International Journal of Risk & Safety in Medicine 33 (2022) 269–279 269

DOI 10.3233/JRS-200077
IOS Press

Knowledge, attitude and practice towards

hepatitis B infection among high school
students in Asante Mampong, Ghana
Godfred Otcherea , Emmanuel Dwomohb , Emmanuel Kumahc,∗ , Samuel Egyakwa Ankomahd ,
Adam Fusheinid , Peter Agyei-Baffoure , Emmanuel Kwasi Afriyief and Samuel Kofi Agyeie

PY
a
Faculty of Humanities, Center for Medicine and Society, University of Freiburg, Freiburg im Breisgau,
Germany
b
Department of Public Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, Catholic University College of Ghana,
Sunyani, Ghana
c

Education, Winneba, Ghana

d
CO
Department of Health Administration and Education, Faculty of Science Education, University of

Department of Preventive and Social Medicine, Dunedin School of Medicine, University of Otago,
Dunedin, New Zealand
e
Department of Health Policy, Management and Economics, School of Public Health, Kwame Nkrumah
University of Science and Technology (KNUST), Kumasi, Ghana
f
Laboratory Services Directorate, Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital, Kumasi, Ghana
OR

Received 9 October 2020

Accepted 10 October 2021

Abstract.
BACKGROUND: Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is a serious global public health problem, with significant morbidity and
TH

mortality from acute and chronic complications. Increasing awareness and improving knowledge of HBV helps reduce the risk of
the disease. Although many studies have been conducted on HBV in Ghana, few have focused on examining knowledge, attitude
and preventive practices among adolescents towards the disease.
OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to assess HBV knowledge, attitude and practice (KAP) among adolescents in
high schools in the Asante Mampong Municipality in the Ashanti Region of Ghana.
METHODS: A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted among 398 adolescents from six senior high schools within
AU

the Asante Mampong Municipality. Data was collected using a 30-item structured questionnaire. Each item had two response
options: “Yes” and “No”. A scoring system was generated and respondents were given a score on each item answered. A positive
response to an item was scored 1 point and a negative response was scored 0. Scores were then summed up and averaged to give
the mean knowledge, attitude and practice scores.
RESULTS: The majority of the respondents were male (60%), between 15 and 17 years (45%), Christian (93%) and in their first
year of study. The adolescents had basic knowledge, positive attitude, and poor practices towards HBV. There was no significant
relationship between the demographic variables of the respondents and KAP mean scores.
CONCLUSION: There is the need to introduce health education and awareness programs in schools within the Asante Mampong
Municipality to improve students’ level of knowledge of HBV. Countrywide studies examining KAP towards HBV infection
among adolescents are also warranted.

Keywords: Hepatitis B infection, adolescents, KAP scores, senior high school, Ghana, HBV

* Address for correspondence: Emmanuel Kumah, Department of Health Administration and Education, Faculty of Science
Education, University of Education, Winneba, Ghana. E-mail: ababiohemmanuel@gmail.com.

0924-6479/$35.00 © 2022 – IOS Press. All rights reserved

270 G. Otchere et al. / Knowledge, attitude and practice towards hepatitis B infection among high school students

1. Introduction

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is a serious global public health problem, with significant morbidity
and mortality from acute and chronic complications [1]. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates
that in 2015, 257 million people were living with chronic HBV globally, with 887 000 dying from the
condition [2]. The burden of HBV infection is even higher in Sub-Sahara African and Southeast Asian
countries [3].
HBV is a virus that attacks the liver and may be acquired through contact with infected blood or other
body fluids [4]. Though hepatitis B is most commonly passed from person to person through sexual
contact [5], it can also be passed through exposure to contaminated needles, including tattoo and body-

