The Difference in Self-Esteem Among First Born & Last Born

Mahrukh Siddiqui

Department of Psychology, National University of Modern Languages

Supervisor: Ms. Summayah Shahood Hashmi

Date: 08-12-2023
 INDEX
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Research
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Purpose of the Research
1.4 Research objective
1.5 Research Question
1.6 Significance of Research
1.7 Definitions of the key terms

Chapter 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

2.0 Literature review
2.1 Define Variables
2.2 Explain Past work
2.3 Theories
2.3.1 Adlerian Theory of Birth Order
2.3.2 Sulloway's Theory of Sibling Rivalry

Chapter 3: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

3.1 Framework
3.2 Hypothesis
3.3 Summary
1.0 Introduction:
Self-esteem can be defined as the belief in one’s self worth & abilities. According to Hewitt
(2009), self-esteem is one’s self-perceptions as well as emotional states such as happiness,
distress, pride, guilt etc. Galanou et al. (2014) describes it as the individual's perception of
himself, whether good or bad, & the conviction that he is capable of overcoming the daily
obstacles of life. According to Smith and Mackie (2014), self-esteem is either the positive or
negative judgments of the self, as in how we feel about ourselves.
Self-esteem is an important psychological construct that plays an important role in shaping
an individual's cognitions, emotions, and behaviors. It refers to an individual's overall
evaluation and perception of their self-worth and self-value (Rosenberg, 2015). It is regularly
linked with a number of crucial life outcomes. According to researchers, higher levels of
self-esteem have been linked to increased life satisfaction (Orth, Robins, & Roberts, 2008),
better psychological well-being (Baumeister, Campbell, Krueger, & Vohs, 2003), and greater
resilience in the face of challenges (Werner & Smith, 2019). On the other hand, low
self-esteem is often associated with feelings of inadequacy, depression, and reduced quality
of life (Blascovich & Tomaka, 1991). Many other factors, including an individual's traits, social
interactions, and personal experiences, impacts self-esteem. For instance, one's upbringing
and the family dynamics might influence how he/she develops their sense of self. According
to research, good parenting techniques, including giving children emotional support and
encouragement, helps them develop a high level of self-esteem (Baumrind, 1991). Conversely,
poor parenting practices or criticism can have detrimental effects on a child's self-esteem
(Leary & Baumeister, 2000).
Self-esteem development is also influenced by social comparison processes. People
frequently make comparisons between themselves and other people, and these comparisons
might affect how they view themselves (Festinger, 1954). Depending on the perceived
similarities or differences between oneself and others, social comparisons can result in either
upward or downward comparisons, changing one's self-esteem (Wills, 1981). Additionally,
personal factors like personality traits might affect how one feels about themselves. Studies
have shown that people who score highly on extraversion traits, typically have better
self-esteem since they are outgoing and forceful by nature (Judge, Erez, Bono, & Thoresen,
2002). Similarly, people who have high levels of self-compassion, which is being
understanding and kind to oneself, are directly linked to have higher levels of self-esteem
(Neff, 2003).
Birth order describes a person's place among siblings in a family. Researchers and
psychologists have long been interested in the possible effects of birth order on other
aspects of life, such as personality traits, academic success, and self-esteem (Sulloway, 1996).
It is believed that depending on a person's birth order, family dynamics and the home
environment will change. When compared to people who were born later, firstborn children
frequently face distinct parental behaviors and expectations. As the oldest child, they may
get more love, responsibility, and advantages, but children born later may gain from more
flexibility and less parental pressure.
This research mainly focuses on the first born children and the last born. The particular area
of interest in this study of birth order is its potential influence on self-esteem. Numerous
assumptions are put out in theories about birth order and self-esteem. For instance, some
researchers have hypothesized that people who are the firstborn tend to have better
self-esteem because they were the focus of their parents' early attention and received more
direction and support. First-borns may also gain from taking on leadership duties and
responsibilities within the family, which may boost their sense of self-assurance and
confidence. On the other hand, due to increasing competition for parental time and resources
within the family, people who were born later may have poorer self-esteem. Their
self-perception and self-esteem may be impacted if they believe they are less valuable or
accomplished than their older siblings. However, this theory is mostly applied to
Middle-ordered children. The last born are usually everyone’s favorites, as it is believed in
Pakistani culture. But it can also vary depending on the complete family size and structure.
However, the connection between birth order and self-esteem is complex, and empirical
research has produced conflicting results. While some studies have identified a strong
correlation between birth order and self-esteem, others have not. According to Damian et al.
(2015), factors like family dynamics, cultural contexts, and individual characteristics may have
an impact on how birth order affects self-esteem. In addition to being important for
academic study, knowing how birth order may affect self-esteem can also have an impact on
parenting, educational policies, and therapeutic interventions. Researchers want to get
important insights into the elements that affect a person's self-perception and psychological
well-being by investigating the connection between birth order and self-esteem.
In the sections that follow, we will review the literature in the field of our research on
first-born and last-born people's self-esteem in relation to birth order.

