PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS ON LAW ENFORCEMENT OFFICERS

SENIOR CAPSTONE PAPER

SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF
THE COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES, EDUCATION AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

DELAWARE STATE UNIVERSITY

DOVER, DELAWARE

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF ARTS

IN
LIBERAL STUDIES

BY

MARIANA LARA JAIME

NOVEMBER 8, 2023
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Contents

Title Page ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1

Table of Contents -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2

Abstract -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3

Introduction -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3-4

Background of the Research ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4-6

Review of the Literature ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 6-11

Findings ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 11-12

Reference page ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 15-14

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Abstract:

Law enforcement has existed for centuries and has evolved in its job description. However, as

we continue to deal with the dangerous acts of humans, we must ask ourselves how these jobs

have affected the psychology of officers. In the twentieth century, we have begun to give

importance to our mental health in a way never done before. Although we are more conscious of

our mental health, we have forsaken various roles in our society, such as law enforcement. The

research aims to investigate the psychological effects of law enforcement. With this knowledge,

our society will begin to understand these stressful roles, create empathy, and help those

protecting our communities. The researcher hopes that the knowledge this project will bring to

an audience can make a significant difference in how our society views law enforcement officers

and how officers understand the effects of their jobs to minimize psychological disturbances.

Introduction:

As the modern world evolves, we add and remove some jobs. However, some jobs are

irreplaceable. Law enforcement officers, in some form or another, have been around for centuries

worldwide. Law enforcement jobs can be modified, but their overall duties will never disappear.

Law enforcement officers are responsible for enforcing the law, assisting in emergencies, and

helping protect our communities. Although the average citizen relies on officers, they fail to

understand the job’s psychological effects on them. We may see stories on the news showing

their bravery and glorifying their abilities or stories of officers abusing their powers and preying

on the vulnerable. It is easy to judge them behind the scenes, but do we understand what officers

go through? How do these experiences shape their perspective, personality, mentality, or life?

This research aims to help understand the psychological effects of the job on correctional and

police officers. By studying these factors, we can better aid our law enforcement officers so they
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can safely accomplish their jobs without significant adverse effects.

Understanding the psychological factors between these officers in the same field will give

the perspective of what they can encounter (deaths, fights, danger, drugs, abuse, and other

traumatic experiences), can help society better understand these jobs, and even create empathy

towards law enforcement officers. Another reason understanding the psychological effects of this

challenging job can be beneficial is to provide more resources and awareness and decrease

stigma for officers. These benefits will not only help them while on the job, but they can help

decrease the chances of acquiring mental health problems such as anxiety, post-traumatic stress

disorder, depression, and other health problems.

Background of the research

There have been plenty of research projects that focused on the effects of victims of police

officers and correctional officers. New research projects have also focused on the effects on

police officers. This research project concentrates on the job's psychological effects on law

enforcement officers. There were several questions that this researcher had to create to research

the proper resources for the topic. The questions were categorized into two different groups. The

groups included correctional officers and police officers. The reason to categorize these groups is

because the answers were different. Although in the same job field, the stress levels,

responsibilities, stressors, and even stigmas differed in correctional officers and law enforcement

officers. Before the research, the context of the psychology of law enforcement officers had to be

established.

Before a surgeon can perform a surgery, the doctor must first gain the proper knowledge.

The same had to occur before conducting this research—the need to understand why this

investigation was vital. The researcher learned the value of officers in our societies; although it
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seems nerve-wracking to be in front of them while driving a car, they are essential in keeping the

peace and providing help in our time of need. Some job responsibilities of correctional officers

include supervising inmates, providing care and correctional treatment of inmates, checking for

contraband, providing emergency assistance, and preventing harm to those in prison and those

outside the prison by keeping dangerous inmates in a secure location. Police officers have similar

responsibilities but in a different environment. According to the Delaware State Police, some of

the job duties troopers have include, “Patrol duties involve directing traffic, assisting lost,

stranded or disabled motorists, approaching motorists on routine or non-routine violations,

making arrests, processing prisoners, controlling crowds, and supporting other troopers in

stressful situations.” (Delaware State Police, 2022). These duties are just part of the job,

including safeguarding property, investigating and chasing offenders, using deadly force,

communicating with other law enforcement officers, maintaining proper physical conditions, and

dealing with court sentences and other emergencies. Due to working 12 consecutive hours, they

sometimes forfeit their lunches due to staying alert on the job. The job descriptions of each

officer are long, with strenuous job responsibilities that usually lead to high stress from their job.