PY
piercing tools [6]. Thus, persons with a history of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), multiple sex
partners, as well as those who inject drugs are at greater risk of contracting hepatitis B. It begins as an
acute self-limiting infection which may be either subclinical or symptomatic [7] and can cause chronic
infection, resulting in cirrhosis of the liver, liver cancer, liver failure, and death [8]. However, unlike other
sexually transmitted diseases, HBV can be prevented with a vaccine [9].
CO
Adolescents have poor perception, low capacity and develop disinterest in seeking protective health care
against HBV [10]. Additionally, in low and middle-income countries, such as Ghana, adolescents tend to
have compromised knowledge on safer sexual practices, leading to the contraction of sexually transmitted
infections including HIV/AIDS and hepatitis [11,12]. For instance, a recent systematic review by Aberg et
al. estimated that HBV prevalence was higher (14.3%) in the Ghanaian adolescent population compared
to adults (8.36%) and children under five years (0.55%) [13].
OR

Increasing awareness and improving knowledge of HBV helps reduce the risk of the disease among
adolescents [14]. A comprehensive study by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), USA
indicates that incidence of HBV infection can be reduced when there is adequate knowledge and positive
attitude which influence the general population to observe better health seeking behaviors [6].
Although many studies have been conducted on HBV in Ghana, few have focused on examining knowl-
TH

edge, attitude and preventive practices among adolescents towards the disease [15–17]. Recently, Adam
and Fusheini assessed HBV knowledge, risk of infection and vaccination status of high school students in
two rural districts of the Northern Region of Ghana. The authors classified HBV knowledge scores into
poor, basic and good; and found the students’ overall knowledge to be basic, with a mean score of 11.8 ±
1.98 (3–16) [15] . Similarly, Amedonu et al. surveyed 244 high school students in the Hohoe Municipality
AU

in the Volta Region of Ghana and reported moderate knowledge (positive answers ranged from 4 to 8 out of
10 questions presented) of HBV among the majority (89.2%) of the respondents [16]. Also, in a descriptive
cross-sectional study of 358 student nurses in the Volta Region of Ghana, Aniaku et al. found knowledge
of participants to be satisfactory (average), with 59.5% having the right knowledge about hepatitis B
transmission routes and prevention. The authors categorized the students’ knowledge scores as good,
satisfactory/average, and poor. The overall mean knowledge score found was 29.6 (SD ± 6.98) [17].
The present study adds to the above studies by assessing HBV knowledge, attitude and practice among
adolescents in high schools in the Asante Mampong Municipality in the Ashanti Region of Ghana.
Findings from the study will be useful for health awareness and promotion programs aimed at improving
the level of knowledge, attitude and practice towards HBV infection in the country.
In this study, the Knowledge, Attitude, Practice (KAP) theory was chosen as the theoretical framework.
KAP is a health behavior change theory, proposed by western scholars in the 1960s in which the changes of
human behavior are divided into three successive processes: the acquisition of knowledge, the generation
 G. Otchere et al. / Knowledge, attitude and practice towards hepatitis B infection among high school students 271

of attitudes and the formation of behavior [18]. KAP of community members is crucial in order to design
prevention programs in the community [19]. By knowing facts, having proper awareness and attitudes, the
menace of infectious diseases can be prevented to a great extent [20]. KAP research has been the primary
educational intervention strategy for Hepatitis B control worldwide [21]. Studies have shown that the
level of KAP in individuals is linked to efficient management of illness, response to medical treatment,
and promotion of one’s own health [22–25]. Lower KAP level has been one of the main indicators of poor
health, inefficient health care use, and maladaptive disease preventive behavior [26,27].