1.1 Background of Research:

While there is a body of research exploring the potential differences in self-esteem between

first-borns and last-borns, the findings are varied and should be interpreted with caution.
book "Born to Rebel: Birth Order, Family Dynamics, and Creative Lives," which provides a
comprehensive exploration of birth order and its impact on personality. Additionally, the
study by Rodgers and Cleveland (2017) delves into family dynamics, including birth order, as
producers of individual development. The research by Salmon and Daly (1998) focuses on
birth order's influence on familial relationships, particularly emphasizing differences in
middleborn individuals. Rohrer, Egloff, and Schmukle's meta-analysis (2015) offers an
overarching view of the effects of birth order on personality traits. Furthermore, the
longitudinal study by Jenkins and Astington (1996) investigates cognitive factors and family
structure associated with theory of mind development in young children, contributing
valuable insights into the developmental aspects related to birth order. These studies
collectively provide a robust foundation for understanding the nuanced relationship between
birth order and self-esteem.
1.2 Problem Statement:
The problem statement for this research addresses the need for a comprehensive

understanding of the nuanced relationship between birth order and self-esteem, taking into
consideration individual, familial, and cultural factors. While initial studies, such as those by
Adler and Sulloway, suggested potential influences of birth order on personality traits and
familial dynamics, subsequent research, including meta-analyses, has yielded inconsistent
findings. The impact of birth order on self-esteem remains a subject of debate and requires
further exploration to elucidate the complex interplay of variables contributing to these
effects. Additionally, there is a scarcity of research contextualized within specific cultural
settings, warranting an investigation into how cultural nuances, such as those prevalent in
Pakistani society, may moderate the relationship between birth order and self-esteem. This
research aims to address these gaps by employing a theoretical framework rooted in existing
literature and conducting an empirical study to contribute valuable insights into the
multifaceted dynamics of birth order and its implications for self-esteem within the context
of Pakistani culture.

1.3 Research Purpose:

The purpose of this research is to gain a nuanced understanding of the relationship between

birth order and self-esteem, considering individual, familial, and cultural factors. While earlier
studies have proposed potential links between birth order and personality traits, particularly
self-esteem, the inconsistencies in findings necessitate a more comprehensive investigation.
The research aims to delve into the complexities of how birth order, as an independent
variable, may influence self-esteem, the dependent variable, over time. By incorporating
theoretical frameworks from foundational theories like Adler's birth order theory and
contemporary perspectives such as Sulloway's sibling rivalry theory, the research seeks to
provide a holistic view of the dynamics at play.
Moreover, the research purpose extends to examining the cultural context, specifically within
Pakistani society, where the influence of cultural norms and expectations on familial
relationships and individual development may be distinctive. The goal is to explore how
cultural nuances may moderate the relationship between birth order and self-esteem,
contributing to a more nuanced understanding of these dynamics within the specific cultural
backdrop. Ultimately, this research aspires to offer valuable insights that contribute to the
broader discourse on birth order effects, providing practical implications for understanding
and supporting individuals' psychological well-being within diverse cultural contexts.