Every job is stressful, and this is especially true for law enforcement officers. However,

due to their job having no breaks, becoming unpredictably hazardous, and always staying on

high alert while staying physically, mentally, and emotionally prepared for every shift for about

12 hours, their stress range is higher than most average jobs. According to the article, Causes and

Management of Stress at Work, the author Michie states, “Stress is the psychological and

physical state that results when the resources of the individual are not sufficient to cope with the

demands and pressures of the situation.” (Michie, 2002, pg 1). Due to officers having to risk their

safety, their stress levels stay relevantly high. Due to the high levels of stress and not enough
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resources or support to help cope with the demands of the jobs, officers’ lives are changed every

time they choose to put their uniforms on to serve and protect their communities. Michie also

mentions the types of situations that cause stress; she states, “Situations that are likely to cause

stress are those that are unpredictable or uncontrollable, uncertain, ambiguous or unfamiliar, or

involving conflict, loss or performance expectations.” (Michie, 2002, pg 1). When describing the

job duties of officers, the Delaware State Police mentioned having to constantly be placed in

unpredictable, uncontrollable, unfamiliar environments of conflict; this included physical,

emotional, and mental situations.

Review of the Literature/theological foundation

One of the concepts learned was the difference between men and women in law

enforcement. If you are a woman, you know the everyday responsibilities placed upon us by

gender norms. According to the article, Gender Roles Perspectives and job burnout, the authors

state, “One might presume that job burnout has likely been borne more by women; their labor

force participation grew from 32% in 1948 to 60% in 20001, but their role as the primary worker

in unpaid caregiving and domestic work largely remained unchanged. (Arts et al., 2021).

Although inflation has increased, voting rights have changed, and women’s jobs throughout the

day have not. Women have a negative stigma when becoming stay-at-home moms but also have

a negative stigma if they pursue a career. Some women try to find the balance and do both but

often encounter Burnout in their jobs, homes, or both. This concept is stressful; add that to a

dangerous job, and you are placed in dangerous stress levels. According to the article, Why are

Women Law Enforcement Officers More Burned-Out and What Might Help Them? The authors

mention how vital women are to the workforce. They state, “Compared to their male

counterparts, they rely more on communication skills to manage interactions, and they are less
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likely to use physical force. In addition, the single largest police call category nationwide is

violence against women, and women officers are more likely to effectively respond to those calls

(Elliot et al., 2016, pg 1). However, even with these findings, more women are leaving the

workforce due to Burnout. According to the World Health Organization, “Burnout is a syndrome

conceptualized as resulting from chronic workplace stress that has not been successfully

managed. (World Health Organization, 2019). Female officers tend to have higher stress levels

than male officers for various reasons; the authors state, “However, their stress levels have been

assessed, and as we also found, it has been higher among women officers [19]. Potential

explanations for greater personal stress and perceived stress among peers include greater sexual

harassment among women, lack of acceptance and mentoring by the predominantly male

profession, and higher overall workloads due to unequal division of household tasks [20–22].”

(Elliot, Garg, Kuehl, DeFrancesco, Sleigh, 2016). More support, programs, job changes, and

education can help female officers protect us better by achieving quality standards of job

performance. Among policewomen, this article examines Burnout as well as lifestyle habits.

Despite having healthier habits and similar physical activity levels, female police officers are

more likely to experience Burnout than their male counterparts. Feelings of depression, personal

stress, perceived stress, and fatigue are some of the symptoms they experience. Sleep deficit,

home lifestyle, expectancy, and job stress contribute to stress. The article Why are women law

enforcement officers more burned out and what might help them proves that these effects are not

immune to anyone. Those in this job field are more likely to experience these symptoms, and

unfortunately, women are more likely to experience Burnout and negative psychological effects.

Among policewomen, this article examines Burnout as well as lifestyle habits. Despite having

healthier habits and similar physical activity levels, female police officers are more likely to
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experience Burnout than their male counterparts. Feelings of depression, personal stress,

perceived stress, and fatigue are some of the symptoms they experience. Sleep deficit, home

lifestyle, expectancy, and job stress contribute to stress. The article Why are women law

enforcement officers more burned out and what might help them proves that these effects are not

immune to anyone. Those in this job field are more likely to experience these symptoms, and

unfortunately, women are more likely to experience Burnout and negative psychological effects.

When we see officers on duty, we see them smile to the public while offering help in different

ways. However, underneath that smiling, friendly face, they are experiencing physical symptoms

of the workforce. The article, Life Expectancy in Police Officers: A Comparison with the U.S.