2. Materials and methods

PY
2.1. Study design and setting

A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted among adolescents (aged 12–19 years) from 6 senior
high schools within the Asante Mampong Municipality. The Municipality is one of the 260 Metropolitan,
Municipal and District Assemblies (MMDAs) in Ghana, and forms part of the 43 MMDAs in the Ashanti
CO
Region. With a population of 103 761, the Municipality has 85 primary schools, 58 junior high schools,
6 senior high schools and one vocational school. There are also 2 teacher-training colleges, 1 midwifery
and nursing training school, and a campus of one public university (University of Education, Winneba,
Mampong Campus). The Municipality has 18 health facilities comprising 12 public, 5 private and 1
belonging to the Christian Health Association of Ghana (CHAG).
OR

2.2. Sample size and sampling procedure

The minimum sample size used to collect the required data for the study was calculated using the
Cochran formula [28]:
𝑧2 𝑝𝑞
𝑁= .
𝑑2
TH

N = sample size to be determined; z = statistical certainty of 1.96 at a confident level of 95%; p = assumed
proportion of knowledge of HBV among adolescents in Ghana of 62% (based on an average knowledge
of HBV computed from previous similar studies) [15–17]; q = proportion of those with no knowledge of
HBV (1 − p = 0.38); and d = margin of error of 5% (0.05).
AU

Substituting the above figures:

(1.96)2 (0.62)(0.38)
𝑁= = 362.
(0.05)2
Non-response rate of 10% was added to give a sample size of 398.
We employed proportional sampling method to draw the 398 students from the 6 schools (Table 1) to
participate in the study. Proportional sampling, as defined by Salkind [29], is a sampling method where a
researcher divides a finite population into subpopulations and then applies random sampling techniques to
each subpopulation. Each school’s population was treated as independent subpopulation. School sample
size was determined by dividing the school’s total population by the total population of the study and then
multiplying it by the total sample size.
After determining the sample size for each of the participating schools, a simple random sampling
technique was applied to select the required study participants. This was done by writing “Yes” and “No”
272 G. Otchere et al. / Knowledge, attitude and practice towards hepatitis B infection among high school students

Table 1
Sample size for each of the six participating schools

Name of school Population Proportion (%) Sample size

Amaniampong SHS 1,523 23 91

St. Joseph’s SHS 1,456 22 87
St. Monica’s SHS 1,828 27.5 109
Kofiase SDA SHS 1,206 18.2 76
Opoku Agyemang SHS 506 7.6 29
Oduko Boatemaa SHS 112 1.7 6
Total 6,631 100% 398

PY
SHS = Senior High School.

on pieces of papers, folded and put in a box and thoroughly mixed for some time in a lottery system.
Students were asked to pick from the box. Students who picked “Yes” per the school sample size were
CO
sampled to take part in the study. Those who picked “No” exited the study.

2.3. Questionnaire and data collection

A 30-item structured questionnaire, developed using information from previous studies [15,16,29], was
implemented to analyze KAP levels of adolescents towards HBV infection (Supplementary Appendix).
OR

The questionnaire was divided into 4 sections: demographic information, consisting of 4 items; knowledge
of HBV, comprising 12 items; attitude towards HBV, making up of 8 items; and preventive practices
towards HBV, consisting of 6 items. Each item had 2 response options: “Yes” and “No”.
The questionnaire was pretested on 30 senior high school adolescents, selected conveniently, from a
local church within the Mampong Municipality. These adolescents were students of the 6 senior high
TH

schools selected for this study. Data collected during the pretesting was used to modify the original
questionnaire for acceptability, consistency and comprehension. Data from the pretesting was not included
in the final analysis.
Data collection was done between February and March, 2019 through on-site questionnaire adminis-
tration. The questionnaires were handed out to the students on the premises of each of the participating
schools to complete. It took an average of 15 to 20 min to complete each questionnaire. Two research
AU

assistants were recruited to assist in the data collection.