1.4 Research Question:

How does birth order influence self-esteem, considering individual, familial, and cultural
factors, and what role do cultural nuances play in moderating the relationship between birth
order and self-esteem within the specific context of Pakistani culture?

1.5 Significance of Research:

This study is crucial for clarifying the relationship between birth order and self-esteem,

addressing gaps in existing literature. By considering individual, familial, and cultural factors,
it aims to offer a more nuanced understanding. The research's specific focus on the Pakistani
cultural context adds practical value, providing insights for parents, educators, and mental
health professionals on how birth order dynamics may influence self-esteem in this specific
cultural setting. Ultimately, the findings aim to contribute not only to academic knowledge
but also to practical applications for supporting individuals' psychological well-being in
diverse family and cultural contexts, particularly within Pakistan.
1.6 Definitions of Key Terms:
-Birth Order:
Birth order refers to the chronological order of siblings' births within a family. Commonly
classified as first-born, middle-born, last-born, or only child, birth order is believed by some
psychological theories, such as Adlerian psychology, to influence personality and behavior.

-Self Esteem:
Self-esteem is the overall subjective evaluation of one's own worth or value. It encompasses
beliefs and feelings about oneself, influencing factors such as confidence, self-worth, and the
ability to navigate and cope with life's challenges.

-Individual Factors:
Individual factors in the context of this research refer to personal characteristics and
attributes unique to each sibling, such as temperament, gender, and personality traits. These
factors may contribute to variations in self-esteem.

-Familial Factors:
Familial factors include aspects related to the family environment, parenting styles, and
sibling relationships. The family context plays a crucial role in shaping the experiences and
dynamics that may influence self-esteem development.

-Cultural Factors:
Cultural factors pertain to the influence of cultural norms, values, and expectations on the
development of individuals within a specific cultural context. Cultural variations may
contribute to differences in how birth order affects self-esteem.
2.0 Literature Review:
Sulloway (1998), in his seminal work "Born to Rebel," posited that firstborns tend to exhibit
traits such as being less open to change, more assertive, socially dominant, ambitious, jealous
of their status, and defensive, whereas later-born individuals are characterized by greater
openness, flexibility, and a propensity for changing views. Building on Sulloway's niche model
of personality development and Zajonc's confluence model of intellectual achievement,
Paulhus et al. (1999) found that birth order significantly impacts personality and achievement.
First-borns were identified as more achieving and conscientious, while later-borns tended to
be rebellious, liberal, and agreeable.

Rohrer et al.'s study (2015) addressed the enduring question of whether an individual's
position among siblings has a lasting impact on their life course. Drawing on data from the
United States, Great Britain, and Germany, the study revealed a decline in self-reported
intellect with increasing birth-order position, while no significant effects were observed on
extraversion, emotional stability, agreeableness, conscientiousness, or imagination.

In the Pakistani context, Fukuya et al. (2021) found that last-borns exhibited the highest
scores in prosocial behaviors, resilience, and happiness, while middle-borns reported the
lowest happiness scores. Notably, there were no significant differences in self-esteem scores
based on sibling birth order. Contrary to this, Suitor's study (2007) highlighted the persistent
role of birth order in explaining favoritism in later stages of family life, with last-born and
first-born children being more likely to be chosen, while middle-born children were notably
underrepresented in mothers' choices. These findings contribute to a nuanced understanding
of birth order dynamics in the context of Pakistani culture.
2.1 Variables:
Independent Variable
Birth Order: The independent variable in this study is the birth order of individuals within a
family. It categorizes participants into groups such as first-born, middle-born, last-born, or
only child.

Dependent Variable
Self-Esteem: The dependent variable is self-esteem, representing the participants' overall
subjective evaluation of their own worth. Self-esteem is measured to assess any potential
differences between individuals based on their birth order.