General Population, describes the life expectancy of police officers within the United States. The

research indicates that police officers have an increased risk of death than the average

population. For instance, the authors mention, "previous epidemiological research indicates that

police officers have an increased risk for death above that of the general population from many

types of disease." (Violanti et al., 2016, pg 2). Officers, in some situations, have dealt with

people who have committed homicide, suicide, or dangerous activity that has cost them their

lives. While law enforcement officers are helping those around them, they are putting themselves

at risk for health factors that could potentially kill them. The article gives various examples of

what type of physical effects law enforcement had on these officers. They stated, "N.Y. police

officers had increased rates for arteriosclerotic heart disease, digestive cancers, cancers of the

lymphatic and hematopoietic tissues, brain cancer, and esophageal cancer." (Violanti et al., 2016,

pg 3). They say stress is deadly; there is proof that it is. Stress is daily, and most people deal with

it in some form. However, when the body is under constant stress, it releases a chemical reaction

such as cortisol. In the article, Stress symptoms, the author mentioned, "When you feel
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threatened, a chemical reaction occurs in your body that allows you to act to prevent injury. This

reaction is known as "fight-or-flight" or the stress response. During the stress response, your

heart rate increases, breathing quickens, muscles tighten, and blood pressure rises. (WebMD,

2023). When officers deal with stressful factors about three times a week, their body catches up

with them even when not on duty. These stress levels are also not factored in when officers must

handle difficult situations such as arrest, violence, abuse, watching horrific scenes, or even

deaths. Some of these stresses also occur within their departments. For instance, it is not

uncommon for officers to be stressed above the average worker by organizational issues within

their departments, schedules and hours within a shift, racial and gender discrimination

(especially among female officers), lack of trust among their co-workers, and dissatisfaction with

their jobs. Dealing with all these stressful factors can be troublesome not only to your body but

also to your mind.

Law enforcement officers deal with a considerable toll on their physical, emotional, and

mental health. Although we are more conscious about our health in a post-pandemic world, we

fail to understand how a worldwide pandemic affected our essential workers. The author begins

by introducing the change the Covid-19 pandemic brought to police officers' job duties. Some

changes include, "Law enforcement officers have been expected to coordinate local shutdowns,

encourage social distancing, and enforce stay-at-home mandates all while completing the

responsibilities for which they are already understaffed and underfunded." (Stogner et al., 2020,

p. 1). The author identifies that before the pandemic, officers were already one of the most

mentally taxing occupations; however, after this change, their lives have increased in stress

levels and other mental health disorders. During the pandemic, officers knew little about the

virus and were still forced to protect the community. During this time of uncertainty and social
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unrest levels all around the globe, officers were responsible for ensuring the community and

enforcing rules such as the use of facemasks, social distancing, and safety for those vulnerable.

Due to these high-stress levels, officers began developing unhealthy coping habits and even

began in police misconduct. The article does provide resources for officer support and

recommendations so that if we were to have another unprecedented event, such as a pandemic,

the justice department would be better prepared.

Although police officers and correctional officers work in the same field, their jobs are

very different, and so is their stress. According to the article, Organizational stressors associated

with job stress and burnout in correctional officers: A systematic review, the authors describe the

stress that leads to burnout in officers working in correctional departments. The authors state,

“COs experience higher rates of job stress and burnout that stem from organizational stressors,

leading to negative outcomes for not only the CO but the organization as well.” (Finney et al.,

2013, pg 1). Due to the higher rates of job stress, they are more likely to experience burnout and

leave the job field because of the mental load they deal with. This leads to more callouts, staff

shortages, and higher dissatisfaction with job rates. In the article, Improving the Mental Health

of Correctional Workers: Perspectives from the Field, the author focuses on the mental health of

correctional workers and all that they go through; the authors answer the question, ‘Why,

exactly, does correctional work take such a toll on mental health?’, they answer, “Operational

stressors in correctional work, for example, factors related to carrying out one’s job are complex

and varied. Throughout their career, the majority of correctional workers will encounter

potentially psychologically traumatic events, including violent incidents, death, self-injury, and

other situations involving harm. (Johnston et al., 2022). The operational stressors have affected

these correctional officers and have caused mental health disorders such as Post post-traumatic
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stress disorder, anxiety, major depressive disorders, and other mental health issues, especially in

jobs without wellness resources or a stigma within the job, to reach out for help. Correctional

officers deal with significant stress and even stigma due to Hollywood’s perspective of their job,

so their jobs have an even more significant effect on their health as they tend not to reach out,

and employers do not extend the needed help to provide programs and resources to help lighten

the mental load of the job.