2.4. Data analysis

The collected data was entered into Epi Info 7.0 and analysed using Statistical Package for Social
Sciences (SPSS) software version 20 (IBM Corporation, Armonk, NY, USA). A scoring system was
generated and respondents were given a score on each item answered. A positive response to an item
was scored 1 point and a negative response was scored 0. Scores were then summed up and averaged to
give the mean knowledge, attitude and practice scores. The knowledge-based items were scored from 0
(minimum) to 12 (maximum), with a mean score <5 indicating poor knowledge, between 5 and 8 indicating
basic knowledge and >8 demonstrating adequate knowledge. The attitude-based questions were scored
from 0 to 8, with a mean score ≤5 being negative attitude and >5 indicating positive attitude. Finally,
 G. Otchere et al. / Knowledge, attitude and practice towards hepatitis B infection among high school students 273

Table 2
Demographic characteristics of the respondents (N = 372)

Variables Frequency Percentage (%)

Gender
Male 224 60
Female 148 40
Age (years)
12–14 68 18
15–17 169 45
18 and above 135 37

PY
Religion
Christian 348 93
Islam 21 6
Traditional 3 1
Year of study
First year
Second year
Third year
CO 173
117
82
47
31
22

scoring for the practice-based items ranged from 0 to 6, with a mean score ≤3 denoting bad practice and
>3 demonstrating good practice.
OR

Descriptive statistics were used to present the demographic data of the respondents. A Chi-square test
was conducted to determine the relationship between the outcome variables (knowledge, attitude and
practice) and the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents. A p-value <0.05 was considered
statistically significant.
TH

2.5. Ethical approval

Ethical clearance was obtained from the Ghana Health Service Ethics Review Committee (protocol
number GHS-ERC084/10/19). A letter of introduction was sent to the Municipal Health Directorate,
AU

Municipal Education Directorate and heads of the participating schools for the study’s recognition and
approval. Consent forms were given to the participants to sign. For those below 18 years, the forms
were read and explained to their parents/guardians to sign on their behalf. Participants were assured of
confidentiality of information taken from them.

3. Results

3.1. Demographic characteristics of the respondents

A total of 398 questionnaires were administered and 372 were received, giving a response rate of 93.5%.
The majority of the respondents were male (60%), between 15 and 17 years (45%), Christian (93%) and
in their first year of study (47%) (Table 2).
274 G. Otchere et al. / Knowledge, attitude and practice towards hepatitis B infection among high school students

Table 3
Responses to hepatitis B knowledge items

Item Yes No

I have heard of a disease called hepatitis B 313 (84%) 59 (16%)

Hepatitis B is a viral disease 164 (44%) 208 (56%)
Hepatitis B can affect any age group 279 (75%) 93 (25%)
Hepatitis B can cause liver cancer 112 (30%) 260 (70%)
Healthy-looking hepatitis B positive persons can spread the 248 (67%) 124 (33%)
disease
Hepatitis B can be transmitted through the use of unsterilized 105 (28%) 267 (72%)
syringes, needles and surgical instruments

PY
Hepatitis B can be transmitted through blood transfusion 138 (37%) 233 (63%)
Hepatitis B can be transmitted through unprotected sexual 156 (42%) 216 (58%)
intercourse
Hepatitis B can be transmitted by shaking hands 167 (45%) 205 (55%)
Hepatitis B can be transmitted from mother to child 131 (35%) 241 (65%)
There is a vaccine for hepatitis B
Hepatitis B can be cured
Mean knowledge score = 5.90 ± 1.8 (0–12).
CO 256 (69%)
284 (76%)
116 (31%)
88 (24%)

3.2. Level of knowledge about HBV infection

The respondents’ level of knowledge regarding HBV infection is summarized in Table 3. The mean (SD)
OR

knowledge score was 5.90 ± 1.8 (range, 0–12), indicating basic knowledge of HBV among the study cohort.
Although the majority (84%) of the respondents indicated that they had heard of hepatitis B, more than
half (56%) could not answer correctly that HBV is a viral disease. Regarding modes of transmission, only
28%, 35%, 37% and 42% of the students responded correctly that HBV could be transmitted through the
use of unsterilized equipment, from mother to child, through blood transfusion and through unprotected
TH

sexual intercourse respectively. Also, while 69% of the respondents knew of the existence of hepatitis B
vaccine, the majority (76%) reported that the disease could be cured.