2.2 Previous Work:

In March 2014, Sharon Johnson conducted a study exploring the correlation between birth

order and self-esteem. The research involved 200 participants aged 18 and above, from
two-parent homes with siblings. The study utilized three instruments: The Big Five Inventory
Scale, The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, and The Satisfaction with Life Scale. Results showed
no significant differences in self-esteem among birth order categories. First-born participants
exhibited the highest self-esteem (M = 21.86, SD = 4.21) compared to middle-born (M = 20.48,
SD = 4.17) and last-born (M= 21.00, SD = 4.54) individuals.

In December 2008, Dr. Veena Dani and Ms. Urvashi Dutta conducted a study with the primary
aim of investigating the impact of ordinal birth position on self-esteem, specifically
comparing first-born and second-born children. The research involved 93 participants,
comprising both males (n=49) and females (n=44), with an average age gap of 12.6 years. The
study utilized the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES) (Rosenberg, 1965) to measure
self-esteem levels. Results indicated that the mean self-esteem score for first-borns was
20.89, while for second-borns, it was 22.09. Despite the mean difference of 1.2, the computed
't' value of 1.69 was found to be insignificant at the 0.05 significance level, suggesting no
significant differences in self-esteem between first-borns and second-borns. However, the
mean scores suggested that second-born children generally had higher self-esteem than
first-borns. The overarching goal of this research is to explore the influence of birth order on
self-esteem, specifically assessing self-esteem levels for each birth order category (first-born,
second-born, and last-born). The hypothesis posits that first-borns will exhibit a higher level
of self-esteem compared to second-born and last-born individuals, and this pattern is
expected to be evident in the research.

2.3 Theories:
2.3.1 Alfred Adler's Birth Order Theory:
Alfred Adler's birth order theory posits that the order in which siblings are born shapes their
personalities. Adler proposed that first-borns, striving to maintain their status, may develop
higher ambition and leadership qualities, while last-borns, with fewer responsibilities, might
exhibit more relaxed and outgoing personalities.

2.3.2 Frank Sulloway's Theory:

Frank Sulloway's theory, as articulated in "Born to Rebel," posits that birth order influences
personality development through sibling rivalry. The theory suggests that siblings, in their
quest for parental attention and resources, adopt distinct strategies. First-borns tend to
embrace conventional and conscientious traits to maintain their favored status, while
later-borns adopt more rebellious and innovative qualities. Sulloway contends that these
divergent strategies are adaptive responses to familial competition, resulting in the
development of unique personality traits based on birth order.
3.0 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK:

3.1 Hypothesis:
In the context of birth order and self-esteem, it is hypothesized that first-born individuals will
exhibit higher levels of self-esteem compared to second-born and last-born individuals.

3.2 Summary:
This research explores the intricate relationship between birth order and self-esteem,
drawing on foundational theories by Alfred Adler and contemporary perspectives like
Sulloway's theory of sibling rivalry. While early indications pointed to first-borns having
higher self-esteem, subsequent research, including meta-analyses, has yielded inconsistent
findings, necessitating a more nuanced exploration. The theoretical framework incorporates
birth order as the independent variable (IV) and self-esteem as the dependent variable (DV),
considering individual, familial, and cultural factors in sibling dynamics. Sulloway's theory
underscores the role of sibling competition in shaping personality traits and contributing to
self-esteem variations.
In the specific context of Pakistani culture, the hypothesis posits that birth order significantly
influences self-esteem, anticipating higher self-esteem in first-born individuals due to cultural
expectations associated with their roles. Gender roles and family structures are recognized as
potential moderators, acknowledging the cultural nuances that may influence how birth
order impacts self-esteem outcomes. This research aims to contribute to a comprehensive
understanding of birth order effects, recognizing the multifaceted nature of sibling dynamics
and their implications for individual development within the unique context of Pakistani
culture.