Findings

Due to the change in our view of our health within the twenty-first century, we care more

than ever about the mental health of those around us. Public safety officers such as correctional

officers and police officers have some of the most stressful jobs to keep the community safe. The

article, Addressing Police Officer Stress: Programs and Practices, describes supporting police

departments so that they may provide services to address stress-related issues. The authors state,

"A recent review of 10 urban police departments noted a continuum of law enforcement and

mental health wellness programs, including critical incident response teams, counseling, peer

support programs, and other services." (Otto & Gatens, 2022). These programs allow officers to

recognize stress symptoms and develop resilience to stressful situations. Improved police

training, counseling, and peer support programs can help improve the lives of law enforcement.

The article gives various examples of programs that can help decrease the mental health stigma

in this job occupation and improve the perception of programs that foster engagement.

Another critical aspect to learn from the psychological effects of law enforcement is officers'

ability to cope with the stress. Most officers in the early 2000s did not have the tools and

resources to deal with the stress of the job effectively. The article, Trauma, and Coping

Strategies in Police Officers: A Quantitative-Qualitative Pilot Study, describes law enforcement

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officers' traumatic job duties regularly. However, this article concentrates on their coping

strategies regarding the stress of their jobs. Some of the examples include overactivation,

burnout, and deactivation strategies, such as depression, emotional exhaustion, and

depersonalization. The article then gives specific examples of traumatic scenarios that officers

often face. For instance, the author mentions, "Examples of accidents that fall into this category

are death or serious injury of a colleague while on duty, death or serious injury of a child, the

threat of violence or personal injury, serious injury and death, extreme accidents, and multiple

deaths, the feeling of helplessness in an accident, and excessive media interest in a particular

case." (Civilotti et al., 2021, pg 1). Another example is found in the article, Addressing Police

Officer Stress: Programs and Practices, which states, "Some coping strategies are maladaptive,

such as alcohol misuse and withdrawal from social support." (Otto & Gatens, 2022). Having

these scenarios happen regularly at your job results in your body learning to cope with the

regular stress. The article mentions some negative coping strategies, but with new resources and

programs, officers can learn how to cope in healthy matters. Some healthy ways include talking

with others, exercising, reading, meditation, and spending time with those you love and care

about.

After taking the time to research the psychological effects of law enforcement, I have

some recommendations to the public and to those in the law enforcement field to help our

officers. Most of the stress officers face originates from dealing with violent situations; some of

these situations include family disputes, especially those that involve children. Killing someone

in the line of duty, a fellow officer dying, and lack of support within superiors. "Several sources

of police work stressors have been identified: (1) the apparent inherent aspect, which involves

danger and job risk; (2) the police administrative organization; and (3) lack of organizational
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support. (Violanti et al., 2017, pg. 2). Having support within the job can help officers better deal

with the regular stressors and decrease the stigma for officers to reach for help when needed. The

public can also contribute by expanding our compassion to those protecting our communities.
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References

Arts, B., Kaya, I., & Kaya, O. (2021, August 21). Gender role perspectives and job burnout. PubMed

Central (PMC). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8375289/

Delaware State Police. (2022, January 21). Delaware state police. Delaware State Police - State of

Delaware. https://dsp.delaware.gov/about-the-job/

Finney, C., Stergiopoulos, E., Hensel, J., Bonato, S., & Dewa, C. S. (2013, January 29). Organizational

stressors associated with job stress and burnout in correctional officers: A systematic

review. SpringerLink. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/1471-2458-13-82

Johnston, M. S., Ricciarrdelli, R., & Mckendy, L. (2022, March 14). Improving the Mental Health of

Correctional Workers: Perspectives from the field. Sage

Journals. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/00938548221081468

Otto, H. D., & Gatens, A. (2022, May 24). Addressing Police Officer Stress: Programs and Practices.

ICJIA | Illinois Criminal Justice Information

Authority. https://icjia.illinois.gov/researchhub/articles/addressing-police-officer-stress-

programs-and-practices

Stogner, J., Miller, B. L., & McLean, K. (2020, June 26). Police stress, mental health, and resiliency

during the COVID-19 pandemic. PubMed Central

(PMC). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7319488/

Violanti, J. M., Hartley, T. A., Gu, J. K., Fekedulegn, D., Andrew, M. E., & Burchfiel, C. M. (2016, February

1). Life expectancy in police officers: A comparison with the U.S. general population.

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body. https://www.webmd.com/balance/stress-management/stress-symptoms-effects_of-stress-

on-the-body
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World Health Organization. (2019, May 28). Burn-out an "occupational phenomenon":

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(WHO). https://www.who.int/news/item/28-05-2019-burn-out-an-occupational-phenomenon-

international-classification-of-diseases