3.3. Attitude towards HBV

AU

The respondents had a positive attitude towards HBV infection with a mean score of 5.47 ± 1.3 on a
0–8 scale. Although the mean score achieved is close to the established threshold (i.e. ≤5 being negative
attitude and >5 indicating positive attitude), the majority of the respondents scored above average (50%)
on all of the attitude-based questions. For instance, the majority of them indicated that hepatitis B infected
persons should not be isolated (68%), it is safe to visit hepatitis B infected relative (65%), they would
continue friendship with a person infected with hepatitis B (71%), and that they would not have any
concern being in the same class with someone infected with hepatitis B (74%) (Table 4).

3.4. Practices towards HBV

Regarding the students’ practices towards HBV, about 74% indicated that they were willing to be
tested for the disease, more than average (60%) answered that they would ask for a new syringe from
a medical staff, 56% said they would ask for screening of blood before transfusion, while 65% responded
 G. Otchere et al. / Knowledge, attitude and practice towards hepatitis B infection among high school students 275

Table 4
Respondents’ attitude towards HBV infection

Item Yes No

Do you think you could be infected with hepatitis B? 334 (90%) 38 (10%)
Should hepatitis B-infected persons be isolated to prevent further 118 (32%) 254 (68%)
infections?
Is it safe to visit a hepatitis B-infected friend or relative? 243 (65%) 129 (35%)
Is it safe to sit close to a hepatitis B-infected person? 198 (53%) 174 (47%)
Would you continue friendship with a person who has hepatitis B? 266 (71%) 106 (29%)
Would you have any concern eating with a hepatitis B patient? 156 (42%) 216 (58%)
Would you have any concern if you are in the same class with someone 98 (26%) 274 (74%)

PY
infected with hepatitis B?
Is the hepatitis B vaccine safe and effective? 250 (67%) 122 (33%)
Mean attitude score = 5.47 ± 1.3 (0–8).

CO Table 5
Respondents’ practices towards HBV infection

Item Yes No

Were you ever screened for hepatitis B? 61 (16%) 311 (84)

Would you be willing to be tested for hepatitis B? 274 (74%) 98 (26%)
OR

Have you ever vaccinated against hepatitis B? 41 (11%) 331 (89%)

Would you ask for a new syringe from medical staff? 222(60%) 150 (40%)
Would you ask for screening of blood before transfusion? 208 (56%) 164 (44%)
Do you always ask your barber for a new blade? 240 (65%) 132 (35%)
Mean practice score = 2.81 ± 1.1 (0–6).
TH

that they would always ask their barber for a new blade (Table 5). However, the majority of the respondents
indicated that they had neither screened for (84%) nor vaccinated against (89%) HBV infection. Overall,
the students’ mean score for HBV related practices was 2.81 ± 1.1 (0–6), thus demonstrating poor
practices.
AU

3.5. Association between demographic characteristics and KAP

Table 6 shows the relationship between demographic characteristics and KAP among the respondents.
None of the 4 demographic variables was significantly associated with KAP scores (P > 0.05).

4. Discussion

It has been suggested that prompt and early care could be sought if a patient has knowledge about the
signs and symptoms of HBV. Similarly, a person’s knowledge on HBV treatment can help people to take
measures to protect themselves and others from contracting the disease [30]. This study assessed KAP
towards HBV infection among senior high school adolescents in the Asante Mampong Municipality of the
Ashanti Region of Ghana. The results showed that the adolescents had basic knowledge, positive attitude,
276 G. Otchere et al. / Knowledge, attitude and practice towards hepatitis B infection among high school students

Table 6
Association between demographic variables and KAP

Outcome variable Demographic variable Chi-square (X 2 ) P-value

Knowledge of HBV
Gender 2.94 0.58
Age 5.62 0.12
Religion 4.39 0.32
Year of study 5.84 0.98
Attitude towards HBV
Gender 6.13 0.18

