to interface with existing
distribution grids. It is also used for transportation of export gas. Nevertheless, for
offshore transport of natural gas, pipelines become challenging as the water depth
and the transporting distance increase. It now becomes important to state that
distance determines the economics of gas transportation (Ojijiagwo et al., 2016).
An application of this technology is the West African Gas (WAGP), which has a
capacity of 400 standard cubic feet per day and supplies gas for electricity
generation to BeninRepublic, Togo and Ghana from Nigeria (ObaniJesu et al.,
2009).
However, these technologies are also facing some certain shortfall like
vulnerability to sabotage, faces difficulty due to political boundaries and there is
also the issue of gas not being readily stored

2.6. NIGERIA POLICIES ON FLARE GAS

Not later than five years after the commencement of production from the relevant
area, as according to Regulation 42 of the Petroleum Drilling and Production
Regulations 1969, "the licensee shall submit to the minister any feasibility study,
program, or proposals that he may have for the utilization of any natural gas,
whether associated with oil or not, which has been discovered in the relevant area"
was the first Nigerian policy on the use of associated gas. The Associated Gas Re-
Injection Act of 1979 supplanted this because it did not directly address gas
flaring. The Act required each oil and gas producing company to provide a

xxxi
comprehensive plan for either re-injection or commercial use of all associated gas
generated by October 1, 1980. It was also stipulated that gas flaring was to become
illegal from 1st January 1984 (Orji, 2014).

After failing to meet the goal of eliminating all flares by 1984, the year 2004 was
picked as the next objective, followed by the Nigeria Gas Master Plan in 2008. By
2016, the federal government had agreed to postpone the deadline for ending gas
flaring to 2020. The government established the Flare Gas (Prevention of Waste
and Pollution) Regulation in 2018, which, on the one hand, prohibits gas flaring
while, on the other, allows it under certain conditions. To flare gas, oil corporations
would require permission from the president. For every 1000 standard SCF of
flared gas, the companies that generate more than 10,000 BPD must pay a $2 fee.
The companies generating less than 10,000 BPD must pay a charge of $0.5 for
every 1000 SCF of gas flared. This was done in order to make enterprises
reconsider flaring gas. However, because this strategy failed to prevent gas flare-
ups, the deadline was once again extended to 2025. Nigeria, on the other hand, as a
member of the World Bank’s Global Gas Flare Reduction Partnership, has vowed
to remove all flares by 2030 (Ojijiagwo et al., 2018)

xxxii
 CHAPTER THREE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

3.1 CONCLUSION

Gas flaring in Nigeria, in particular the Niger Delta region, has spanned many
decades. This practice has continued in spite of the deleterious effects on the
environment, human and plant life and the loss of revenue to both the government
and the oil producing companies. Although the government has made efforts
through legislation to control gas flaring, the laws in place have not been effective
in controlling gas flaring in Nigeria. The reason is attributable to the gaps in the
existing gas legislation, one of such being the permission given to oil companies to
continue flaring gas in so far as they pay such penalties as would be determined by
the Minister. There must be a concerted effort on the part of the government to end
gas flaring in Nigeria. Gas flaring must be made illegal as it is applicable in most
countries of the world. This would help protect our environment and health and as
well achieve sustainable development in the country.

3.2. RECOMMENDATIONS

The negative effects of gas flaring especially in relation to the health of host
community dwellers are a sufficient justification for ending gas flaring in Nigeria.

xxxiii
Stringent laws must be put in place by the government to ameliorate the effects of
gas flaring on the environment, health and economy of the nation. In addition to
payment of fines, which in itself ought to be reviewed upwards, the government
must take drastic and practical action against defaulting companies. The upward
review of fines will deter defaulting companies and cause them to adopt more
environmentally beneficial alternatives to gas flaring.

Furthermore, flared gas can be processed and produced into cooking/domestic gas.
According to Udok and Akpan (2017), the natural gas currently flared in Nigeria
can serve the cooking needs of 320 million people not served by modern fuels

There is also an additional call for the amendment or repeal of the 1984 Associated
Gas Re-injection (Continued Flaring of Gas) Regulation whichever is more
applicable. According to Ekwere, one striking feature of the Associated Gas Re-
Injection (Continued Flaring of Gas) Regulation is the permission given to oil
companies to continue to flare gas on the payment of minimal fees. He argues that
oil companies would rather pay the proscribed fees for gas flaring than incur more
costs associated with the re-injection of produced gas.

Firm commitment from the government is also required to end gas flaring in
Nigeria considering that gas flaring is currently illegal in most countries of the
world. In these countries, gas flaring may only occur in certain circumstances such
as emergency shutdowns, non-planned maintenance, or disruption to the
processing system.

xxxiv
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