3rd Class Computer Architecture/Lecture-1

1.1 OVERVIEW
Why study computer organization and architecture?

– Design better programs, including system software such as

compilers, operating systems, and device drivers.
– Optimize program behavior.

– Evaluate computer system performance.

– Understand time, space, and price tradeoffs.

It is imperative that we understand how hardware interacts with

software. We must become familiar with how various circuits and
components fit together to create working computer systems.

We do this through the study of computer organization.

Computer organization addresses issues such as control signals, signaling

methods, and memory types. It encompasses all physical aspects of computer
systems.

Introduction to µprocessors and µcomputers

microprocessors and microcontrollers are types electronic devices that come in

the form of integrated circuits (ICs) and are used in different modern electronic
equipment such as computers, laptops, washing machines, air conditioners, and
many other automated electronic gadgets. The primary function of both
microprocessors and microcontrollers is to automate the processes.

What is a Microprocessor? is a programmable electronics chip that has

computing and decision making capabilities similar to central processing unit
of a computer. Any microprocessor- based systems having limited number of
resources are called microcomputers. Nowadays, microprocessor can be seen

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in almost all types of electronics devices like mobile phones, printers, etc.
Microprocessors are also used in advanced applications like radars, satellites
and flights. Due to the rapid advancements in electronic industry and large
scale integration of devices results in a significant cost reduction and increase
application of microprocessors and their derivatives

➢ In microcomputers, the microprocessor is used as the CPU (Central

Processing Unit).
➢ Technology Used: The semiconductor manufacturing technologies used
for chips are:

• Transistor-Transistor Logic (TTL)

• Emitter Coupled Logic (ECL)

• Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS

What is a Microcontroller?

A microcontroller is an electronic system which consists of a processing

element, a small memory (RAM, ROM, EPROM), I/O ports, etc. on a single
chip. Therefore, a microcontroller is a tiny resemblance of a microcomputer. It
is a quite small and low−cost electronic device which is used in several
electronic appliances as the main functioning device.

Difference between Microprocessor and Microcontroller

The following table highlights all the important differences between

microprocessors and microcontrollers –

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Parameter Microprocessor Microcontroller

Microprocessors can be Microcontrollers can be

Definition understood as the heart of a understood as the heart of
computer system. an embedded system.

A microcontroller is a
A microprocessor is a processor
controlling device wherein
What is it? where the memory and I/O
the memory and I/O output
component are connected
component are present
externally.
internally.

The circuit is complex due to
Circuit complexity
external connection.
Microcontrollers are
present on chip memory.
The circuit is less complex.

The memory and I/O The memory and I/O

Memory and I/O
components are to be connected components are available.
components
externally.

Compact system Microprocessors can’t be used in Microcontrollers can be

compatibility compact system. used with a compact

system.

Microprocessors are not Microcontrollers are

Efficiency
efficient. efficient.

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Microprocessors have a zero Microcontroller doesn’t

Zero status flag
status flag. have a zero status flag.

Number of Microprocessors have less Microcontrollers have more

registers number of registers. number of registers.

Microcontrollers are
Microprocessors are generally generally used in washing
Applications used in personal computers. machines, and air
conditioners.

➢ A computer system has three main components: a Central Processing Unit

(CPU) or processor, a Memory Unit and Input Output Units (devices).
In any microcomputer system, the component which actually processes data is
entirely contained on a single chip called Microprocessor (MPU). This MPU can
be programmed using assembly language. Writing a program in assembly
language requires a knowledge of the computer hardware (or Architecture)
and the details of its instruction set. The main internal hardware features of a
computer are the processor, memory and registers (registers are special
processor components for holding address and data). The external hardware
features are the computer Input/Output devices such as keyboard, monitor…
Software consists of the operating system (O.S) and various programs and data
files stored on disk .
A MICROPROCESSOR is a multipurpose programmable logic device that reads
binary instructions from a storage device called memory accepts binary data
as input and processes data according to those instructions and provides
results as input.

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1.2 Types of Computers

There are four types of computer:

1. Microcomputers - Personal Computers

Microcomputers sit on, beside or under a desk. They process data quickly
and are designed for one user. The cost is relatively low, depending on the
type, model and features. These computers are found in small businesses,
schools and homes. The size of the components that can be used in or with a
computer have decreased significantly as well as becoming more cost
effective, There are many different types of programs that can be used with a
microcomputer, there are generally two types of microcomputers: the PC
(personal computer) based on the original IBM machine, or the Macintosh
designed by Apple.

Microsoft Office is available for both the PC and Apple machines. The software
works exactly the same on either machine. The majority of companies use PCs
to handle their work requirements. This may primarily be due to the wide
variety of software programs available to the PC machine and the relative
lower cost of a PC as compared to an Apple machine.

2. Supercomputer

A supercomputer is considered to be the fastest type of computer available.

It is very expensive due to the amount of information that needs to be
processed on a daily basis. The first supercomputer was created in 1958 with
tremendous advancement in technology over the past years. Supercomputers
generally have specialized software programs installed and are typically used
for scientific and engineering tasks such as forecasting weather, nuclear
energy research, resource exploration, or animation. Supercomputers put all

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its power into running and performing calculations on a few programs as

quickly as it can. Typically, it can handle very large databases and perform a
huge number of calculations very quickly.

3. Mainframe computers

Mainframe computers are large enough to fill an entire room and require a
large capital investment. They can simultaneously handle hundreds of
different programs and users without sacrificing performance. They process
large volumes of data at an incredible speed. Mainframes are commonly
found in government agencies or large organizations, e.g., telephone
companies, credit card companies, airlines, or universities. For instance, you
access a mainframe computer whenever you use your bankcard at an
Automated Teller Machine (ATM). Mainframe computers can sometimes be
called centralized systems as they control the flow of data to and from
computers or terminals.