PY
Age 3.85 0.51
Religion 2.75 0.55
Year of study 3.97 0.33
Practice towards HBV
Gender 1.92 0.66
Age 1.13 0.83
CO
Religion
Year of study
3.72
7.14
0.11
0.24

and poor practices towards HBV. Also, there was no significant relationship between the demographic
variables of the respondents and KAP mean scores.
OR

The finding of basic knowledge of HBV among the adolescents in this study is consistent with the
findings of similar studies conducted among senior high school students in the Northern [15] and the
Volta [16] Regions of Ghana. Moderate knowledge was also found among tertiary students (Nursing
training) in the Ho municipality of the Volta Region [17]. The finding also concurs with similar other
studies conducted among adult population both in Ghana and in other Sub-Saharan African countries.
TH

For instance, Mkandawire et al. found basic knowledge of HBV among healthcare workers at Suntreso
Government Hospital in the Ashanti Region of Ghana [31]. Also, Adoba et al. observed that 90.5% of
barbers in Obuasi in the Ashanti Region lacked knowledge about HBV [32]. In northeast Ethiopia, about
21% of medical students responded incorrectly that HBV could be transmitted through the fecal-oral
route, while almost a quarter of them believed the disease could not be transmitted through unprotected
AU

sex [33]. Further, Mursy and Mohammed observed average (58.2%) level of knowledge of HBV among
nurses and midwives at two maternity hospitals in Khartoum state of Sudan [34]. These findings are a
clear indication of an existence of a knowledge gap regarding HBV and its mode of transmission.
Contrary to the assertion in the literature that positive attitude leads to good practices [18,35], it was
observed in this study that the respondents’ attitude towards HBV was positive, but their preventive
practices were poor. The positive attitude demonstrated by the students could be the impact of the
various educational campaigns being embarked on by Ghana Health Service and some civil society
organizations to reduce other sexually transmitted infections (STIs) such as HIV/AIDS-related stigma
and discrimination in the country, as almost all of the attitude-based questions used in this study were
stigma-related.
KAP scores were not significantly associated with the adolescents’ demographic characteristics, such
as age, gender, religion and year of study. This finding supports earlier finding by Amedonu and
colleagues where the authors observed no association between the study respondents’ sociodemographic
 G. Otchere et al. / Knowledge, attitude and practice towards hepatitis B infection among high school students 277

characteristics and KAP, except year of study which was significantly associated with the students’ attitude
and practice scores [16].

4.1. Limitations

The study was conducted in only one out of the 260 Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies
(MMDAs) in Ghana. Thus, the findings are not representative of the entire adolescent population in the
country. To this end, countrywide studies examining KAP towards HBV infection among adolescents are
warranted.

PY
5. Conclusions

The results of this study have shown that adolescents in high schools in the Asante Mampong
Municipality of the Ashanti Region of Ghana have basic knowledge of HBV infection. There is therefore
the need to introduce and intensify health education and awareness programs in schools within the
CO
Municipality to improve students’ level of knowledge of the disease. The Municipal Health Directorate
and the Ghana Education Service in the Municipality should collaborate to organize a comprehensive
HBV infection prevention campaign which focuses on vaccination and screening to increase vaccination
uptake among senior high school students in the Municipality. Adequate knowledge will lead to positive
attitude, which will eventually result in better and more effective preventive practices. Future studies on
this topic should consider examining the relationship between high school students’ HBV KAP scores
and their field of study. Such information will be useful for HBV educational campaigns.
OR

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to the research assistants who assisted in collecting the data for this study. They
are also grateful to the students who agreed to take part in this important study as well the Municipal
TH

Health and Education Directorates, and all the heads or principals of the included schools for allowing
the study to be conducted in the Municipality and the schools.

Conflict of interest
AU

None to report.

Supplementary material

The administered questionnaire is available from https://dx.doi.org/10.3233/JRS-200077.

References
[1] Schweitzer A, Horn J, Mikolajczyk RT, Krause G, Ott JJ. Estimations of worldwide prevalence of chronic hepatitis B virus
infection: A systematic review of data published between 1965 and 2013. The Lancet. 2015;386(10003):1546–55.
[2] World Health Organization, Global Hepatitis Report 2017, Geneva, Switzerland, 2017.
[3] Taye S, Abdulkerim A, Hussen M. Prevalence of HBV and HCV infection among patients with chronic hepatitis at Bereka
Medical Center. South East Ethoipia BMC Res Notes. 2014;7:272.
278 G. Otchere et al. / Knowledge, attitude and practice towards hepatitis B infection among high school students

[4] Slonim AB, Roberto AJ, Downing CR, Adams IF, Fasano NJ, Davis-Satterla L et al. Adolescents’ knowledge, beliefs, and
behaviors regarding hepatitis B: Insights and implications for programs targeting vaccine-preventable diseases. J Adolescent
Health. 2005;36(3):178–86.
[5] Margolis HS, Handsfield H, Jacobs RJ, Gangi JE. Evaluation of office-based intervention to improve prevention counseling
for patients at risk for sexually acquired Hepatitis B virus infection. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2000;182:1–6.
[6] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. A comprehensive immunization strategy to eliminate transmission of hepatitis
B virus infection in the United States: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP)
Part 1: immunization of infants, children, and adolescents. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2005;54(RR-16):1–31.
[7] Paul P, Arumugam B. Knowledge and awareness regarding hepatitis B infection among medical and dental students : A
comparative cross sectional study. IJRMS. 2015;3(9):2352–6.
[8] Vento S, Dzudzor B, Cainelli F, Tachi K. Liver cirrhosis in sub-Saharan Africa: neglected, yet important. Lancet Glob
Health. 2018;6:e1060–e61.
[9] World Health Organization. Guideline development for the prevention, care and treatment of persons with chronic hepatitis

PY
B, WHO, Geneva, Switzerland, 2015.
[10] Hauri AM, Armstrong GL, Hutin YJF. The global burden of disease attributable to contaminated injections given in health
care settings. Int J STD AIDS. 2004;15:7–16.
[11] Chao J, Chang ET, So SKS. Hepatitis B and liver cancer knowledge and practices among healthcare and public health
professionals in China: A cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health. 2010;10(98):1–11.
[12] Kotzee T, Pronyk P, Vardas E, Heyer A, Martinson N. HIV and Hepatitis B Co-Infection in Southern Africa: A review for
CO
general practiotioners. South Afric J HIV Medici. 2006;7:38–44.
[13] Aberg JA, Gallant JE, Anderson J. Primary care guidelines for the management of persons infected with human
immunodeficiency virus: Recommendations of the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of
America. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;39:609–29.
[14] Sonali K, Seba B, Rahul P, Chitrangada M. Hepatitis B disease and vaccination: Awareness and practice among health care
givers in a Medical College of Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India. J Hepatol Gastroint Dis. 2016;2(1):1–3.
[15] Adam A, Fusheini A. Knowledge, risk of infection, and vaccination status of hepatitis B virus among rural high school
students in Nanumba North and South Districts of Ghana. PLoS ONE. 2020;15(4):e0231930.
OR

[16] Amedonu EK, Aniaku JK, Fusheini A. Assessment of high school students’ knowledge, attitudes and vaccination status of
hepatitis B virus in Hohoe, Ghana: A cross-sectional study. Open Public Health J. 2013;13:298–305.
[17] Aniaku JK, Amedonu EK, Fusheini A. Assessment of knowledge, attitude and vaccination status of hepatitis B among
nursing training students in Ho, Ghana. Ann Glob Health. 2019;58(1):18.
[18] Haq N, Hassali MA, Shafie AA, Saleem F, Farooqui M, Haseeb A et al. A cross-sectional assessment of knowledge, attitude
and practice among Hepatitis-B patients in Quetta, Pakistan. BMC Public Health. 2013;13:448.
TH