4. Minicomputers

Minicomputers can fill part of a room, and often cost tens of thousands of
dollars. They process data at a slower rate and in smaller volumes than the
mainframe computers. Several people can use a minicomputer
simultaneously; but as the number of users increases, each user would notice
a reduction in speed. Minicomputers are commonly found in medium-sized
manufacturing companies, legal or accounting firms, and department store
where the scanners in a grocery store would link to a minicomputer.
1.3 Computer Components

Any kind of computers consists of Software and Hardware:

➢ Software
Software is a generic term for organized collections of computer data and
instructions, often broken into two major categories: system software that
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provides the basic non-task-specific functions of the computer, and application

software which is used by users to accomplish specific tasks.

➢ Hardware:
Computer hardware is the collection of physical elements that constitutes a
computer system. Computer hardware refers to the physical parts or
components of a computer such as the monitor, mouse, keyboard, etc. all of
which are physical objects that can be touched.

1.3.1 Basic Blocks of a microcomputer

All microcomputers consist of (at least):
1. Microprocessor Unit (MPU) MPU is the brain of microcomputer
2. Program Memory (ROM)
3. Data Memory (RAM)
4. Input / Output ports
5. Bus System

Fig. 1: Basic Block of a Microcomputer

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

A CPU is brain of a computer. It is responsible for all functions and processes.
Regarding computing power, the CPU is the most important element of a
computer system.

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The CPU is comprised of three main parts:

• Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Executes all arithmetic and logical
operations. Arithmetic calculations like as addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division. Logical operation like compare numbers,
letters, or special characters
• Control Unit (CU): controls and co-ordinates computer
components.
1. Read the code for the next instruction to be executed.
2. Increment the program counter so it points to the next instruction.
3. Read whatever data the instruction requires from cells in memory.
4. Provide the necessary data to an ALU or register.
5. If the instruction requires an ALU or specialized hardware to complete,
instruct the hardware to perform the requested operation.
Registers: Stores the data that is to be executed next, "very fast storage
area".

Control Unit Microarchitecture

The computer's memory

is used to store program instructions and data. Two of the commonly used
type of memories is RAM (random-access memory) and ROM (read-only
memory). RAM stores the data and general-purpose programs that the

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machine executes. RAM is temporary; that is, its contents can be changed
at any time and it is erased when power to the computer is turned off.
ROM is permanent and is used to store the initial boot up instructions of
the machine

➢ RAM:
Random Access Memory (RAM): is a memory scheme within the computer
system responsible for storing data on a temporary basis, so that it can be
promptly accessed by the processor as and when needed. It is volatile in
nature, which means that data will be erased once supply to the storage
device is turned off. RAM stores data randomly and the processor accesses
these data randomly from the RAM storage. RAM is considered "random
access" because you can access any memory cell directly if you know the row
and column that intersect at that cell.
➢ ROM:
Read Only Memory (ROM): is a permanent form of storage. ROM stays active
regardless of whether power supply to it is turned on or off. ROM devices do
not allow data stored on them to be modified.

The I/O interfaces

Allow the computer's memory to receive information and send data to output
devices. Also, they allow the computer to communicate to the user and to
secondary storage devices like disk and tape drives.
The execution of a program in a von Neumann machine requires the use of the
three main components just described. Usually, a software package, called an
operating system, controls how these three components work together.
Initially, a program has to be loaded into the memory. Before being loaded, the
program is usually stored on a secondary storage device (like a disk). The

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operating system uses the I/O interfaces to retrieve the program from
secondary storage and load it into the memory.
Sequencer

The next address generator is sometimes called a micro program sequencer, as

it determines the address sequence that is read from control memory.

Input Devices:
Input device is any peripheral (piece of computer hardware equipment to
provide data and control signals to an information processing system such as
a computer or other information appliance.
Input device Translate data from form that humans understand to one that
the computer can work with. Most common are keyboard and mouse.

Output devices
An output device is any piece of computer hardware equipment used to
communicate the results of data processing carried out by an information
processing system (such as a computer) which converts the electronically
generated information into human-readable form.

Bus System

• A Bus is a common communications pathway used to carry information

between the various elements of a computer system
• The term BUS refers to a group of wires or conduction tracks on a
printed circuit board (PCB) though which binary information is
transferred from one part of the microcomputer to another
• The individual subsystems of the digital computer are connected
through an interconnecting BUS system.

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There are three main bus groups

• Address Bus
• Data Bus
• Control Bus

Address Bus: The address bus consists of 16, 20, 24, or more parallel signal
lines. On these lines the CPU sends out the address of the memory location
that is to be written to or read from. The number of address lines determines
the number of memory locations that the CPU can address. If the CPU has N
address lines then it can directly address 2N memory locations.

Data Bus: The data bus consists of 8, 16, 32 or more parallel signal lines. As
indicated by the double-ended arrows on the data bus line, the data bus lines
are bi-directional. This means that the CPU can read data in on these lines
from memory or from a port as well as send data out on these lines to memory
location or to a port. Many devices in a system will have their outputs
connected to the data bus, but the outputs of only one device at a time will
be enabled.

Control Bus: The control bus consists of 4-10 parallel signal lines. The CPU
sends out signals on the control bus to enable the outputs of addressed
memory devices or port devices. Typical control bus signals are memory read,
memory write, I/O read, and I/O writer. To read a byte of data from a memory
location, for example, the CPU sends out the address of the desired byte on
the address bus and then sends out a memory read signal on the control bus.

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