[19] Raihan R. Hepatitis in Malaysia: Past, present, and future. Euroasian J Hepatogastroenterol. 2016;6(1):52–5.
[20] Razi A, Rehman R, Naz S, Ghafoor F, Ullah MA. Knowledge attitude and practices of university students regarding hepatitis
B and C. ARPN J Agric Biol Sci. 2010;5:38–43.
[21] Kempinski R, Krasnik A. Prevention of arteriosclerotic heart disease. An epidemiological study of knowledge, attitudes
and practices in a community in Israel. Ugeskr Laeger. 1974;136:1931–8.
[22] Suleiman M, Sahal N, Sodemann M, Elsony A. Tuberculosis awareness in Gezira, Sudan: Knowledge, attitude and practice
AU

case–control survey. East Mediterr Health J. 2014;20:120–9.

[23] Khalil A, Abdalrahim M. Knowledge, attitudes, and practices towards prevention and early detection of chronic kidney
disease. Int Nurs Rev. 2014;61:237–45.
[24] Matsumoto-Takahashi EL, Tongol-Rivera P. Patient knowledge on malaria symptoms is a key to promoting universal access
of patients to effective malaria treatment in Palawan, the Philippines. PLoS One. 2015;10.
[25] Masud R, Abu S, Reazul K, Nurul I et al. Assessment of knowledge regarding TB among non-medical university students
in Bangladesh: A cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health. 2015;15:716.
[26] Bansal AB, Pakhare AP, Kapoor N. Knowledge, attitude, and practices related to cervical cancer among adult women: A
hospital-based crosssectional study. J Nat Sci Biol Med. 2015;6:324–8.
[27] Teran CC, Gorena UD, Gonzalez BC et al. Knowledge, attitudes and practices on HIV/AIDS and prevalence of HIV in the
general population of Sucre. Braz J Infect Dis. 2015;19:369–75.
[28] Cochran WG. Sampling Techniques. New York: Wiley; 1963.
[29] Han Z, Yin Y, Zhang Y, Ehrhardt S, Thio CL, Nelson KE et al. Knowledge of and attitudes towards hepatitis B and its trans-
mission from mother to child among pregnant women in Guangdong Province, China. PLoS ONE. 2017;12(6):E0178671.
[30] Burnett H. Knowledge and attitude of medical science students toward hepatitis B and C infections in Asia-Pacific Region.
Int J Clin Exp Med. 2007;6(3):197–205.
 G. Otchere et al. / Knowledge, attitude and practice towards hepatitis B infection among high school students 279

[31] Mkandawire P, Richmond C, Dixon J, Luginaah IN, Tobias J. Hepatitis B in Ghana’s Upper West Region: A hidden
epidemic in need of national policy attention. Health Place. 2013;23:89–96.
[32] Adoba P, Boadu SK, Agbodzakey H, Somuah D, Ephraim RK, Odame EA. High prevalence of hepatitis B and poor
knowledge on hepatitis B and C viral infections among barbers: A cross-sectional study of the Obuasi municipality, Ghana.
BMC Public Health. 2015;15(1):1041.
[33] Abeje G, Azage M. Hepatitis B vaccine knowledge and vaccination status among health care workers of Bahir Dar City
administration, Northwest Ethiopia: A cross sectional study. BMC Infect Dis. 2015;15(30).
[34] Mursy SMM, Mohammed SOO. Knowledge, attitude, and practice towards hepatitis B infection among nurses and
midwives in two maternity hospitals in Khartoum, Sudan. BMC Public Health. 2019;19:1597.
[35] Singh A, Purohit B. Knowledge, attitude and practice towards infection control measures and its correlation among dental
students in Bhopal City, India. Int J Infect Control. 2011;7(1):421–7.

PY
CO
OR
TH
AU